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 Macionis, Sociology, 16/e

Chapter 7
Groups and Organizations
Contents
Author‘s Note
Additional Content in REVEL
Learning Objectives
Detailed Chapter Outline
REVEL Media
John‘s Chapter Close-Up: The Paintings of George Tooker
John‘s Personal Audio Selection
Research for a Cutting-Edge Classroom
Using the ASA Journal Teaching Sociology in Your Classroom
Supplemental Lecture Material
• Computers and the Threat to Privacy
• The Female Advantage
Essay Topics

Author’s Note for Chapter 7

Chapter 7 can be tagged as ―middle-level‖ in focus, between the micro-orientation of Chapter 6

(―Social Interaction in Everyday Life‖) and the more macro-level orientation of chapters that
follow. The topic here is groups and organizations. Overall, this chapter presents several
somewhat distinct lessons to students, and it may be helpful to specify them all here.
 A survey of what we know about groups. The chapter begins with a look at the
importance of primary groups and how they differ from secondary groups. There follows
discussion of various dimensions of group dynamics, involving leadership, conformity
among group members, reference groups, in-groups and out-groups, and the
consequences of group size and diversity of membership. This section of the chapter
concludes with a look at networks, including how they differ from groups, their
usefulness to us, and how social media have transformed the process of networking.
 An introduction to formal organizations. Starting with a typology of formal
organizations, discussion turns to a Weberian account of the development of formal
organizations as an element of rational, modern societies. This history leads to Weber‘s
analysis of the six traits of bureaucracy. Discussion includes a focus on organizational
environment, informal dynamics within bureaucracy, and problems such as oligarchy that
have been linked to this organizational form.
 It may be helpful to students to point out the historical flow to all the material noted
above. In the more traditional, preindustrial era, social life was composed of small-scale
groupings (such as family, village, and craft guild). Modern societies retain many of these
more primary groupings, but they are now less the center of social life. Rather, a larger-

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 Macionis, Sociology, 16/e

scale of life emerges in which most people work within large organizations and deal
impersonally with officials in other vast bureaucracies (we know them as acronyms: PTA,
IRS, DMV, and so on). This historical theme is more fully developed in Chapter 4
(―Society‖) and most fully discussed in Chapter 24 (―Social Change: Traditional, Modern,
and Postmodern Societies‖).
 As a central element of modern society life, formal organizations themselves have
changed over the last century. The last section of the chapter explores the evolution of
formal organizations. Beginning with the rigid scientific management model (itself based
on Weber‘s thinking and reflecting military organization), we see organizations evolving
as they become more open to various categories of people, respond to an alternative (and
more primary group-like) organizational model that arises in Japan, and adjust to the shift
from the rigid industrial routines characteristic of the early industrial era work to more
creative symbolic work that evolves in the information age. Keep in mind that this final
evolution is only one of two opposing trends: As more creative work has expanded
offering well-paid careers, ―McJobs‖ similar to older factory jobs, continue to require
routine work and extensive supervision (as part of the larger trend called
―McDonaldization‖).

Additional Content in REVEL

REVEL is the electronic version of this text that provides interactive learning, student learning
assessment, and additional readings and engaging video—at remarkably low cost. All of the
REVEL content has been developed by John Macionis and is seamlessly integrated into the text.
For each chapter, REVEL expands and deepens student learning with rich content including:

In Greater Depth—This interactive graphic allows students to go deeper into the Power of
Society figure at the beginning of the chapter, in this case showing how race shapes people‘s
group memberships.

A Global Perspective—These interactive graphics focus on global patterns, in this case showing
the McDonalds is an economic giant larger than the economy of many countries.

Video—These short videos present key concepts in engaging ways. In this chapter, students can
access three videos that introduce the concepts of group and organization, explore patterns of
social inequality involving groups and organizations, and investigate the process of
McDonaldization and the proliferation of ―big-box‖ stores in the United States.

