QUESTION BANK 2023

SIDDHARTH INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY: PUTTUR-517 583

Siddharth Nagar, Narayanavanam Road – 517583

QUESTION BANK (ANSWERS)

Subject with Code :APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRICALPOWER (20EE0243)

Course & Branch. B.Tech – CSE,CSM,CAI,CCC,CAD
Year & Semester : IV B.Tech. & I - Semester Regulation: R20

UNIT-I
ILLUMINATION

1 a) Draw and explain the operation of sodium vapor lamp with neat diagram. [5M]

Sodium vapor lamp is a cold cathode and low-pressure lamp. A sodium vapor
discharge lamp consists of a U-shaped tube enclosed in a double-walled vacuum
flask, to keep the temperature of the tube within the working region. The inner U-
tube consists of two oxide-coated electrodes, which are sealed with the ends. These
electrodes are connected to a pin type base construction of sodium vapor lamp is
shown in Fig

Working:

Initially, the sodium is in the form of a solid, deposited on the walls of inner tube.
When sufficient voltage is impressed across the electrodes, the discharge starts in
the inert gas, i.e., neon; it operates as a low-pressure neon lamp with pink color.
The temperature of the lamp increases gradually and the metallic sodium
vaporizes and then ionizes thereby producing the monochromatic yellow light. This
lamp takes 10–15 min to give its full light output. The yellowish output of the lamp

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makes the object appears gray. In order to start the lamp, 380 – 450 V of striking
voltage required for 40- and 100-W lamps. These voltages can be obtained from a
high reactance transformer or an auto transformer. The efficiency of sodium vapor
lamp is lies between 40 and 50 lumens/W. Normally, these lamps are
manufactured in 45-, 60-, 85- and 140-W ratings. The average light output of the
lamp is reduced by 15% due to aging These lamps are mainly used for highway and
street lighting, parks, railway yards, general outdoor lighting, etc.

Advantages:

 Its efficiency is high.

 Longer life.
 It can be easily disposed of.
 The operating temperature is low.
 Energy-efficient.

Disadvantages:

The disadvantages of sodium vapor lamps include the following.

 Color temperature
 It needs ballast
 It needs controlling elements for controlling glare.
 It is not applicable in color identification areas.
 Sodium element is dangerous because it can catch fire in contact with
air.
 It needs an extra transformer

b) A lamp having a uniform cp of 100 in all direction is provided with a [5M]

reflector which directs 60% of the light uniformly on to a circular area
of10m diameter. The lamp is hung 5m above the area. Calculate the
illumination at the center.

2 State and explain laws of illumination briefly. [10M]

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This law states that ‘the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to

the square of distance between the surface and a point source’.

Proof:
Let, ‘S’ be a point source of luminous intensity ‘I’ candela, the luminous flux
emitting from source crossing the three parallel plates having areas A1 , A2
and A3 square meters, which are separated by a distance of d, 2d, and 3d
from the point source respectively as shown in Fig. 6.10.

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where d is the distance between the source and the surface in m,

h is the height of source from the surface in m, and I is the
luminous intensity in candela.
2 b) Six lamps are used to illuminate a certain room. If the luminous efficiency
of each lamp is 12 lumens/watt and the lamps have to emit a total lux of
10,000 lumens, calculate (i) The mean spherical luminous intensity (ii) The
cost of energy consumed in 3 hours if the charge for electrical energy is 50
paise per unit.

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3 a) If a lamp of 200 cp is placed 1m below a plane mirror which reflects 90% of

light falling on it, determine illumination at a point 3 m away from the foot
of the lamp which is hung 4 m above ground.

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b) Explain with sketch the principle and operation of incandescent lamp and
enumerates its advantages and disadvantages.

Incandescent lamps:

When the filaments of these lamps are heated to high temperature, they emit light
that falls in the visible region of wavelength. Tungsten-filament lamps are operating
on this principle The chemically pure tungsten is very strong and fragile. In order
to make it into ductile, tungsten oxide is first reduced in the form of gray power in
the atmosphere of hydrogen and this powder is pressed in steel mold for small bars;
the mechanical strength of these bars can be improved by heating them to their
melting point and then hammered at red-hot position and re-

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rolled into wires.

