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 A COURSE IN QUANTUM
MECHANICS

Nandita Rudra
Former Faculty, Department of Physics, University of Kalyani,
Kalyani, WB, India

Levant Books
India
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2020 by Nandita Rudra and Levant Books
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 In loving memory of
Prasantakumar Rudra
October 7, 1939—May 24, 2017
 Preface

This book is the outcome of the two semester course of lectures that we have been de-
livering for a number of years to the first year M.Sc. students at the University of Kaly-
ani, in West Bengal. The material contained in it is appropriate for M.Sc and advanced
under graduate (senior level) students covering the syllabi of most of the universities of
India and abroad.
Instead of following the historical development of quantum mechanics the theory has
been built up starting from a number of basic postulates as described in chapter 1.
Representation theory comes next in chapter 2. It includes changes of representa-
tion and the concept of unitary transformation which is very basic in the formulation of
the theory. After considering spatial translation and momentum we go over to the time
evolution of quantum systems which finally gives rise to the Schrodinger equation of
motion. Feynman’s Path Integral formalism then follows in chapter 5. Chapter 6 contains
the application of quantum mechanics to one dimensional problems. More realistic three
dimensional cases are dealt with in chapter 10.
Rotation and angular momentum are discussed in great detail in chapters 7, 8, and 9.
Symmetry plays and important role in quantum mechanics, perhaps more so than in
classical mechanics. This is covered in chapter 11.
Since most of the physical problems cannot be exactly solved, different approximate
methods are developed which constitute chapter 12.
Time dependent approximate methods and scattering processes are discussed
elaborately in chapters 13, 14 and 15.
Relativistic quantum mechanics is introduced in the last chapter ending at the
doorstep of quantum field theory.
I am undebted to Dr. G Speisman of the Florida State University, USA, whose lectures I
attended as a graduate student. These lecture notes have been of help to me.
I would like to thank my former colleagues Professor Ratanlal Sarkar for many
helpful discussions and Professor Siddhartha Ray for supplying me with books and other
materials. Professor Ray also managed to find time from his busy schedule to oversee the
entire process of publication of this book. I am extremely grateful to him.
This book was written when we were visiting our sons Angsuman and Archisman in
America. They took care of us and provided a perfect ambience for me to finish the book.
I am so proud of them.
Finally my husband Professor Prasantakumar Rudra motivated me to write this book
and painstakingly prepared the La Tex version of the manuscript in camera ready form.
This book would not have been possible without him.

Kolkata, India Nandita Rudra

2018
Contents

Preface
Notations & Fundamental Constants

1 Basic Concepts & Formulation 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Basic Postulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
(i) Postulate 1. State of the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
(ii) Postulate 2. Superposition of States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
(iii) Postulate 3. Operators for Dynamical Variables . . . . . . . . . . 5
(iv) Postulate 4. Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of Operators . . . . . . 6
(v) Postulate 5. Hermitian Operator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
(vi) Postulate 6. Basis Vectors and Completeness Condition. . . . . . 8
(vii) Expectation Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 Representation Theory 11
2.1 Elements of Representation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
(i) The Energy Representation, called the E-representatrion . . . . . 11
(ii) Operators as Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 Change in Representation and Unitary Transformation . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Commuting Observables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4 Uncertainty Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3 Position & Momentum Operators 19

3.1 Position Operator and its Eigenkets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Spatial Translation and Momentum Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 Momentum Operator in Position Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.4 Momentum Wavefunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.5 Gaussian as Minimum Uncertainty Wave Packet . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.6 Extension to Three Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
 CONTENTS

4 Time Evolution of Quantum Systems 33

4.1 Time Evolution Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2 The Schrödinger Equation of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.3 Time Dependence of Expectation Values: Ehrenfest Theorem . . . . 37
4.4 The Schrödinger and Heisenberg Pictures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.5 The Heisenberg Equation of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.6 Operator Form of the Hamiltonian: Classical Analogue . . . . . . . . 40
4.7 Time Dependence of the Base Kets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5 Propagators and Feynman Path Integral 43

5.1 Propagators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.2 Feynman’s Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

