1.
Introduction to Timbering Works
Timbering works involve using timber members—such as boards, planks, beam
s, and struts—to brace excavation walls against lateral earth pressures. This prac
tice dates back centuries, evolving from rudimentary wooden supports in minin
g shafts to engineered systems in modern construction. In contemporary project
s, timbering is employed in trenches for utilities (e.g., sewers, pipelines), founda
tions, or basements, especially where depths exceed 1.2 meters (4 feet), as shall
ower digs may rely on sloping or benching instead.
The document emphasizes timbering as part of building temporary works, enco
mpassing erecting/dismantling scaffolds, shores, formwork/shuttering, and trenc
h timbering. It aligns with occupational standards, highlighting safety, soil mech
anics, and procedural adherence.
Key objectives:
1. - Prevent cave-ins by counteracting soil forces.
2. - Ensure worker safety in confined spaces.
3. - Maintain excavation geometry for accurate installation of permanent struct
ures.
4. - Minimize disruption to adjacent structures or utilities.
From my experience, poor timbering has been a leading cause of excavation fail
ures, with statistics showing that trench collapses account for dozens of fatalitie
s annually in the US alone. Proper timbering reduces these risks by 90% when c
ombined with soil analysis and competent supervision.
Scope and Applicability
Timbering is applicable for excavations up to 6 meters (20 feet) deep, per OSH
A limits for timber shoring tables. Beyond this, engineered systems or alternativ
es are recommended. It's ideal for cohesive soils but less so for granular or wate
r-saturated grounds without additional measures like dewatering. The document
specifies its use when trench depth is large or sub-soil is loose, with strength de
pending on soil nature, excavation depth, and duration open.
Learning Outcomes and Performance Standards
Key Outcomes
Construct/dismantle formwork, trench timbering, scaffolding, and shores.
- Performance Standards for Trench Timbering**:
1. Determine materials/tools per construction rules.
2. Select/use PPE according to safety regulations.
3. Construct timbering based on soil type/topography.
4. Dismantle per site procedures and structural safety.
Definitions of Key Terms
Timbering: A method of temporary support for trench sides, also called plankin
g and strutting. It prevents soil collapse in deep or loose sub-soils.
- Strut: Wooden piece supporting sheeting/walling between trench walls, maint
aining distance. Typically 100x100mm for narrow trenches.
- Trench: Deep, narrow excavation for foundations or utilities. Depths over 1.5
m require protection per OSHA 1926.652.
- Battering: Sloping trench sides to a safe angle (e.g., 45° for Type B soil) to pre
vent collapse, used as an alternative to timbering in stable soils.
- Polling Board: Vertical flat wooden plank (225x38mm) in direct soil contact.
- Sheeting: Holding polling boards together or using sheets; prevents raveling in
granular soils.
- Wales/Walling: Horizontal supports (150x100mm) perpendicular to polling bo
ards, distributing pressure.
- Bracing: Diagonal reinforcements between wales for framework stability, esse
ntial in loose soils.
Additional Terms from Standards and Document:
- Runners: Thick planks with iron shoes for soft ground, driven ahead of excava
tion.
- Sheet Piling: Interlocking sheets for deep, watery excavations.
3. Materials and Tools for Timbering
3.1 Materials
- Timber: Primary material; use seasoned, defect-free wood (e.g., oak for streng
th, Douglas fir, pine, spruce with compressive strength ~40-50 MPa). Treated fo
r rot in wet conditions. Seasoned timber (moisture <20%) to avoid shrinkage. E
ngineered options like laminated veneer lumber (LVL) for uniform strength; recl
aimed for sustainability if inspected.
- Metal Plates: For connections or shoes on runners.
- Binding Wire: Secures components.
3.2 Tools
- Hammer: For driving nails/wedges.
- Nails: Fastening.
- Pliers: Wire handling.
- Additional: Tape measure for layout, level for plumb, calculator, pen, noteboo
k, pencil.