Construction :
The construction of the pure tungsten filament incandescent lamp. It consists of an
evacuated glass bulb and an aluminum or brass cap is provided with two pins to
insert the bulb into the socket. The inner side of the bulb consists of a tungsten
filament and the support wires are made of molybdenum to hold the filament in
proper position. A glass button is provided in which the support wires are inserted.
A stem tube forms an air-tight seal around the filament whenever the glass is melted.

Operation:

When electric current is made to flow through the fine metallic tungsten filament,
its temperature increases. At very high temperature, the filament emits both heat
and light radiations, which fall in the visible region. The maximum temperature at
which the filament can be worked without oxidization is 2,000°C, i.e., beyond this
temperature, the tungsten filament blackens the inside of the bulb. The tungsten
filament lamps can be operated efficiently beyond 2,000°C, it can be attained by
inserting a small quantity of inert gas nitrogen with small quantity of organ. But if
gas is inserted instead of vacuum in the inner side of the bulb, the heat of the lamp
is conducted away and it reduces the efficiency of the lamp. To reduce this loss of
heat by conduction and convection, as far as possible, the filament should be so
wound that it takes very little space. This is achieved by using a single-coil filament
instead of a straight wire filament.
4 a) A 250 CP lamp is hung 4m above the center of a circular area of 6m diameter. [10M]
Calculate the illumination at the (i) Centre of area. (ii) Periphery of the area.
(iii) Average illumination

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b) Explain the various factors to be taken into account for designing schemes
for (i) Factory lighting (ii) Street lighting

Factory lighting:
In case of factory lighting,
1.The illumination should be adequate enough on the working plane
2.The distribution of light should also be good.
3.Simple and easy cleaned fittings should be employed.
4.The lighting should be made uniform and glare less as far as possible.
Street lighting:

Street lighting not only requires for shopping centers, promenades, etc.
but also necessary for the following:

1.In order to make the street more attractive, so that obstructions

on the road clearly visible to the drivers of vehicles.
2.To increase the community value of the street.
3.To clear the traffic easily in order to promote safety and
convenience.

5 A machine shop 40m×20m is to have an illumination of 160lux on working [5M]

plane. The lamps are mounted on 6m above the working plane. Give the
layout of a suitable installation.
a) Using filament lamp.
b) Using 50 watts fluorescent lamp. Assume necessary data.

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[5M]

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6 a) Write short notes on polar curves. [10M]

The luminous flux emitted by a source can be determined using the intensity
distribution curve. Till now we assumed that the luminous intensity or the candle
power from a source is distributed uniformly over the surrounding surface. But due
to its s not uniform in all directions. The luminous intensity or the distribution of
the light can be represented with the help of the polar curves. The polar curves are
drawn by taking luminous intensities in various directions at an equal angular
displacement in the sphere. A radial ordinate pointing in any particular direction on
a polar curve represents the luminous intensity of the source when it is viewed from
that direction. Accordingly, there are two different types of polar curves
and they are:
1.A curve is plotted between the candle power and the angular position, if the
luminous intensity, i.e., candle power is measured in the horizontal plane about
the vertical axis, called 'horizontal polar curve’.
2.curve is plotted between the candle power, if it is measured in the vertical
plane and the angular position is known as 'vertical polar curve’.

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b A filament lamp of 500W is suspended at a height of 4.5 m above the working

plane and gives uniform illumination over an area of 6 m diameter. Assuming
an efficiency of the reflector as 70% and efficiency of lamp as 0.8 watt per
candle power, determine the illumination on the working plane

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7 State the laws of illumination. Explain the laws with the help of suitable [10M]
diagrams and derive an equation of the same.

Inverse square law

This law states that ‘the illumination of a surface is inversely proportional to

the square

of distance between the surface and a point source’.

