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FORMAL LOGIC
Its Scope and Limits
Fourth Edition

Richard Jeffrey
Edited, with a New Supplement, by
John P. Burgess
FORMAL LOGIC
Its Scope and Limits
FORMAL LOGIC
Its Scope and Limits

Fourth Edition

Richard Jeffrey

Edited, with a New

Supplement, by
John P. Burgess

Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.

Indianapolis/Cambridge
Richard Jeftrey (1926-2002) was Professor of Philosophy, Princeton University.

© 1991, 1981, 1967 by McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Reprinted 2004 by Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.
Fourth Edition copyright © 2006 by Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.

All rights reserved

Printed in the United States of America

11 10 09 08 2345678

For further information, please address

Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.

P.O. Box 44937
Indianapolis, Indiana 46244-0937

www.hackettpublishing.com

Printed at Sheridan Books, Inc.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Jeftrey, Richard C.
Formal logic : its scope and limits / Richard Jeftrey.—4th ed. / edited with a new
supplement by John P. Burgess.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-87220-813-3 (cloth)
1. First-order logic—Textbooks. I. Burgess, John P.,, 1948- 1II. Title.
BC128.J43 2006
160—dc22 2005055005

ISBN-13: 978-0-87220-813-1 (cloth)

Adobe PDF ebook ISBN: 978-1-62466-606-3

FoORrR Jane and Mark
 CONTENTS

Preface to the Fourth Edition Xi

Chapter 1 Truth-Functional Logic

1.1 “Not,” “And”

“«Or”

WD
1.2
1.3 Is This Argument Valid?

B
1.4 A Bad Argument

b
1.5 Soundness

WnN
1.6 «rf”

O
1.7 Denial, Conjunction, Disjunction

coON
1.8 Conditionals
1.9 Counterfactual Conditionals
1.10 Biconditionals and Logical Equivalence
1.11 Rules of Valuation
1.12 Oddities of “If”
1.13 Rules of Formation
1.14 Consistency and the Science of Refutation
1.15 Tautologies
1.16 Context Dependency
1.17 Formal Validity
1.18 Problems

Chapter 2 Truth Trees

2.1 A Closed Tree

2.2 An Open Finished Tree
2.3 Double Denial
24 Flowchart for “~” and “—” with Examples
2.5 Rules of Inference, with Flowchart

vii
Vill CONTENTS

2.6 Problems
2.7 Adequacy of the Tree Test
2.8 Decidability
2.9 Soundness
2.10 Completeness

Chapter 3 Generality

3.1 Universal Instantiation (“UI™)

3.2 Existential Instantiation (“EI”)
3.3 UI Again—Closure
34 Examples
3.5 Rules of Formation
3.6 The Complete Method, with Flowchart
3.7 Logical Structure
3.8 Problems
3.9 Interpretations
3.10 Rules of Interpretation
3.11 Counterexamples
3.12 “Some S’s Are P”
3.13 Decidability
3.14 Completeness
3.15 Soundness
3.16 “Some $’s Are P”: Solution

Chapter 4 Multiple Generality

4.1 Example
4.2 Example
4.3 Logic into English
4.4 Linkage
4.5 Rules of Formation
4.6 English into Logical Notation
4.7 Example: Alma’s Narcissism Inflames the Baron
4.8 Example: Alma Inflamed by Her Own Narcissism
4.9 Amor Vincit Omnia
4.10 Problems
4.11 Infinite Counterexamples
4.12 More Problems
4.13 Undecidability
4.14 Soundness
4.15 Completeness
4.16 Translation Drill
4.17 Exercises
 CONTENTS X

Chapter 5 Identity 75

5.1 Rules of Inference for Identity 76

5.2 Saying of What Is Not That It Is Not 78
5.3 Definite Descriptions 79
54 Number 80
5.5 Problems 81
5.6 Rule of Interpretation for Identity 81
5.7 Soundness 81
5.8 Completeness 82
5.9 Examples of Modified Interpretations 83
5.10 Problems 84

