FOUNDATION

DEFINITION:

Foundation is the artificial arrangement of concrete block, piles, raft, grillage which is at lowest part of
structure that provides a base for the super structure and transmits load to the earth.

PURPOSE OF FOUNDTION:

 To transmit the superimposed loads (Dead load, Live load, winds, vibration)
 To distribute loads of superstructure evenly.
 To provide safety against soil movements.
 To provide lateral stability.
 To provide safety against settlements.

CHARACTERISTIC OF FOUNDATION:

 Foundation should be deep enough, stability and prevent overturning.

 Foundation should be rigid to minimize settlements especially for the case when superimposed
loads are not evenly distributed.
 Foundation should be wide enough so as to distribute the weight of super structure over the
large area.

SELECTION OF FOUNDATION:

Selection of foundation type for a particular size depends on the following considerations:-

 Nature of subsoil
 Nature and extend of difficulties
 Availability of expertise and equipment.

SITE EXPLORATION AND ITS PURPOSE:

 Site investigation or soil explorations are done for obtaining the information about subsurface
conditions at the site of proposed construction.
 Soil exploration consists of determining the profile of the natural soil deposits at the site taking
the soil samples and determining the engineering properties of soils.
 It also includes in-situ testing soils.

PURPOSE:

 The Purpose of site exploration is to collect complete details of the site to enable to designer to
take following decision:
 To take the value of the safe bearing capacity of soil.
 To select safe and economical type of foundation.
 To fix the depth up to which the foundation must be taken inside the ground.
 FOUNDATION
 To predict the likely settlement of the selected foundation and make allowance for the same in
the design.
 To know the underground water level and it needed, to decide up to the method to ne adopted
to solve the ground water problem.
 To forecast the difficulties which are likely to be encounter due to nature of the subsoil during
constructions and to take advanced action in this regards.

PRELIMINARY SOIL INVESTIGATION:

Investigation of the site is the first step which should be taken prior to design and construction of a
structure. This include the study of all neighboring quarries or cut made in the nearby areas for
construction purposes, the study of existing structure and if possible, of their foundation. The other
important information which can be gathered during the inspection is summarized below.

 Whether the ground is soft, hard, water logged or made up

 Classification of soil by visual examination.
 Behavior of the ground during changes in ground water level whether the rain water gets
drained off or causes flooding of sites.
 Whether there is likelihood of excessive moment of ground.
 Whether the sub- soil water contents sulphates or other chemical in quantities sufficient to
cause damage to foundation.

METHOD OF SITE EXPLORATION:

Factors to be considered before planning site investigation.

 Size of structure
 Depth of Basement
 Height of Structure
 Loads to be transmitted by the foundation
 Spacing of columns and load bearing walls.

The Methods commonly adopted for site exploration are:

1. Inspection of site:
Following information are gathered during the inspection site are:
 Hard, Soft, water, logged etc.
 Classification of soil by visual examination such as gravel, sand, clay.
 Contains sulphate or other chemical
 Unstable sites, slope etc.
 Behavior of ground during changes in ground.
 Water level, drainage conditions.
 FOUNDATION
PROBING:

In this method of exploration, a steel bar of 25 to 40 mm in diameter with a pointed end is driven in the
ground until hard sub-stratum in met with. Bar is driven by allowing it to fall vertically under its own
weight or by drop hammer. This method is suitable to be performed in place where the soil is soft like
clay, gravel or sand.

TEST PIN:

Holes dig for the entry of person for inspection of soil at random locations are called test pits.

They are square in plan and depths depend on the foundation type.

This method is suitable for depth up to 3M.

Suitable cohesive soil.

BORING:

In this method boring into soil extracting soil samples at various depths and conducting laboratory test is
carried out to determine soil characteristics especially the strength.

Different method of boring are:

1) Auger Boring:
 Simplest method of exploration and sampling
 Power driven or hand operated.
 Maximum depth 10M
 Suitable in all soils above GWT but only in cohesive soil below GWT.
 Hollow stem augers used for sampling or conducting standard Penetration tests.