Journals—These are short student writing exercises. This chapter‘s journals encourage students
to identify primary and secondary groups to which they belong, reflect on their experience of
bureaucracy, assess their level of concern about protecting personal privacy, and to share with
others their assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of large, formal organizations.

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 Macionis, Sociology, 16/e

Interactive Comparison Maps—These interactive graphics allows students to manipulate social

maps to link variables. In this chapter, students examine global maps to see the extent of Internet
use in nations at differing levels of economic development.

Read the Document—These primary readings allow students to read important sociologists in
their own words. All readings have been carefully chosen and edited to provide rich learning
accessible to all students. This chapter‘s reading is Georg Simmel‘s classic, ―Dyads, Triads, and
Larger Groups.‖

Social Explorer—An interactive exercise that uses social mapping to explore societal dynamics
across the United States. This chapter‘s exercise allows students to explore membership in one of
the country‘s largest formal organizations—the U.S. military—across the country and in their
local communities.

Surveys—These interactive exercises ask students to assess the own attitudes and behavior and
compare themselves to others in the United States or to populations in other countries. This
chapter‘s surveys focus on students‘ life in groups and concerns about the loss of personal
privacy.

In Review—These interactive ―drag and drop‖ exercises allow students to have fun as they
assess their learning. In this chapter, one In Review exercise asks students to identify traits of
small groups and the traits of large organizations.

Learning Objectives

 7.1: Explain the importance of various types of groups to social life.

 7.2: Describe the operation of large, formal organizations.
 7.3: Summarize the changes to formal organizations over the course of the last century.
______________________________________________________________________________

Detailed Chapter Outline

I. Social Groups. A social group is defined as two or more people who identify and interact
with one another.
L.O. 7.1: Explain the importance of various types of groups to social life.
A. The Basics: Societies, Groups, and Organizations. People who interact in a defined
territory and share a culture comprise a society. Though one could argue that
individuals form the foundation of any society, groups, and organizations also have
profound influence over people's lives.
B. Primary and secondary groups.
1. A primary group is a small social group whose members share personal
and enduring relationships.

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 Macionis, Sociology, 16/e

a. People in primary groups share many activities, spend a great deal of time
together, and feel they know one another well.
b. Families are primary groups in that they are the first groups we experience
in life and because they are of central importance in the socialization
process.
c. Members think of the group as an end in itself rather than as a means to
other ends.
d. Members view each other as unique and irreplaceable.
2. Secondary groups are large and impersonal social groups devoted to some
specific interest or activity.
a. They involve weak emotional ties.
b. They are commonly short term.
c. They are goal oriented.
d. They are typically impersonal.
B. Group leadership.
1. Instrumental leadership emphasizes the completion of tasks; expressive
leadership emphasizes collective well-being.
2. There are three styles of decision-making in groups:
a. Authoritarian leadership focuses on instrumental concerns, takes personal
charge of decision-making, and demands strict compliance from
subordinates.
b. Democratic leadership is more expressive and tries to include everyone in
the decision-making process.
c. Laissez-faire leadership allows the group to function more or less on its
own.
C. Group conformity.
1. Asch‘s (1952) research into group conformity showed that many of us are
willing to compromise our own judgment and to avoid being different, even
from people we do not know.
2. Milgram‘s (1963) research into obedience suggests that people are likely to
follow directions from not only ―legitimate authority figures,‖ but also groups
of ordinary individuals, even when it means inflicting harm on another
person.
3. Janis‘s (1972, 1989) research dealt with a process called groupthink, the
tendency of group members to conform by adopting a narrow view of some
issue.
D. A reference group is a social group that serves as a point of reference for people
making evaluations or decisions.
1. Social Inequalities: Societies, Groups, and Organizations. How our society,
groups, and organizations are changing is the subject of this video. It focuses
on the dynamics of our groups and how social media has influenced our
groups and our organizations.
2. Stouffer‘s (1949) research on reference group dynamics showed that we do
not make judgments about ourselves in isolation, nor do we compare
ourselves with just anyone.