6 Application in One Dimension 51

6.1 Free Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.2 Rectangular Potential Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
(i) Bound State Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
(ii) Unbound State Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.3 Rectangular Potential Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.4 Delta Function Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.5 Oscillator Problem by Schrödinger Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.6 Linear Harmonic Oscillator by Operator Method . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
(i) Time Evolution of Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
(ii) Coherent State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.7 Periodic Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

7 Rotation and Angular Momentum 87

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.2 Rotation in Three Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.3 Rotation of System Kets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
7.4 Eigenvalue and Eigenvectors of Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . 91
7.5 Matrix Representation of Angular Momentum Operator . . . . . . . . 95
7.6 Orbital Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

8 Spin Angular Momentum 101

8.1 The Stern Gerlach Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
8.2 Matrix Representation of Spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
8.3 Finite Rotations in Spin- 21 Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
8.4 Pauli Two Component Spinor Formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
CONTENTS

9 Addition of Angular Momenta 109

9.1 Addition of Two Angular Momenta Ĵ1 and Ĵ2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.2 Addition of Orbital Angular Momentum and Spin of a Particle . . . . 113
9.3 Addition of Two Spins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

10 Applications II 117
10.1 Hydrogen Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
10.2 Charged Particle in Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
(i) The Landau Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
(ii) The Aharanov Bohm Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

11 Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics 129

11.1 Symmetry Principle and Conservation Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
(i) Symmetry and Degeneracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
11.2 Space Reflection or Parity Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
11.3 Time Reversal Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

12 Approximate Methods 145

12.1 Semiclassical Aprroximation or WKB Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
12.2 Rayleigh Schrödinger Perturbation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
(i) Non-Degenerate Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
(ii) Perturbation Calculations for Degenerate Energy Levels . . . . 157
12.3 The Variational Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

13 Methods for Time Dependent Problems 163

13.1 Time Dependent Perturbation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
13.2 Harmonic Perturbation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
(i) Fermi’s Golden Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
(ii) Ionization of Hydrogen Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
13.3 Adiabatic Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
13.4 The Sudden Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

14 Scattering Theory I 177

14.1 Scattering Experiments: Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
14.2 Potential Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
14.3 The Method of Partial Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
14.4 The Optical Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

15 Scattering Theory II 189

15.1 The Lippmann Schwinger Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
15.2 The Born Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
 CONTENTS

15.3 The Higher Order Born Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

16 Relativistic Wave Equations 199

16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
16.2 The Klein Gordon Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
16.3 The Dirac Relativistic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
16.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

A Appendix 207
A.1 Expansion in a Series of Orthonormal Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 207
A.2 Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
A.3 Fourier Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
A.4 The Dirac Delta Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Bibliography 215
Notations & Fundamental
Constants

α−1 Inverse Fine Structure Constant = 137.035 999 679(50)

1
β kB T
δ(x) Dirac delta function of x
μB Bohr Magneton, 2m e
e
= 9.274 009 15(23) × 10−24 JT−1
σ Pauli Matrix
â
  Unit vector along a
Â, B̂ Commutator of two quantum mechanical operators  & B̂
[A, B]PB Poisson bracket of two classical functions A & B
B Magnetic Field
c Speed of light in vacuum = 2.997 924 58 × 108 ms−1
e Elementary Charge = 1.602 176 487(40) × 10−19 C
h Planck’s Constant = 6.626 068 96(33) × 10−34 Js
 h
2π
= 1.054 571 628(53) × 10−34 Js
Ĥ Hamiltonian operator
(z) Imaginary Part of complex number z
kB Boltzmann Constant = 1.380 650 4(24) × 10−23 JK−1
m Mass of Electron = 9.109 382 15(45) × 10−31 kg
mp Mass of Proton = 1.672 621 637(83) × 10−27 kg
n Number Density
N̂ Number operator
NA Avogadro Constant = 6.022 141 79(30) × 1023 mol−1
(z) Real Part of complex number z
Tr Trace Operator
Chapter 1