2) Shell and auger boring:

 This method uses a variety of tools for boring shells with teeth or a cutting edge and cylinder
shaped augers are utilized to make in depth boring.
 Mechanical rings are generally used for depths up to 5omm hand operated are for depths up to
25mm the auger are good for soft to stiff clays, whereas the shells are good for hard and stiff
clays.
 In additional, drill rods can be used to as a chisel for cemented gravel or thin soft strata. For soft
to stiff clay, a hand rig with a cylindrical auger is used and can create vertical boring up to
200mm in diameter and 25m depth.
3) Wash Boring:
 A Casing is driven with a drop hammer. A hollow drill rod with copping bit is inserted inside the
casing.
 Soil is loosened and removed from the borehole using water or a drilling mud jetted under
pressure.
 FOUNDATION
 The water is jetted in the hole through the bottom of a wash pipe and leaves the hole along with
the loose soil, from the annual space between the hole and wash pipe.
 Water reaches the ground level where the soil in suspension is allowed to settle and mud is re-
circulated.

4) Percussion Boring:
 The method uses continual blows of a heavy chisel or suspended bit to the soil and rock
structures.
 During boring, water is added to the ole and the slurry of disintegrated material is removed
intermittently.
 This method is good for all types of soil, rocks and boulders. However, the soil and rock
structures are generally disturbed.
5) Rotary Boring:
 This method is very fast and can penetrate both soil and rocks. It uses a drill bit that is attached
to the lower portion of the drill rod.
 Keeping in firm contact with the bottom of the hole, it rotates by proper chuck.
 While the drill rod is operation, a water solution of bentonite is typically used.
 When the mud solution returns upward the cutting are brought to the surface.

DEPTH AND SPACING OF TRIAL PITH OR BORE HOLES.

 Bore hole should be made as close as possible to the purposed location of the foundation.
 More the numbers of boreholes, the more will be known of the site condition and greater
economy is achieved in foundation design.
 For small structure at least 2 or 3 bore holes should be sunk.

Minimum number of boreholes and spacing.

S.N Type of works Type of Type of Type of Minimum

Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal number of
extent(Uniform) extent(average) extent(Erratic) boring
1 1-2 storied structure 60M 30M 15M 3
2 Multi storied structure 45M 30M 15M 4
3 Bridges, Piers, abutments - 30M 15M 1-2 per
foundation
4 Transmission tower - 30M 15M 1-2 per
foundation
5 Highway and airport 300M 150M 100M -

BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL:

 Bearing capacity of soils is perhaps the most important of all the topics in soil engineering.
 FOUNDATION
 In geotechnical engineering, bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support the loades applied
to the ground.
 The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure between the foundation
and the soil which should not produce shear failure in soil.
 Soils behave in a complex manner when loaded so, it is important to know the bearing capacity
of soil.

Why is soil bearing capacity required?

Stability of foundation depends on:

 Bearing capacity of the soil beneath the foundation.

 The settlement of the soil beneath the foundation. There are, therefore, two independent
stability condition to be fulfilled since the shearing resistance of the soil provides the bearing
capacity and the consolidation properties determine the settlement.

Various term used in connection with bearing capacity of soil.

1. Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qu): The ultimate bearing capacity is the gross pressure at the base
of the foundation at which soil fails in shear.
2. Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qnu): It is the net increase in pressure at the base of foundation
that cause shear failure of the soil.
3. Net Safe Bearing Capacity( qns): It is the net soil which can be safely applied to the soil
considering only shear failure.
4. Gross safe bearing capacity (qs): It is the maximum pressure which the soil can carry safely
without shear failure.
5. Net Safe Settlement Pressure (qnp): It is the net pressure which the soil can carry without
exceeding allowable settlement.
6. Net Allowable Bearing Pressure (qna): It is the net bearing pressure which can be used for
design of foundation.

Methods of Determining bearing capacity of soil.

Bearing capacity of soil can be determined by the following method.