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 Macionis, Sociology, 16/e

E. An in-group is a social group commanding a member’s esteem and loyalty; an out-

group is a social group toward which one feels competition or opposition.
F. Group size.
1. A dyad is Georg Simmel‘s (1858-1918) term for a social group with two
members.
a. Social interaction in a dyad is typically intense.
b. Dyads are typically less stable than larger groups.
2. A triad is a social group with three members.
a. Triads are more stable than dyads.
b. Any two members can form a majority coalition.
G. Social diversity (race, ethnicity, class, and gender) influences intergroup contact in
four ways:
1. The larger a group, the more likely members will maintain relationships only
with other group members.
2. The more internally heterogeneous a group is, the more likely that its members
will interact with outsiders.
3. The greater the overall social parity within a setting, the more likely it is that
people from diverse backgrounds will mingle and form ties.
4. Physical space affects the chances of contact among groups.
H. A network is a web of weak social ties.
1. WINDOW ON THE WORLD (p. 166)—Global Map 7–1: Internet Users in
Global Perspective. Although a majority of world nations are connected to
the Internet, a majority of the world‘s people—especially those living in low-
income countries—do not have access to this resource.

II. Formal Organizations.

L.O. 7.2: Describe the operation of large, formal organizations.
A. There are three types of formal organizations:
1. Utilitarian organizations, which people join in pursuit of material rewards.
2. Coercive organizations, distinguished by involuntary membership.
3. Normative organizations or voluntary associations, in which people pursue
goals they consider morally worthwhile.
B. Formal organizations date back thousands of years. Early organizations had certain
limitations.
C. Bureaucracy became common during the Industrial Revolution.
D. Where Is Membership in the Military Highest in the United States? In this activity,
students have the opportunity to explore membership in one of our country‘s largest
formal organizations—the military—in their local community and across the United
States.
E. Bureaucracy is an organizational model rationally designed to perform tasks
efficiently. Max Weber (1921) identified six key characteristics of bureaucracy:
1. Specialization.
2. Hierarchy of offices.
3. Rules and regulations.
4. Technical competence.

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 Macionis, Sociology, 16/e

5. Impersonality.
6. Formal, written communications.
F. Organizational environment refers to a range of factors outside the organization
that affects its operation, including:
1. Technology.
2. Economic and political trends.
3. Population patterns.
4. Other organizations.
G. The informal side of bureaucracy is that members of organizations try to personalize
their procedures and surroundings.
H. Problems of bureaucracy.
1. Bureaucratic alienation, according to Weber, is the reduction of the human
being to a “small cog in a ceaselessly moving mechanism.”
2. Bureaucratic inefficiency and ritualism is the preoccupation with rules and
regulations to the point of thwarting an organization’s goals.
3. Bureaucratic inertia is the tendency of bureaucratic organizations to
perpetuate themselves.
4. Robert Michels (1876–1936) made the link between bureaucracy and
oligarchy, the rule of the many by the few. The ―iron law of oligarchy‖ refers
to the pyramid shape of bureaucracy placing a few leaders in charge of
organizational resources.

III. The Evolution of Formal Organizations

L.O. 7.3: Summarize the changes to formal organizations over the course of the last century.
A. Scientific management is the application of scientific principles to the operation of a
business or other large organization.
1. Scientific management involves three steps:
a. Managers observe the tasks performed by the workers.
b. Managers analyze their data to discover ways for workers to become more
efficient.
c. Management provides guidance and incentives to workers to be more
efficient.
B. During the 1960s, big businesses were inefficient and unfair in their hiring practices.
1. By the end of the twentieth century, white men in the United States held 58
percent of management jobs.
2. Women bring a ―female advantage‖ to companies striving to be more flexible
and democratic.
C. Differences between formal organizations in Japan and in the United States:
1. Hiring and advancement.
2. Lifetime security.
3. Holistic involvement.
4. Broad-based training.
5. Collective decision making.