Table 1: Key Components and Sizes (Based on Document and OSHA Appendix
C)
| Component | Description | Typical Size (mm) | Application
|
|----------------|--------------------------------------|-------------------
|------------------------------|
| Polling Board | Vertical soil contact plank | 225x38 | All methods
|
| Strut | Cross support | 100x100 (narrow) | Stay bracing, box
sheeting |
| Wales | Horizontal distributor | 150x100 | Box/vertical sheeti
ng |
| Bracing | Diagonal reinforcement | Varies | Loose soils
|
| Runners | Driven planks with iron shoe | Long, thick | Runner syste
m |
4. Soil Mechanics
Soil behavior under excavation is critical. A number of stresses and deformation
s can occur in an open cut or trench due to moisture changes, adversely affectin
g stability.
4.1 Common Stresses and Deformations
- Tension Cracks: Form 0.5-0.75 times trench depth from vertical face top. Fig
ure 1 (Page 3): Crack at 0.5 to 0.75H from face.
- Sliding/Sluffing Soil slides due to cracks. Figure 2 (Page 3): Sloped slide into
trench.
- Toppling: Vertical face shears and topples. Figure 3 (Page 3): Toppling mass f
alling in.
- Subsidence and Bulging: Unbalanced stress causes surface sink and face bulg
e. Figure 4 (Page 4): Bulge with subsidence above.
- Heaving/Squeezing: Bottom bulge from downward pressure. Figure 5 (Page
4): Circular heave at base.
- Boiling: Upward water flow creating "quick" condition. Figure 6 (Page 4): Wa
ter table causing bottom inflow.
Inspect for cracks daily; stop work if observed. CIRIA recommends monitoring
in wet seasons. Moisture variations exacerbate instability; dewatering is key in h
igh water tables.
Practical Implications
The document highlights how increases/decreases in moisture affect stability, ev
en with shoring.
. Types of Soil
Classification per document and OSHA:
- Stable Rock: Intact mineral matter (e.g., granite); vertical sides possible if no
cracks. Determining type may be difficult unless cracks' direction is known.
- Type A Soils: Cohesive, >1.5 tsf (144 kPa) (clay, silty clay); no if fissured, vib
rated, disturbed, layered >4H:1V, or seeping water.
- Type B Soils: Cohesive, 0.5-1.5 tsf (48-144 kPa) (angular gravel, silt); fissure
d or layered <4H:1V.
- Type C Soils: <0.5 tsf (48 kPa) (gravel, sand, submerged); least stable, layered
>=4H:1V.
- Layered Strata: Classify by weakest layer; individual if stable below unstable.
Select based on site investigation; test unconfined compressive strength.
Table 2: Soil Types and Timbering Needs
| Soil Type | Strength (tsf) | Examples | Timbering Method Recommenda
tion |
|-----------|----------------|-----------------------|---------------------------------|
| Stable Rock | N/A | Granite | Minimal or none |
| Type A | >1.5 | Clay | Stay bracing for shallow |
| Type B | 0.5-1.5 | Silt loam | Box sheeting |
| Type C | <0.5 | Sand | Sheet piling or runners |
Table 1 from General (Types of Timbering Systems, Merged to Avoid Duplicat
e)
| Type | Depth Range | Soil Suitability | Material Efficiency | Installation
Complexity |
|-------------------|-------------|-----------------|---------------------
|-------------------------|
| Stay Bracing | Up to 2m | Cohesive | High | Low |
| Close Sheeting | 2-4m | Loose/Granular | Medium | Medium
|
| Open Sheeting | 1-3m | Stable/Cohesive| High | Low
|
| Soldier Piles | 3-6m | Varied | Medium | High |
| Raking Shores | 2-5m | Cohesive | Low | Medium |
6. Methods of Timbering
When depth is large or sub-soil loose, sides may cave in; solved by timbering.
Methods for deep trenches:
6.1 Stay Bracing
- For firm soil, depth <2m.
- Vertical sheets opposite walls, held by struts (one/two rows).
- Figure 7 (Page 6): (a) Single row; (b) Double rows.
- Sizes: Polling 200x44-50mm, struts 100x100mm for <2m width, 200x200mm
for <4m.
- Spacing: Sheets 2-4m, full height.
6.2 Box Sheeting
- Loose soil, depth <4m.
- Close vertical sheets with wales/struts; longitudinal for very loose with braces.