Proof:

Let, ‘S’ be a point source of luminous intensity ‘I’ candela, the luminous flux
1 2 3

emitting from source crossing the three parallel plates having areas A A ,
and A square meters, which are separated by a distances of d, 2d, and 3d
from the point source respectively as shown in Fig. below.

zz

Luminous flux reaching the area A = luminous intensity × solid angle

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Lambert's cosine law

This law states that ‘illumination, E at any point on a surface is directly

proportional to the cosine of the angle between the normal at that point and
the line of flux’.

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8 a A room measuring 30m×15m is to be illuminated by 10 lamps and the average

illumination is to be 85 lux. Determine the MSCP of each lamp if the utilization
and depreciation factors are 0.5 and 0.8 respectively
Given data,
Room Area A = 30x15 =450 m2
Average illumination E = 85 lux
Utilization factor UF = 0.5
Depreciation factor DF = 0.8
MSCP =?

𝐴𝑥𝐸 450𝑋50
Total lumens required = = = 56250 lumens
𝑈𝐹 𝑋𝐷𝐹 0.5𝑋0.8
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 56250
MSCP = = = 4478.5 candela
𝜔 4𝜋

b) Briefly explain the requirement of good lighting scheme [5M]

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In order to make a lighting scheme good, the following factors are to be considered
while planning the lighting scheme –
 Illumination Level
 Absence of Glare
 Uniformity of Illumination
 Contrast
 Color Rendering
 Shadows
Illumination Level
The visibility of the objects depends upon the level of illumination, i.e., the
magnitude of light falling over them and the light reflected by the objects. The
illumination level in turn depends upon the following factors −
 Size of the object – If the object is smaller in size, then greater is the level
of illumination required for its proper visibility and vice-versa.
 Distance between the light source and the object – If the distance between
the light source and the object, then level of illumination required will be
higher.
 Distance between the observer and the object – Smaller distance between
the observer and the object requires lower level of illumination and vice-
versa.
 Color of object – For the dark colored objects, the level of illumination
required will be higher.
 State of object – Stationary objects require lower level of illumination as
compared to the moving objects.
 Period of observation – Objects to be observed continuously for longer
period require a higher degree of illumination.

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Absence of Glare:
Glare is the sensation experienced by human eyes when some light rays enter the
eyes directly from a source of light. For example, car drivers use dipper at night
when facing other vehicles to avoid the glare.
Uniformity of Illumination:
The human eyes have to adjust its aperture depending upon level of illumination
within the field of vision. Therefore, it is also a requirement of a good lighting that
it should have uniformity of illumination.
Contrast:
The abrupt contrast in the lighting scheme should be avoided. When we go from
sunlight into a dark room, we require sufficient time to locate the things properly
inside the room. This is due to abrupt change in the contrast of the illuminated
surface. For this reason, a lighting scheme is said to be good only if it has no contrast
because it causes strain on the eyes.
Color Rendering:
The color of the incident light affects the appearance of color of the object.
Therefore, in a good lighting scheme, the composition of the light should be such
that the color of the object appears natural and makes no difference from that under
light.
Shadows:
The shadows play a vital role in the design of a lighting scheme. In case of industrial
lighting, the deep and dark shadows can be source of an accident. On the other hand,
the dull shadows are a necessity to give a three dimensional look to any solid object.
Therefore, long and hard shadows should be eliminated as they cause fatigue on
eyes.
9 a Explain with sketch the principle and operation of fluorescent lamp. [5M]

Working : At the time of starting, when both the lamp and the glow starters are cold,
the mercury is in the form of globules. When supply is switched on, the glow starter
terminals are open circuited and full supply voltage appeared across these terminals,
due to low resistance of electrodes and choke coil. The small quantity of argon gas
gets ionized, which establishes an arc with a starting glow. This glow warms up the
bimetallic strip thus glow starts gets short circuited. Hence, the two electrodes come
in series and are connected across the supply voltage. Now, the two electrodes get
heated and start emitting electrons due to the flow of current through them. These
electrons collide with the argon atoms present in the long tube discharge that takes
place through the argon gas. So, in the beginning, the lamp starts conduction with
argon gas as the temperature increases, the mercury changes into vapor form and
takes over the conduction of current.