Chapter 6 Functions 85

6.1 Rule of Formation 86

6.2 Rule of Interpretation 87
6.3 EI and UI Revised 88
6.4 Regulating Ul, with Flowchart 89
6.5 Adequacy 90
6.6 Problems 93
6.7 Mathematical Reasoning and Groups 93
6.8 Problems 95
6.9 Robinson Arithmetic 96
6.10 Problems 97

Chapter 7 Uncomputability

7.1 How to Program a Register Machine

7.2 Problems
7.3 Register Machine Tree Tests
7.4 The Church-Turing Thesis
1.5 Unsolvability of the Halting Problem
7.6 Problems
1.7 Programs in Logical Notation
7.8 Problems

Chapter 8 Undecidability

8.1 The Decision Problem

8.2 A Routine Test for Halting
8.3 The Argument Is Valid iff the Program Halts
8.4 Focusing the Undecidability Result
8.5 A Solvable Case of the Decision Problem
8.6 Undecidability without Function Symbols
8.7 Undecidability of Two-Place Predicate Logic
8.8 Problems
X CONTENTS

Chapter 9 Incompleteness 125

9.1 Second-Order Logic 125

9.2 Problems 128
9.3 Logical Types 128
9.4 Russell’s Paradox 130
9.5 Second-Order Formation and Valuation Rules 131
9.6 Mathematical Induction 132
9.7 Isomorphism, Categoricity, Completeness 134
9.8 Incompleteness of Validity Tests for
Second-Order Logic 135
9.9 Problems 138
9.10 Some History 139

Supplement A Truth-Functional Equivalence 141

Al Venn Diagrams 141

A2 Laws of Equivalence 143
A3 Normal Form 144
A4 Expressive Completeness 147
AS Simplification 147
A.6 Logic Circuits 148
A7 Problems 150

Supplement B Variant Methods 151

B.1 Looking for Finite Models 152

B.2 Finding Finite Models 153
B.3 Adequacy of the Method 154
B.4 The Cut Rule 155
B.5 Speedy Closure with Cut 156
B.6 Slow Closure without Cut 157
B.7 Problems 158

Solutions 161

Index 171
 PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION

In the preface to the third edition of this book, the author, Richard Jeffrey
(1926-2002), wrote as follows:

This is a book for beginners, designed to familiarize them with a formal system of
first-order logic . . . and give them access to the discoveries defining the scope and
limits of formal methods that marked logic’s coming of age in the twentieth cen-
tury: Godel’s completeness and incompleteness theorems for first- and second-
order logic, and the Church-Turing theorem on the undecidability of first-order logic.
The formal system (the tree method) is based on Evert Beth’s method of
semantic tableaux, or, equivalently, Jaakko Hintikka’s method of model sets. In
contrast to the so-called natural deduction methods . . . the tree method is
thrillingly easy to understand and use. It is this simplicity that lets students get
control of the nuts and bolts of formal logic in a couple of months, so that there
is time in the semester for the more abstract topics. . . .

His words remain true of the present, fourth edition.

The changes made from the previous edition are four. First, Dick’s teach-
ing copy of the third edition noted a number of errata on its pages or on slips
of paper inserted between them. The indicated corrections have been made. Fur-
ther, a slim folder accompanying the book contained additional problems, most
supplied by George Boolos (1940-1996), Dick’s longtime friend and sometimes
collaborator, described in the preface to the third edition as “really a coauthor.”
These have been rewritten in the notation of this book and distributed among the
various chapters. Beyond this I have made no alterations in the text, but I have
made a couple of additions at the end.
For one thing, in the preface to the third edition, Dick noted that he had
deleted the second edition’s chapter “Truth-Functional Equivalence,” apart from
bits and pieces relocated in other chapters, and suggested that the deleted mate-
rial could be “recycled as handouts” by instructors using the book as a text. That