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 Macionis, Sociology, 16/e

D. Pressure to modify conventional organizations is also coming from the nature of work
itself, including a shift from making things to processing information. Ways in which
today‘s organizations differ from those of a century ago:
1. Creative autonomy.
2. Competitive work teams.
3. A flatter organization.
4. Greater flexibility.
E. SOCIOLOGY IN FOCUS BOX (p. 177): Computer Technology, Large
Organizations, and the Assault on Privacy. The loss of privacy is one result of more
and more complex computer technology. Note that students can join the blog on
REVEL.
F. The “McDonaldization” of society (George Ritzer, 1993).
1. Four principles of McDonaldization:
a. Efficiency.
b. Calculability.
c. Uniformity and predictability.
d. Control through automation.
2. Rationality, although efficient, may be irrational and highly dehumanizing.
3. The McDonaldization of Society by George Ritzer. George Ritzer has called
the increasing bureaucratization in social life the ―McDonaldization‖ of
society. In this excerpt Ritzer demonstrates how the principles of the fast-
food restaurant have come to dominate all areas of American society.
4. Sociology in Focus: Societies, Groups, and Organizations. Society, groups,
and organizations are the main focus of this video. It illustrates how groups
and organizations can positively and negatively affect our society.

IV. The Future of Organizations: Opposing Trends

L.O. 7.4: Assess the consequences of modern social organization for social life.
A. ―Intelligent organizations‖ have become more productive than ever.
B. The postindustrial economy has created many highly skilled jobs, more routine
service jobs, and offers few of the benefits that today‘s highly skilled workers enjoy.
C. Organizational ―flexibility‖ that gives better-off workers more autonomy carries the
threat of ―downsizing‖ for rank-and-file employees.

V. Seeing Sociology in Everyday Life photo essay (pp. 178–179). Use this essay to spark
discussion of advantages and disadvantages of rational social organization.

REVEL Media

IN GREATER DEPTH [graphic] The Power of Society to Link People into Groups:
Membership in Various Types of Groups, by Race, found in Module 7.1.
A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE [graphic] McDonald‘s: Bigger Than Many Countries, found in
Module 7.2.

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 Macionis, Sociology, 16/e

VIDEO The Basics: Societies, Groups, and Organizations This video looks at the differences
between primary and secondary groups and how they serve as reference groups in our daily
lives, found in Module 7.3.
VIDEO Social Inequalities: Societies, Groups, and Organizations This video uses familiar
“family politics” and also the situation of a young person getting a job through family
connections to illustrate Georg Simmel’s observations of the dynamics of small social groups,
found in Module 7.4.
JOURNAL Personalizing Primary and Secondary Groups, found in Module 7.5.
COMPARISON MAP Internet Users / Economic Development in Global Perspective, found in
Module 7.6.
READ THE DOCUMENT Dyads, Triads, and Larger Groups by Georg Simmel Simmel
argues that while one might think that interactions between individuals are inherently unique,
the number of persons involved in a social interaction affects the social forms that develop in
predictable ways. Simply moving from a dyad to a triad changes the level of intimacy and the
resulting interactions, found in Module 7.7.
SOCIAL EXPLORER Explore membership in one of our country‘s largest formal
organizations—the military—in your local community and in counties across the United States,
found in Module 7.8.
SURVEY Living in Groups: Rate Yourself, found in Module 7.9.
IN REVIEW Small Groups versus Large Organizations, found in Module 7.10.
JOURNAL Experiencing Bureaucracy, found in Module 7.11.
VIDEO Sociology in Focus: Societies, Groups, and Organizations The narrator of this video
relates personal encounters with aspects of the McDonaldization of society today—the
predictability, uniformity, and efficiency of big box stores seen in every major city, found in
Module 7.12.
SURVEY Concern about Privacy: Rate Yourself, found in Module 7.13.
SHARED WRITING Assessing Formal Organizations, found in Module 7.14.
SEEING SOCIOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE [photo gallery] What have we learned about
the way modern society is organized? found in Module 7.15.