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b Write short notes on incandescent lamp [10M]

Incandescent lamps

When the filaments of these lamps are heated to high temperature, they emit light
that falls in the visible region of wavelength. Tungsten-filament lamps are
operating on this principle
The chemically pure tungsten is very strong and fragile. In order to make it into
ductile, tungsten oxide is first reduced in the form of gray power in the
atmosphere of hydrogen and this
powder is pressed in steel mold for small bars; the mechanical strength of these
bars can be improved by heating them to their melting point and then hammered at
red-hot position and re-rolled into wires.

Construction :

The construction of the pure tungsten filament incandescent lamp. It consists of an

evacuated glass bulb and an aluminum or brass cap is provided with two pins to
insert the bulb into the socket. The inner side of the bulb consists of a tungsten
filament and the support wires are made of molybdenum to hold the filament in
proper position. A glass button is provided in which the support wires are inserted.
A stem tube forms an air-tight seal around the filament whenever the glass is
melted.

Operation

When electric current is made to flow through the fine metallic tungsten filament,
its temperature increases. At very high temperature, the filament emits both heat
and light radiations, which fall in the visible region. The maximum temperature at
which the filament can be worked without oxidization is 2,000°C, i.e., beyond this
temperature, the tungsten filament blackens the inside of the bulb. The tungsten
filament lamps can be operated efficiently beyond 2,000°C, it can be attained by
inserting a small quantity of inert gas nitrogen with small quantity of organ. But if
gas is inserted instead of vacuum in the inner side of the bulb, the heat of the lamp
is conducted away and it reduces the efficiency of the lamp. To reduce this loss of

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heat by conduction and convection, as far as possible, the filament should be so

wound that it takes very little space. This is achieved by using a single-coil
filament instead of a straight wire filament.

10 Write short notes on:

a) Define luminous flux.
b) Define Mean spherical candle power
c) Define lamp efficiency
d) Define space-height ratio
e) Define luminance.

luminous flux:

Luminous flux is a measure of the power of visible light produced by a light source
or light fitting. It is measured in lumens (lm)

Mean spherical candle power:

It is defined as the mean of the candle powers in all directions and in all planes
from the source of light.

lamp efficiency:

It is defined as the ratio of energy radiated in the form of light, produces sensation
of vision to the total energy radiated out by the luminous body. Lamp efficiency
is measured in lumen/watt.

space-height ratio:

Space to height ratio is the ratio of space between luminaires (S) to their height
above the working plane (Hm).

Luminance:

Luminance is a photometric measure of the luminous intensity per unit area of light
travelling in a given direction. It describes the amount of light that passes through,
is emitted from, or is reflected from a particular area, and falls within a given solid
angle.

UNIT - II
ELECTRICAL HEATING

1 a) Briefly discuss the method of Dielectric heating. [8M]

When non-metallic materials i.e., insulators such as wood, plastics, and china glass
are subjected to high-voltage alternating electric field, the atoms get stresses, and
due to interatomic friction caused by the repeated deformation and the rotation of
atomic structure (polarization), heat is
produced. This is known as dielectric loss. This dielectric loss in insulators

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corresponds to hysteresis loss in ferro-magnetic materials. This loss is due to the

Reversal of magnetism or magneto molecular friction. These losses developed in a
material that has to be heated.
An atom of any material is neutral, since the central positive charge is equals to
the negative charge. So that, the centers of positive and negative charges coincide
as long as there is no external field is applied, as shown in Fig. (a). When this atom
is subjected to the influence of the
electric field, the positive charge of the nucleus is acted upon by some force in the
direction of negative charges in the opposite direction. Therefore, the effective
centers of both positive and negative charges no longer coincident as shown in Fig.
(b).
The electric charge of an atom equivalent to Fig.(b) is shown in Fig. (c).