- Figure 8 (Page 7): (a) Vertical; (b) Horizontal with braces.
6.3 Vertical Sheeting
- Soft ground, depth <10m.
- Staged with offsets (25-50cm/stage, 3m height).
- Figure 9 (Page 8): Multi-stage with wales/struts.
6.4 Runner System
- Extremely loose ground.
- Runners driven 30cm ahead.
- Figure 10 (Page 9): Runners with wales/struts.
6.5 Sheet Piling
- Loose/soft, deep (>10m), wide, watery.
- Wooden (<10m) or steel (<30m) to resist lateral pressure.
- Figure 11 (Page 10): Photos of sheet piling.
- Driven mechanically.
7. Trench Layout Design
Lay out is marking excavation/centerline on ground based on plan, also called g
round tracing.
7.1 Procedure
1. Mark building corners, check diagonals.
2. Axial lines with profiles/rails/strings/pegs.
3. Outline boards 2m away.
4. Offsets from axial lines; frontage per local requirements.
5. Position cross walls, square from main; outline total trench width.
Requirements
- Setting out plan scaled/dimensioned.
- Avoid interrupting excavation.
Design Principles, Calculations, and Considerations
Design involves earth pressures and sizing. Use permissible stress per BS 5975
or OSHA tables.
Soil Classification
- Type A: Cohesive >1.5 tsf.
- Type B: 0.5-1.5 tsf.
- Type C: <0.5 tsf.
Earth Pressure Theories
- Active pressure Ka = (1-sinφ)/(1+sinφ), φ=angle of friction.
- Pressure = γ * h * Ka (γ=18 kN/m³).
Member Sizing
Example 1: 4m deep, 1.5m wide Type B; walers 1.2m spacing, strut 150x150m
m oak.
- M = (w * l²)/8, w=6 kN/m, l=1.5m → M=1.69 kNm; Z=169 cm³ → 150x100m
m.
Example 2: 13ft deep Type A (OSHA Table C-1.1): Uprights 3x6 inch at 4ft, cro
ssbraces 8x10 inch.
Load Factors
- Dead/live/surcharge; safety 1.5-2.0.
Software
DeepEX for analysis; verify hand calcs.
Considerations
- Loading: Traffic, spoil; route away.
- Drainage: Prevent runoff; critical in wet season/flood areas.
- Groundwater Control: Dewater high tables; monitor settlement.
- Existing Slope Features: Assess cut/fill slopes, walls; support if marginal.
Installation Procedures
Top-down: Excavate 0.5-1m, place sheeting, wales, struts. Dewater; inspect dail
y. For soldier piles: Drive first, lag as progressing.
Dismantling of Timbering
Bottom-up after work; remove in stages. Backfill 20-30cm layers with water to
prevent settlement. Coordinate with permanent supports.
Safety Standards and Regulations
- PPE: Hard hats, boots; harnesses if needed.
- Hazards: Cave-ins (80%), falls, water.
- OSHA: >5ft protective; ladders every 25ft; Appendix C tables.
- BS 5975: Procedural, coordinator.
- CIRIA 97: <6m trenches.
- Compliance: Fines >$100,000 for violations.
Table 2 from General (Risk Assessment Matrix)
| Hazard | Likelihood | Severity | Risk Level | Mitigation |
|------------------|------------|----------|------------|-----------------------------|
| Cave-in | High | Fatal | High | Use close sheeting, inspect |
| Material Failure| Medium | Serious | Medium | Quality checks, treatment |
| Water Ingress | Low | Moderate| Low | Dewatering pumps |
Common Hazards and Risk Assessment
Identify via walkthrough; evaluate matrix; mitigate with engineering/admin/PP
E; monitor.
- Training: OSHA 10-hour.
- Monitoring: Inclinometers.
- Emergency: Rescue on site.
- Alternatives: Hydraulics for high-risk.
.Alternatives to Traditional Timber
- Hydraulic Shoring: Adjustable pistons; fast, reusable.
- Trench Shields: Steel boxes; no soil contact.
- Sheet Piling: Steel/vinyl; watertight.
- FRP: Lightweight, corrosion-resistant.
- Mass Timber Hybrids: Lower carbon.