1. Plate load test method:

 It is a field test for determining the ultimate bearing capacity of soil and the likely
settlement under a given load.
 It is basically consists of loading a steel plate placed at the foundation level and recording
the settlement corresponding to each increasement.
 The test load is gradually increased till the plate start to sink at a rapid rate.
 The total value of load on the plate in such a state divided by the area of steel plate givens
the value of the ultimate bearing capacity of soil.
 FOUNDATION
 Ultimate bearing capacity of soil is divided by suitable factor of safety which varies from 2
to 3 to arrive at the value of the safe bearing capacity of soil.

Fig: Plate Load Test

Plate Load test apparatus:

1. Test Plate
2. Hydraulic jack and pump
3. Reaction beam
4. Dial gauges
5. Pressure gauge
6. Loading columns
7. Necessary equipments for the laoding platform
8. Tripod, Plumb bob, Sprit level etc.

Plate Load test apparatus:

Necessary steps to perform a plate load is written below:

1. Excavate test pit up to the desired depth pit size should at least 5 times the size of the test plate
(Bp).
2. At the center of the pit, a small hole or depression is created. The size of the hole is the same as
the size of the steel plate. Bottom level of the hole should correspond to the level of the actual
foundation. The depth of the hole is created such that the ratio of the depth to width of hole is
equal to the ratio.
3. A mild steel plate is used as a load bearing plate whose thickness should be at least 25mm
thickness and size may vary from 300mm to 750mm. The plate can be square or circular.
Generally, a square plate is used for square footing and a circular plate.
 FOUNDATION
4. A column is placed at the center of the plate. The load is transferred to the plate through the
centrally placed column.
5. The load can be transferred to the column either by gravity loading method or by trush method.
6. For gravity loading method a platform is constructed over the column and load is applied to the
platform by means of sand bags or any other dead loads. The hydraulic jack is placed in between
column and loading platform for the application of gradual loading. This type of loading is called
reaction loading.
7. At least two dial gauges should be placed at diagonal corners of the plate to record the
settlement. The gauge are placed on a platform so that it does not settle with the place.
8. Apply seating load of 0.75 T/m2 and release before the actual loading starts.
9. The initial readings are noted.
10. Load is then applied through the hydraulic jack and increased gradually. The increment is
generally one-fifth of the excepted safe bearing capacity or any other smaller value. The applied
load is noted from the pressure gauge.
11. The settlement is observed for each increment and form dial gauge. After increasing the load
settlement should be observed after 1, 4, 10, 20, 40, 60 minutes and then at hourly intervals
until the rate of settlement is less than 0.2 mm per hour. Readings are noted in tabular form.
12. After Completing the collection of data for a particular loading, the next load increment is
applied and readings are noted under new load. The increment and data collection is repeated
until the maximum load is applied. The maximum load is generally 1.5 times the expected
allowable bearing pressure.

Assignments-1:
1. Geo-physical methods
2. Seismic refraction method
3. Electrical resistivity method
4. Magnetic Methods
5. Gravitational method.

PENETRATION TEST METHOD:

 The equipment used for this test may be a standard split spoon sampler, cone or other specially
shaped tool.
 Test consists of measuring, the resistance offered by the soil to the penetration of the test tools
under dynamic or static loading.
 Values of resistance, also known as M, values are co-related with properties of soil, such as
density, bearing capacity etc.
 Thus based on the information about n- values, it is possible to determine the bearing capacity
of soil by use of standard graph or tables.
 FOUNDATION
Tools for standard Penetration Test:
The requirements to conduct SPT are:

 Standard split, Spoon Sampler

 Drop Hammer weighing 63.5 kg
 Guiding Rod
 Drilling Rod
 Driving Head (anvil)

Fig: Standard Penetration Test

Procedure For Standard Penetration Test:

 Test is conducted in a bore hole by means of a standard split spoon sampler.
 Once the drilling is done to the desired depth, the drilling tools is removed and the sample is
placed inside the bore hole.
 By means of a drop hammer of 63,5 kg mass falling through a height of 750mm at the rate of
30m blows per minute, the sampler is driven into the soil
 This is per IS- 2131:1963
 The number of blows of hammer required to drive a depth of 150 mm is counted. Further it is
riven by 150 mm and the blows are counted.
 FOUNDATION
 Similarly, the sampler is once again further driven by 150 mm and the number of blows
recorded.
 Number of blows recorded for the first 150mm bot taken into consideration.
 Number of blows recorded for last two 150 mm intervals are added to give the standard
penetration number (N). In other words, N= No. of blows required for 150 mm penetration
beyond seating drive of 150 mm.
 If the number of blows for 150 mm drive exceeds 50, it is taken as refusal and the test is
discontinued.
 Standard penetration number is corrected for dilatancy correction and overburden correction.
 Dilatancy correction: The corrected penetration number, N c=15+0.5(NR-15)
Where NR is the recorded value and Nc is the corrected value. If NR less than or equal to 15, then
Nc=NR
Overburden correction:-
NC=CNN
Here, CN is the correction factor for the overburden pressure.

Method of improving the bearing capacity of soils.(IMP)

Following method are generally adopted to improve the bearing capacity of soil.

1. Increasing Depth of Foundation:

 At deeper depths, the over burden pressure on soil is higher hence the soil is more
compacted at deeper depth.
 As a result it shown higher bearing capacity.
 This is applicable only for cohesion less soils such as sandy and gravel soils.
 This method of improving bearing capacity of soil is not applicable if the subsoil material
grows wetter as depth increase.
 This method has a limited use because with increase in depth, the weight and cost of
foundation also increase.
2. Draining the soil:
 With increase in percentage of water content in soil the bearing capacity decreases.
 In case of sandy soil, the bearing capacity may reduce as much as 50% due to presence
of water content cohesion less soils can be drained by laying the porous pipes to a
gentle slope, over a bed of and filling the trenches above the pipes with loose boulders.
 These trenches subsequently should lead to the nearest well or any water body.
3. Compaction the soil:
 If we compact soil, using appropriate method, then there will be increase in its density
and shear strength. As a result the bearing capacity of soil also increases. There are
many methods of compacting soils on site. Few of them are mention below.
 By spreading broken stones, gravel or sand and there after ramming well in the bed or
trenches.
 FOUNDATION
 Using and appropriate roller as per the soil type to move at a specified speed.
 By driving concrete piles or wood piles and with drawing piles and subsequently filling
the holes with sand or concrete.
4. Confining the soil:
 In this method, the soils are enclosed with the help of sheet piles. This confined soils is
further compacted to get more strength. This method is applicable for shallow
foundation.
5. Replacing the poor soil:
 In this method the poor soil is first removed and then the gap is filled up by superior
material such as sand, stone, gravel, or any hard material.
 In order to do this, first excavated a foundation, trench of about 1.5 M deep and then fill
the hard materials is stages of 30 cm. Then compact the hard material at every stages.
This method is useful for foundation in black cotton soils.
6. Using Grouting Material.
 This method is applicable for soils where there is presence of pores, fissures, or cracks
etc underneath the foundation.
 In this method poor soil bearing strata in hardened by injecting the cement grout under
pressure, because it scales off any cracks or pores or fissures etc.
 For proper distribution of the cement grout, the ground is bored and perforated pipes
are introduced to force ground.
7. Stabilizing the soil with Chemicals:
 In this method of improving bearing capacity of soil is costly and applied in exceptional
cases. In this method, chemical solution like silicates of soda and calcium chloride is
injected with pressure into the soil.