This gives raise to an electric dipole moment equal to P = q d, where d is the

distance between the two centers and q is the charge on the nucleus.
Now, the atom is said to be polarized atom. If we apply alternating voltage across
the capacitor plate, we will get alternating electric field.
Electric dipoles will also try to change their orientation according to the direction of
the impressed electric field. In doing so, some energy will be wasted as inter-atomic
friction, which is called dielectric loss.

As there is no perfect conductor, so there is no perfect insulator. All the dielectric

materials can be represented by a parallel combination of a leakage resistor ‘R’ and
a capacitor ‘C’ as shown in Fig. 4.15 (a) and (b).

If an AC voltage is applied across a piece of insulator, an electric current flows;

total current‘I’ supposed to be made up of two components IC and IR, where IC is the
capacitive current leading the applied voltage by 90° and IR is in phase with applied
voltage as shown in Fig. 4.15(c).

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b) Briefly discuss the applications of resistance heating. [2M]

The major applications of the resistance heating are as −

 Drying
 Baking of potteries
 Commercial and domestic cooking
 Heat treatment of metals such as hardening, annealing, etc.

2 a) Describe direct core type furnace with neat sketch. [5M]

Direct core type induction furnace
The core type furnace is essentially a transformer in which the charge to be
heated forms single-
turn secondary circuit and is magnetically coupled to the primary by an iron
core as shown
in Fig. 4.10.

The furnace consists of a circular hearth in the form of a trough, which

contains the charge to
be melted in the form of an annular ring. This type of furnace has the
following characteristics:
o This metal ring is quite large in diameter and is magnetically
interlinked with primary winding, which is energized from an AC source.
The magnetic coupling between primary and secondary is very weak; it
results in high leakage reactance and low pf. To overcome the increase in
leakage reactance, the furnace should be operated at low frequency of the
order of 10 Hz.
o When there is no molten metal in the hearth, the secondary becomes
open circuited thereby cutting of secondary current. Hence, to start the
furnace, the molten metal has to be taken in the hearth to keep the
secondary as short circuit.

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o Furnace is operating at normal frequency, which causes turbulence

and severe stirring action in the molten metal to avoid this difficulty, it is
also necessary to operate the furnace at low frequency.
o In order to obtain low-frequency supply, separate motor-generator
set (or) frequency changer is to be provided, which involves the extra
cost.
o The crucible used for the charge is of odd shape and inconvenient
from the metallurgical viewpoint.
o If current density exceeds about 500 A/cm2 , it will produce high-
electromagnetic forces in the molten metal and hence adjacent molecules
repel each other, as they are in the same direction. The repulsion may
cause the interruption of secondary circuit (formation of bubbles and
voids); this effect is known as pinch effect.
b) Explain application of induction heating. [5M]

The induction heating is used in the following applications −

 1.Inductive heating is used for surface heating, melting and soldering, etc.
 2.Inductive heating is also used for heating of liquid conductors and gaseous
conductors.
 3.In semiconductor industries, the inductive heating is used for heating of
silicon.
 4.Inductive heating is used in inductive furnaces for heating the metals to
their melting point.
 5.The induction stoves used in kitchen works on the principle of inductive
heating.
 6.As the induction heating is contactless heating process. Therefore,
induction heating is used in vacuum furnaces for making specialized steel
and alloys that would get oxidized when heated in the presence of oxygen.
 7.The induction heating is used in plastic injection modeling machines.
 8.The induction heating is also used for tamper resistant cap sealing on
bottles and pharmaceuticals.
 9.Induction heating is used for welding of metals and sometimes plastics
when they are doped with ferromagnetic ceramics.

3 a) What are the different types of heating? Write advantages of electric [5M]
heating.
Heat can be generated by passing the current through a resistance or induced
currents. The initiation of an arc between two electrodes also develops heat.
The bombardment by some heat energy particles such as α, γ, β, and x-rays
or accelerating ion can produce heat on a surface.

Electric heating can be broadly classified as follows.