Basic Concepts & Formulation

1.1 Introduction
Newtonian
Newtonian Mechanics,
Mechanics,theory
, theory
yofof
Elasticity
Elasticity
and
y and
Fluid
Fluid
Dynamics,
Dynamics,
y together
, together
g withwith
Maxwellian
Maxwellian
Electrodynamics are basically what constitute Classical Physics. Classical Physics
was developed and successfully applied to describe the motions of macroscopic bodies
like planetary systems and other every day phenomena. It also described electro-
magnetic field and its interaction with matter. The development of classical physics
was almost complete by the early twentieth century. With the discovery of sub-
atomic particles, radioactivity and X-rays and also the accumulation of data on the
spectrum of Black Body Radiation and other spectroscopic studies, it became imper-
ative to invoke new concepts and ideas. Thus Quantum Mechanics, the fundamental
theory of the physical world was formulated.
Based on the early work by Planck, Einstein, Bohr, de Broglie, Sommerfeld and
others, Quantum Mechanics was developed during 1925 - 1928 by Heisenberg, Born,
Jordan, Schrödinger, Dirac, Pauli and others. All experiments performed during the
last 80 years have indicated the correctness of Quantum Mechanics.
Quantum Mechanics has brought about profound change in our thinking about
the description of natural phnomena, particularly those of the subatomic world.
Though it is based on concepts radically different from those of classical physics,
quantum mechanics yields the laws of classical physics in the macroscopic limit.

1.2 Measurements
In classical mechanics the dynamical state of a system is determined from the knowl-
edge of the dynamical variables like the coordinates and momenta of the constituents
at every moment of time. All such variables can, in principle, be simultaneously
2 CHAPTER 1. BASIC CONCEPTS & FORMULATION

measured with infinite precision.

In Quantum Mechanics, on the other hand, measuremnt process itself, i.e. the
presence of the measuring apparatus between the system and the observer mod-
ifies the state of the system in an unpredictable way such that the subsequent
measurements may yield different values for the same variable. The result of the
measurement in quantum mechanics is probabilistic rather than deterministic as in
classical mechanics. This probabilistic nature of measurement is an inherent prop-
erty of quantum systems unlike statistical probability which arises due to the lack
of knowledge of all the initial values of the variables that define the state.
This means that quantum mechanics predicts the number of times n that a
particular result will be obtained, when a large number N of measurements are
carried out on a collection of identical and independent systems that are identically
prepared. Such a collection is called an Ensemble.

1.3 Basic Postulates

We shall start by enunciating and explaining the basic postulates and axioms that
are necessary for formulating the new mechanics. These postulates are self-evident
truths that cannot be proved but have to be accepted for building up any new theory.
If the theory thus built up is successful not only in explaining the known experi-
mental results but also in predicting new ones, then these postulates become laws.
Thus we have the Newton’s Laws in classical mechanics, the Maxwell’s Equaions in
classical electrodynamics. In statistical physics we similarly have the postulates of
equal a priori probability and ergodic hypothesis.

(i) Postulate 1. State of the System

We shall use the ket and bra vector notations developed by Dirac. These elegant
notations are compact, sufficiently general and extremely powerful as will become
evident as we proceed.
The physical state of a system is denoted by a ket vector |α in a linear and
complex vector space which is a mathematical space with dimension depending on
the nature of the physical system under consideration. The vector space in infinite
dimension is known as Hilbert Space.The state index α denotes the set of values or
quantum numbers of the physical quantities which define the state of the system.
The ket |α is postulated to contain all the informations that can be known about
the system. Also
1.3. BASIC POSTULATES 3

c|α = |αc, c = arbitrary complex number, (1.1)

is postulated to represent the same state |α. When c is zero the result is the Null
ket.

(ii) Postulate 2. Superposition of States.

This postulate is one of the corner stones of quantum mechanics. According to this
postulate if there are more than one states of the system then the linear combination
will also represent another state of the system. For instance if |α and |β are two
possible states, then

cα |α + cβ |β ≡ |γ, where cα and cβ are arbitrary complex numbers, (1.2)

will represent another state of the system. Thus one can add up states to gener-
ate new states by superposition. The physical vectors in Euclidian Space have the
property that they can be added up to form new vectors. Analogously we have
designated the states |α as ket vectors in a complex and linear mathematical space.
Since from Eq. (1.1) c|α and |α are the same state when c = 0, only the ‘direction’
and not the magnitude of the ket vector is of significance.