John’s Chapter Close-Up: The Paintings of George Tooker

In 2011, the painter George Tooker passed away at the age of ninety at his home in rural
Vermont. I have always been haunted by Tooker‘s art, visions of modern social life that strike a
chilling chord. There is no outright violence in Tooker‘s paintings. On the contrary, his settings
are quite orderly and even carefully controlled. But humanity is presented in the throes of
death—a social death or maybe a death of the soul. From a sociological point of view, no one
better captures Max Weber‘s pessimistic assessment of modernity.
In this chapter, Tooker‘s Government Bureau (1956) appears on page 171. I have read that
the idea for this painting resulted from the artist‘s frustrating attempt to get a permit in New York
City to do a home renovation project. Notice the sameness of the people, all reduced to a
nondescript form as they meekly wait to be processed by the robot-like bureaucrats working
within a vast, impersonal system. The organizational employees are truly ―faceless‖ in Tooker‘s
portrayal, and you see only a bit of them behind frosted glass. They, too, have no personal traits.

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 Macionis, Sociology, 16/e

Their fingers rest on calculators suggesting that the people they serve are simply ―cases‖ to be
counted and processed. The workers, of course, are no better off.
This is Weber‘s vision of modern alienation. It differs from the vision of Marx, in which
alienation arises from hierarchy and class conflict. In Weber‘s and Tooker‘s views, we are all
rendered small and unimportant against the rising wave of rational bureaucracy. Do such
organizations serve humanity, as people once supposed? Or does humanity now serve the
―machine?‖
For discussion, also point out that there are two other Tooker paintings in the text. In Chapter
24 (―Social Change: Traditional, Modern, and Postmodern Societies‖) you will find The Subway
(1950), one of Tooker‘s early images of modern, urban life. Landscape with Figures (1963) is
found in the Weber section of Chapter 4 (―Society‖) on page 102. Here we see Tooker‘s take on
Weber‘s ―iron cage.‖

John’s Personal Audio Selection

Chapter 7 concludes raising a timely debate about the extent to which new organizational forms
operating new computer technology threaten personal privacy. There is a more sinister side of
this issue—the potential for computer technology to help governmental organizations not only to
gather information, but to control the lives of an entire population. The smartphones we carry
with us, for example, provide information about not only our conversations, but our past
movements and current location. Does anyone think governments are not able to monitor and
utilize such information? Does anyone doubt that what becomes technologically possible will
become politically irresistible?
Use a search engine to find a three-minute 2012 audio program called ―Technological
Innovations Help Dictators See All.‖ Are we talking about governments somewhere else in the
world? Yes. But the danger is closer to home than many students may realize. Refer the class to
page 176 of this chapter where people will see a photograph of the new National Security
Administration (NSA) information storage facility in Utah.

Research for a Cutting-Edge Classroom

For each chapter of the text, I am happy to share a short, Power-Point based presentation
informed by very recent research. These presentations deal with highly current and typically
controversial issues that are in the news and are part of the country‘s political dialogue. Each
presentation provides a clear statement of the issue, several slides that present recent research
findings from Pew, Gallup, or other research organization, notes that help instructors develop the
importance of the data, and questions for class discussion.
To access these PowerPoint presentations from REVEL, after creating a course with either
Sociology 16/e or Society: The Basics 14/e, enter the course and hover over the left-hand
navigation menu. The PowerPoints (as well as the Test Item File, Instructor's Manual, and other
resources) can be found in the "Resources" tab.

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 Macionis, Sociology, 16/e

From outside of REVEL, please go to www.pearsonhigerhed.com and navigate / search

for Sociology 16e or Society: The Basics 14e. The PowerPoints can be found under the
―Resources‖ tab.
In this chapter, the cutting-edge classroom presentation explores ways in which today‘s
workplace is unfriendly to family life, an issue that affects both men and women.