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Advantages:
The various advantages of electric heating over other the types of heating are:
1.Economical
2.cleanliness
3.Pollution free
4.ease of control
5.uniform heating
6.High efficiency
7.Automatic Protection
8. Heating of non-conducting materials
9. Better working conditions
10. Less floor area
11. High temperature
12.safety
b) A low frequency induction furnace whose secondary voltage is [5M]
maintained constant at 10 volts, takes 400 kW at 0.6 pf, when the hearth
is full. Assuming the resistance of the secondary to vary inversely as the
height of the charge and reactance to remain constant, height up to
which the hearth should be filled to obtain maximum heat.

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4 a) Discuss briefly about induction heating process. [5M]

The induction heating process makes use of the currents induced by the
electromagnetic action in the material to be heated. To develop sufficient
amount of heat, the resistance of the material must be low, which is possible
only with the metals, and the voltage must be higher, which can be obtained
by employing higher flux and higher frequency. Therefore, the magnetic
materials can be heated than non-magnetic materials due to their high
permeability.
In order to analyze the factors affecting induction heating, let us consider
a circular disc to be heated carrying a current of ‘I’ amps at a frequency ‘f’
Hz. As shown in Fig. below

If the charge to be heated is non-magnetic, then the heat developed is due to

eddy current loss, whereas if it is magnetic material, there will be hysteresis
loss in addition to eddy current loss. Both hysteresis and eddy current loss
are depended upon frequency, but at high-frequency hysteresis, loss is very
small as compared to eddy currents.
The depth of penetration of induced currents into the disc is given by:

where ρ is the specific resistance in Ω-cm, f is the frequency in Hz, and μ is

the permeability of
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the charge.

b) A slab of insulating material 150 sq cm in area and 1 cm thick is to be heated

by dielectric heating. The power required is 400 W at 30 × 10 6 cps. Materials
has permittivity of 5 and power factor of 0.05. Determine voltage necessary.

5 a) Explain with a neat sketch the principle of coreless type induction [7M]
furnace.
It is a simple furnace with the absence core is shown in Fig. 4.13. In this
furnace, heat developed in the charge due to eddy currents flowing through
it.
The furnace consists of a refractory or ceramic crucible cylindrical in
shape enclosed within a coil that forms primary of the transformer. The
furnace also contains a conducting or non-conducting container that acts as
secondary.

If the container is made up of conducting material, charge can be

conducting or non-conducting; whereas, if the container is made up of non-
conducting material, charge taken should have conducting properties.

When primary coils are excited by an alternating source, the flux set up by
these coils induce the eddy currents in the charge. The direction of the
resultant eddy current is in a direction opposite to the current in the primary
coil. These currents heat the charge to melting point and they also set up
electromagnetic forces that produce a stirring action to the charge.
∴ The eddy currents developed in any magnetic circuit are given as:
We ∝ Bm 2f2,

where Bm is the maximum flux density (tesla), f is the frequency in (Hz), and
We is the eddy current loss (watts).

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Fig. 4.13 Coreless induction furnace

In coreless furnace, the flux density will be low as there is no core. Hence,
the primary supply should have high frequency for compensating the low
flux density.

If it is operating at high frequency, due to the skin effect, it results copper

loss, thereby increasing the temperature of the primary winding. This
necessitates in artificial cooling. The coil, therefore, is made of hollow copper
tube through which cold water is circulated.
Minimum stray magnetic field is maintained when designing coreless
furnace, otherwise there will be considerable eddy current loss.
The selection of a suitable frequency of the primary current can be given
by penetration formula. According to this:

where ‘t’ is the thickness up to which current in the metal has penetrated, ‘ρ’
is the resistivity in Ω-cm,'μ’ is the permeability of the material, and ‘f’ is the
frequency in Hz.
For the efficient operation, the ratio of the diameter of the charge (d) to the
depth of the penetration of currents (t) should be more than ‘6’, therefore let
us take:

b) What are the causes of failure of heating element? [3M]

 Age: Over time, the heating elements will degrade and become less effective.
It is because they are constantly exposed to high temperatures. The heat will
cause the heating elements to expand and contract, which will eventually lead
to cracking and breaking.