Xi
Xili PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION

is just what I did myself, after consultation with Dick, when teaching from the
book some years ago. Since the material in question may now be less readily
available to other instructors, I have added “my” handout—which is really an
edited version of Dick’s old chapter, minus the relocated bits and pieces—as
Supplement A.
For another thing, I have added as Supplement B brief accounts, in the no-
tation and style of this book, of the results of two of George’s papers that di-
rectly address concerns of Dick’s.* One supplies a proof for the answer I had
offered, without proof, to a question of Dick’s about the possibility of modify-
ing the tree method so that it will always find a finite model when there is one.
The other shows that a different modification, contemplated by Dick himself,
can dramatically speed up certain proofs.
Dick wrote in the preface to the third edition that, after the opening chap-
ter, “the book is one straight argument, with a minimum of excursion.” This re-
mains true in the present edition so far as concerns the body of the book, the
numbered chapters. But the reader or instructor who wishes to take little excur-
sions now and then will find that the material in Supplement A can be taken up
any time after Chapter 2, while that in the first half of Supplement B can be
taken up after Chapter 4, and that in the second half after Chapter 6.
In the preface to the third edition, Dick acknowledged help from Lisa
Downing, Mark Hinchcliff, Philip Kitcher, Eric Steinhauer, Sam Wheeler,
Richard White, and “others whom I’m forgetting.” To this list should be added
John Barker, Christian Pillar, Paul Riskind, Thomas Wang, and Reina Hayaki,
who noted errata in the previous edition. If others were also involved in sup-
plying the addenda and corrigenda, I did not find their names recorded, and 1
can only offer them anonymous thanks.

John P. Burgess

* “Trees and Finite Satisfiability: Proof of a Conjecture of Burgess,” Notre Dame Journal of
Formal Logic, 25: 193-197, 1984; “Don’t Eliminate Cut,” Journal of Philosophical Logic, 13:
373-378, 1984.
 TRUTH-FUNCTIONAL LOGIC

Formal logic is the science of deduction. It aims to provide systematic

means for telling whether or not given conclusions follow from given prem-
ises, i.e., whether arguments are valid or invalid. This book shows how that
aim is partly attainable, and why it is not fully attainable.
Validity is easily defined:

A valid argument is one whose conclusion is true in every case in which

all its premises are true.

Then the mark of validity is absence of counterexamples, cases in which all

premises are true but the conclusion is false.
Difficulties in applying this definition arise from difficulties in can-
vassing the cases mentioned in it. In the “truth-functional” arguments to
which we now turn, these difficulties are at a minimum. Here, cases are
simply possibilities as to joint truth and falsity of sentences out of which the
premises and conclusion are formed. Within this division of the subject, the

1
2 FORMAL LOGIC: ITS SCOPE AND LIMITS

aim of logic is fully and simply attainable, for routine methods allow us to
determine whether an argument is truth-functionally valid or not.

1.1 “NOT,” “AND?”

“Min is not both home and on board. She’s home. Therefore she’s not on
board.” That three-sentence argument is truth-functionally valid. The first
two sentences are its premises, and the word “therefore” flags its conclu-
sion. We write it like an arithmetic problem, with premises adding up to the
conclusion:

Premise: Min’s not both home and on board. Not (4 and B)

Premise: She’s home. A

Conclusion: She’s not on board. Not B

(In the schematic version, “A” says that Min is home, “B” that Min is on
board.)
A counterexample would be a case in which both premises are true
and the conclusion is false. Let’s think about how that could happen. To
make the second premise true, “4” would have to be true—Min would
have to be home. To make the conclusion false, “B” would have to be
true—Min would have to be on board. Then the part “A and B” of the first
premise, the part “Min’s both home and on board,” would be true, and the
whole first premise, “not (4 and B),” would be false—not true, as in a
counterexample. Then there are no counterexamples. The argument is valid.
In effect we have surveyed the four possibilities as to truth (t) and
falsity (f) of “A” and “B”—efficiently—and found that none of them is a
counterexample. In a straightforward, inefficient search, those cases might
be listed as at the left of the following truth table, under “AB.” The three
column headings at the right are the premises and conclusion of the argu-
ment, and the columns of “t”s and “f”s under them are the truth values
they assume in the four cases.

AB Not (4 and B) A Not B

Case 1 tt f ( t ) t f
Case 2 tf t ( f ) t t
Case 3 ft t ( f ) f f
Case 4 ff t ( f ) f t

In parentheses under “and” are the truth values of the part “Min is both
home and on board” (4 and B) of the second premise. That part is true in
case 1, where AB is tt, and false in the other three cases, where “A” is false
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