TYPES OF FOUNDATION:
 Foundation is that member of building which provides support for the super- structure
and its loads.
 It is located below the ground surface to transmit or distribute the load over a large area
of the soil or rock lying underneath.
 Strength and durability of a building depends upon the strength foundation and sub-soil.
 Foundation can be broadly classified into two types .
I. Deep Foundation
II. Shallow Foundation
 FOUNDATION

Fig: Foundation

Types of foundation:
Type of foundation

Shallow Foundation Deep Foundation

1. Spread or isolated footing 1.Pile Foundation

2. Strip footing 2.Well Foundation

3. Combined footing 3.Pier Foundation

4. Strap or Cantilever footing

5. Mat Raft Foundation

6. Grillage Foundation

I. Shallow Foundation:

 A foundation is said to be shallow if its depth is equal to or less than its width.
 When the foundation is placed immediately beneath the lowest part of the super structure. It is
termed as shallow foundation
 Objective of this type of foundation is to distribute the structural loads over a wide horizontal
area of shallow depth below the ground level.
 FOUNDATION
Various Types of Shallow Foundation:
1. Spread Foundation:
 A spread footing is provide to the support an individual column.
 A spread footing is circular, square, or rectangular slab of uniform thickness.
 Sometimes, it is stepped to spread the load over a large area.

Various types of spread foundation:

I) Single footing for a column

II) Stepped footing for a column
III) Slopped footing for a column
IV) Wall footing for a column
V) Stepped footing for a column.

I) Single footing for a column: In which the loaded area of column has been spread to the
large area of column has been spread to the large size through single spread. The base is
generally made of concrete.
II) Stepped footing for a column: This type of footing provided for heavily loaded column
which required greater spread with steps. The base is generally made of concrete.
III) Slopped footing for column: In this type of footing concrete base does not have uniform
thickness but is made sloped.
IV) Wall Footing for a column: It consists of concrete base without any steps including masonry
wall.
I) Stepped footing for wall: It consists of masonry wall have stepped footing with concrete
base.
II) Grillage Foundation:
 Special type of isolated footing generally provided for heavily loaded steel column
and used in those location
 Depth of such foundation is limited to 1 to 1.5M.
 Load of steel column is distributed over very large area by means of two or more
tiers of steel joints.
 Each layer being laid at right angle to the layer.
 Types:1) Steel grillage 2) Timber grillage
III) Eccentrically Loaded Footing:
 When the wall or columns are to be placed closed to the placed closed to the
properly lines, the required supporting areas of the based cannot be placed
concentrically with the imposed load without overlapping the property lines
 FOUNDATION

Fig: Eccentrically Loaded footing

IV) Combined Footing:

 A Spread footing which supports two or more columns is termed as combined
footing.
 Combined footing may be following kinds:
1) Rectangular Combined Footing: The combined footing will be provide in
rectangular in shape if columns equal loads. The design of rectangular combined
footing should be done in such way that center of gravity of column coincides
with centroid of footing area.
2) Trapezoidal Combined Footing: If column carry unequal loads the footing is of
trapezoidal shape are provided.
3) Combined Column wall footing: It may require providing a combined footing for
column and wall such combined footing as shown in figure.

Fig: Combined Column Wall Footing

 FOUNDATION
V) Strap Footing:
 If a independent footing of two columns are connected by a beam, it is called a strap
footing.
 A strap footing may be used where the distance between column is so great that
trapezoidal footing becomes quite narrow.
 Strap does not remain in contact with soil and does not transfer any pressure to the soil.
VI) Raft Foundation:
 It is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a structure and support
all the wall and column.
 They are used in areas whereas the soil masses contains compressible lenses or the
soil in sufficient erratic so that differential settlement would e difficult to control.
 It may be divided in to three types based on their design and construction.
a) Soil slab system
b) Beam slab system
c) Cellular system

All the three types are basically the same, consisting of a large, generally unbroken area of slab covering
the whole or large part of structure.

CAUSES OF FAILURE OF FOUNDATIONS: (IMP)

It may be summarized under the following heads:

 Unequal settlement of the sub- soil.

 Unequal settlement of masonry
 Horizontal movement of the soil adjoining the structure.
 Shrinkage due to withdrawal of moisture from the soil below the foundation.
 Lateral pressure tending to over- turn the structure.
 Action of atmosphere.
 Lateral escape of the soil below the foundation