Using the ASA Journal Teaching Sociology in Your Classroom

One dimension of any discussion of groups and organizations that has special relevance to the
college classroom is how small groups function. Lauren Dundes has provided a vehicle for
introducing students to small group settings and for developing students‘ critical thinking
abilities (―Small Group Debates: Fostering Critical Thinking in Oral Presentations with Maximal
Class Involvement,‖ Teaching Sociology, 29, April 2001, pp. 237–243). Dundes presents a
technique that can be applied to any class in which there are controversies to debate and enough
persons to observe and evaluate at a ratio of one supervisor per thirty or fewer students. In the
article, Dundes provides a detailed description of how you may organize debates between small
groups of students in your classroom.

Supplementary Lecture Material

Computers and the Threat to Privacy

It‘s hardly news any longer: we live in the so-called Information Age. Information, virtually all of
it stored in computer databases, is the lifeblood of the public and private bureaucracies that
dominate postindustrial society. The quest for ever-greater levels of efficiency has led to a
scramble to obtain more and more information about individual citizens and consumers.
Yet, while many people express concerns about the loss of their privacy, most of us are
willing accomplices. Do you use a bank card at ATM machines? Do you shop by mail order or
visit commercial websites? Do you browse websites on the Internet? If so, you are being tracked,
and most of us realize it. Yet, we are unwilling to change our habits. Why? Because, perhaps
when it comes right down to it, we value convenience over privacy.
Here are just a few examples of how by doing very simple, everyday things you inadvertently
leave electronic footprints, and how those might be used by others:

 At work, you send an e-mail saying unflattering things about your boss. Your company (as do
many corporations) routinely reviews e-mails, so your boss reads yours. You are dismissed.
You file a suit, but lose. The prospective employer at the next job you apply for uses an
Internet investigation service to check records and your lawsuit is discovered. What do you
think your chances are of being employed by that firm?
 You have allergies and call an 800 number to check pollen count in your area. Your number
is recorded by caller ID, and you are put on a list of allergy sufferers. The list is sold to a drug
company. Next thing you know, you are sent a coupon for that company‘s allergy medication.

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 Macionis, Sociology, 16/e

 You are eating out, and order a burger with fries. At the restaurant, your order is entered into
a computer. You pay by credit card. The restaurant then checks your credit rating and sends
you a discount offer for your next visit. Unfortunately, the restaurant goes bankrupt, and its
list of burger and fries lovers goes on the information market.

Those are just a few examples, some innocuous sounding, some not. But what about direct
abuses?

Here are a few examples:

 Some years ago, a convicted child rapist who worked at a Boston hospital went through 1000
computerized records seeking potential victims. He was caught when the father of a nine-
year-old girl traced his call back to the hospital using caller ID.
 A banker who was also working for Maryland‘s state health commission accessed a list of
known cancer patients and identified the names of his bank‘s customers who were ill. The
bank revoked the loans of those people.
 A large company that sells baked goods planned to work together with a healthcare company
to analyze employee health records and work performance reports to identify workers who
might benefit from antidepressants sold by the healthcare company.

Unusual? No. An increasing share of companies check health information before hiring someone.
But what about the government gathering information about you? The FBI has a database on the
millions of people who have ever been arrested, even if they were not convicted. Government
abuses are currently regulated by the Privacy Act of 1974, but many feel that this law needs to be
updated to keep pace with technological innovation. Harvard law professor Lawrence Tribe
supports an amendment to the Constitution ensuring that the Bill of Rights will not be
endangered by developing communication and computer technologies.
Critics who wonder whether such safeguards are really necessary need only look to the
Orwellian steps now being taken by the Thai government. By 2006, information on 65 million
Thais was stored in a single, integrated computer network and each citizen over age of fifteen is
required to carry a photo ID with an identification number. This card allows the government to
obtain the citizen‘s fingerprints, height, home address, parents‘ and children‘s names, marital
status, education, occupation, income, nationality, religion, and, potentially, criminal records.
In spite of resistance to these pools of private information, the means of accessing some basic
data about individuals seems to be growing easier. Through search engines on the Internet‘s
World Wide Web such as Google and Yahoo!, anyone with Internet access can enter an
individual‘s name to look for his or her phone number, residential address, email address, and in
some cases, a map showing where in a city that person lives. Once that far, anyone can find out
what that person does for a living, the names and ages of a spouse and children, the kind of car
that person drives, the value of the person‘s house, and the taxes paid on it.
Kevin Kelly, executive editor of Wired magazine, points out that privacy also did not exist in
the traditional village or small town. The difference back then was that people knew about each
other, creating a kind of symmetry of knowledge. That‘s what has changed. Today‘s technology
allows more organizations to gather more information about us without our knowledge—and
without our knowing how, why, or by whom this information may be used.