 Build-up of Scale: The most common cause of failure is due to a build-up of
scale on the heating element. This happens when water vapor in the air
condenses on the element and then hardens, forming a layer of scale. This
scale insulates the heating element and prevents it from transferring heat
properly.

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 Corrosion: This can happen when the element is exposed to chemically-

active substances like chlorine or sulphur. Corrosion will damage the heating
element and prevent it from working properly.

 Oxidation: Over time, the heating element can oxidize. This happens when
the metal of the heating element reacts with oxygen in the air. Oxidation will
damage the heating element and make it less effective.

 Poor Maintenance: Lack of proper maintenance is another common cause
of heating element failure. If the heating element is not cleaned and lubricated
regularly, it can become clogged with dirt and debris, causing them to
overheat and eventually break down.

 Wear and Tear: With normal use, heating elements will eventually wear
out. It is due to the repeated heating and cooling cycles that the element goes
through. Eventually, the heating element will degrade and fail.

6 a) Explain the working of Ajax Wyatt vertical core furnace with a neat [5M]
sketch.

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It is an improvement over the direct core type furnace, to overcome some of

the disadvantages mentioned above. This type of furnace consists of a vertical
core instead of horizontal core as
shown in Fig. 4.11. It is also known as Ajax–Wyatt induction furnace.

Fig. 4.11 Vertical core type furnace (Ajax–Wyatt induction furnace)

Vertical core avoids the pinch effect due to the weight of the charge in the
main body of the crucible. The leakage reactance is comparatively low and
the power factor is high as the magnetic coupling is high compared to direct
core type.
There is a tendency of molten metal to accumulate at the bottom that keeps
the secondary completed for a vertical core type furnace as it consists of
narrow V-shaped channel.
The inside layer of furnace is lined depending upon the type charge used.
Clay lining is used for yellow brass and an alloy of magnesia and alumina is
used for red brass.
The top surface of the furnace is covered with insulating material, which
can be removed for admitting the charge. Necessary hydraulic arrangements
are usually made for tilting the furnace to take out the molten metal. Even
though it is having complicated construction, it is operating at power factor
of the order of 0.8–0.83. This furnace is normally used for the melting and
refining of brass and non-ferrous metals.
b) Explain the principle of Induction heating. What are the applications of [5M]
Induction heating.
Principle of induction heating:

The induction heating process makes use of the currents induced by the
electromagnetic action in the material to be heated. To develop sufficient
amount of heat, the resistance of the material must be low, which is possible
only with the metals, and the voltage must be higher, which can be obtained
by employing higher flux and higher frequency. Therefore, the magnetic
materials can be heated than non-magnetic materials due to their high
permeability.
In order to analyze the factors affecting induction heating, let us consider a

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circular disc to be heated carrying a current of ‘I’ amps at a frequency ‘f’ Hz.

If the charge to be heated is non-magnetic, then the heat developed is due to

eddy current loss, whereas if it is magnetic material, there will be hysteresis
loss in addition to eddy current loss. Both hysteresis and eddy current loss
are depended upon frequency, but at high-frequency hysteresis, loss is very
small as compared to eddy currents.

Applications of induction Heating:

 Inductive heating is used for surface heating, melting and soldering, etc.
 Inductive heating is also used for heating of liquid conductors and gaseous
conductors.
 In semiconductor industries, the inductive heating is used for heating of
silicon.
 Inductive heating is used in inductive furnaces for heating the metals to their
melting point.
 The induction stoves used in kitchen works on the principle of inductive
heating.
 As the induction heating is contactless heating process. Therefore, induction
heating is used in vacuum furnaces for making specialized steel and alloys
that would get oxidized when heated in the presence of oxygen.
 The induction heating is used in plastic injection modeling machines.
 The induction heating is also used for tamper resistant cap sealing on bottles
and pharmaceuticals.
 Induction heating is used for welding of metals and sometimes plastics when
they are doped with ferromagnetic ceramics.