BRA VECTORS, BRA SPACE, INNER PRODUCT

We now introduce the bra vectors and the bra space. According to Dirac every
ket vector |α is associated with a bra vector, denoted by α|, by some conjugation
process. The association between |α and α|, we call dual correspondence. The
Bra Vectors are introduced such that the complete bracket notation β|α which is
defined as the inner product of a ket |α and a bra β| will be in general a complex
number. The inner product is postulated in analogy to the scalar product a · b,
which is a scalar quantity, of two physical vectors a and b. According to Dirac a
bra vector is completely defined when its inner product with all the kets in the ket
space is given. If this inner product of β| is zero for all the kets |α, then β| is a
Null bra vector.

If β|α = 0, for all |α, (1.3)

then β| = 0, Null Bra Vector. (1.4)

Thus with every ket space there is an associated bra space spanned by bra vectors.
We write
Dual Correspondence
|α ←− · · · · · · −→ α|,
DC
|α ←→ α|, (1.5)
4 CHAPTER 1. BASIC CONCEPTS & FORMULATION

which we may call Hermitian Conjugation and write

α| = [|α]† and α|† = |α.
in general
DC
|α + |β ←→ α| + β|, (1.6)
DC
cα |α + cβ |β ←→ c∗α α| + c∗β β|, (1.7)
where cα and cβ are complex numbers.
Having defined the inner product
(β|) · (|α) = β|α, (1.8)
we further postulate that
β|α = α|β∗ (1.9)
Thus the numbers β|α and α|β are complex conjugate of each other. Though
the inner product is analogous to scalar product of two vectors, but unlike it the
inner product is non-commutative, i.e.
β|α = α|β. (1.10)
Just as a · b = ax bx + ay by + az bz = ab cos θ is the overlap of the vector a with
vector b, β|α represents the overlap integral of β| and |α; which will become
clear once the representation of |β and |α in terms of the complete set of basis is
introduced.
From Eq. (1.9) follows
α|α = α|α∗ = Real. (1.11)
We further postulate that
α|α ≥ 0, (1.12)

where the equality holds if and only if |α is the Null ket. We shall call α|α the
Norm of the ket |α and the postulate of positive definiteness of norm is essential
for the probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics. Two kets |α |β are said
to be orthogonal if
α|β = 0. (1.13)
The normalized ket |α̃ is given by
|α
|α̃ =  . (1.14)
α|α
1.3. BASIC POSTULATES 5

 1
The norm α|α is analogous to the magnitude [a · a] 2 = |a| of the vector a.
Since |α and c|α represent the same physical state, we shall henceforth use the
normalized kets Eq. (1.14) to describe a state. The normalized ket vectors can yet
be multiplied by a phase factor eiγ , with real γ with modulus unity, before it is
completely specified.

(iii) Postulate 3. Operators for Dynamical Variables

Every Dynamical Variable A will be represented by a linear operator  which op-

erates on a ket |α to transform it to another ket |γ

 (|α) = Â|α = |γ. (1.15)

Then

γ| = (|γ)† ≡ α|† , (1.16)

where † defined to be Hermitian Adjoint of  which acts on the bra α| from the
right. Since  has to be linear we have

 [cα |α + cβ |β] = cα Â|α + cβ Â|β. (1.17)

OUTER PRODUCT OF STATES.

We define the Outer Product of |β and |α

(|β) · (α|) ≡ |βα|. (1.18)

Unlike the inner product β|α which is a number, it can be shown that the outer
ptoduct Eq. (1.18) is an operator. To show this we use after Dirac the associative
axiom of multiplication. Just as the multiplications between operators are asso-
ciative, Dirac postulated this property holds good for any legal multiplication (i.e.
multiplications that are allowed) among kets, bras and operators. Thus

(|βα|) |γ = |β · α|γ = cαγ |β, (1.19)

where cαγ = α|γ = a number.

It is as if |βα rotated |γ in the direction of |β. Similarly

γ| · (|βα|) = γ|β · α| = α|cγβ (1.20)

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