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 103

 Macionis, Sociology, 16/e

Discussion Questions:

1. What sorts of personal information should be kept private? Is it even possible today to keep
information private?

2. Is the loss of privacy a result of technology that cannot be regulated? Or do you think that
new laws and regulations can protect the interests of citizens and customers?

Supplemental Lecture Material

The Female Advantage

As the textbook notes, women are still underrepresented as managers of businesses, yet some
people, such as Sally Helgesen see women as the business leaders of the future. Why? Because
their style of management is more democratic and flexible, and therefore able to adjust more
easily to the fast-changing, dynamic business environment, or thrive in a company where
educated young professionals expect to be treated as individuals.
In a recent article summing up their book, Megatrends for Women, Patricia Aburdene and
John Naisbitt describe women leaders as having these strengths relative to men:
 Women encourage more participation.
 Women share more power and information.
 Women more effectively enhance other people‘s self-worth.
 Women get workers more excited about their work.
 While these qualities all sound ―nice,‖ the authors warn that this would be an
oversimplification. ―Caring about people and supporting them always must be balanced with
objectivity. . . . Anyone who thinks ‗supporting people‘ and being ‗nice‘ alone cut it in the
business world is in need of a serious reality check.‖ (p. 46)
 One thing that helps women, according to Judith Hall, a psychology professor at Northeastern
University, is that women traditionally are better at interpreting body language and other
nonverbal cues. They also are able to tolerate ambiguity and to juggle many things at once.
 Men, however, who see job performance ―as a series of transactions−rewards for services
rendered or punishment for inadequate performance,‖ (Ibid) might misinterpret women‘s
management style. A female manager‘s willingness to empower employees by asking them
for help, might, for example, look like ignorance, and as though she truly does not know what
she is doing. Also, other employees might feel freer to criticize a woman, or to challenge her
authority.

Source:
Aburdene, Patricia and John Naisbitt. Megatrends for Women. New York: Villard Books, 1992.

Discussion Questions

1. Characterize women‘s management style according to the two leadership roles and three
leadership styles discussed in the text. Do you agree with the claim that the two sexes have
distinct leadership styles?

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 104

 Macionis, Sociology, 16/e

2. How do more creative jobs differ from more routine jobs in terms of the type of leadership
that works best?

Essay Topics
1. Define and distinguish primary groups and secondary groups. Provide examples of primary
and secondary groups to which you have belonged.

2. Identify and describe three leadership styles. Provide an example of each.

3. The Asch and Milgram experiments discussed in this chapter were conducted on groups of
subjects who had not met before the experimental session. Do you think that groups of people
who already knew each other would demonstrate more or less conformity if put in these
experimental situations? Discuss.

4. Assess the Milgram experiment in terms of the discussion of research ethics in Chapter 2 (pp.
39–40).

5. Identify several of the reference groups that are important to you. Why did you choose them?

6. Provides examples of each of Etzioni‘s three types of formal organizations. How can one
organization be an example of one type to one person and a different type to a different
person?

7. Identify several problems with bureaucratic organization. Overall, do you think that
bureaucracy is efficient or not? Is it a positive element of modern society or not? Why?

8. Do you think modern organizations are becoming ―smarter‖ in terms of developing the
imagination and creativity of workers? Or do most of today jobs seem more like the routine
factory work we link to the early industrial era? Explain.

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 105

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