7 a) Describe Indirect core type furnace with neat sketch. [5M]

This type of furnace is used for providing heat treatment to metal. A simple
induction furnace with the absence of core is shown in Fig. 4.12.

Fig. 4.12 Indirect core type furnace

The secondary winding itself forms the walls of the container or furnace
and an iron core links both primary and secondary windings.

The heat produced in the secondary winding is transmitted to the charge

by radiation. An oven of this type is in direct competition with ordinary
resistance oven.
It consists of a magnetic circuit AB is made up of a special alloy and is
kept inside the chamber of the furnace. This magnetic circuit loses its
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magnetic properties at certain temperature and regains them again when it is

cooled to the same temperature.
When the oven reaches to critical temperature, the reluctance of the
magnetic circuit increases many times and the inductive effect decreases
thereby cutting off the supply heat. Thus, the temperature of the furnace can
be effectively controlled. The magnetic circuit ‘AB’ is detachable type that
can be replaced by the other magnetic circuits having critical temperatures
ranging between 400°C and 1,000°C. The furnace operates at a pf of around
0.8.

The main advantage of such furnace is wide variation of temperature

control is possible.
b) Briefly discuss the applications of Dielectric heating? [5M]

1.Preheating of Plastic Preforms:

The raw material in the form of tablets or biscuits, commonly called plastic
preforms, is required to be heated uniformly before putting them into the hot
moulds so that whole mass becomes fluid at a time, otherwise if the raw
material is put directly into the moulds, usually heated by steam, the outer
skin of the preforms will become hot and start curing while the core of the
material has not reached fluid temperature resulting in unequal hardening of
the plastic and improper filling of moulds corners. Difficulty arises due to the
fact that plastic raw material once cured cannot be softened again
satisfactorily. Any method of heating depending upon conduction of heat
from surface to the core would miserably fail because plastic is bad conductor
of heat. Dielectric heating is the only method which can be used for
preheating of plastic preforms to proper temperature uniformly.

2.Baking of Foundary Cores:

In foundaries resin type thermosetting binders are employed as they set
almost instantaneously when brought to polymerizing temperature. The
dielectric heating evaporates water rapidly from the core mix and at the same
time raises the temperature of the core material to polymerization point.
Hence dielectric heating is most suitable for baking foundary cores mixed
with thermosetting resin type core binders.

3.Diathermy:

Dielectric heating is also employed for heating tissues and bones of the body
required for the treatment of certain types of pains and diseases.

4. Sterlization: The dielectric heating is quite suitable for sterilization of

bandages, absorbent cotton, sterile gauge, instruments etc.

5. Textile Industry: In textile industry the dielectric heating is employed for

drying purposes.

6. Electronic Sewing: Nowadays rain coats, umbrellas, food containers,

medicine containers etc. are made from plastic film materials. In case of
ordinary stitching by thread they will be no longer water tight and also
become weak at seam. With adhesives curing times will be longer. In case of

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electronic sewing the films to be stitched are rolled in between cold rollers to
which radio-frequency voltage is applied. The heat produced in the material
seals it all along the line where mechanical pressure is applied. The cold
rollers prevent the outer surface of the films from being softened.

8 Discuss the principle, advantages and disadvantages of dielectric heating. [10M]

Principle of dielectric heating:

When non-metallic materials i.e., insulators such as wood, plastics, and china
glass are subjected to high-voltage alternating electric field, the atoms get
stresses, and due to interatomic friction caused by the repeated deformation
and the rotation of atomic structure (polarization), heat is
produced. This is known as dielectric loss. This dielectric loss in insulators
corresponds to hysteresis loss in ferro-magnetic materials. This loss is due to
the Reversal of magnetism or magneto molecular friction. These losses
developed in a material that has to be heated.

An atom of any material is neutral, since the central positive charge is

equals to the negative charge. So that, the centers of positive and negative
charges coincide as long as there is no external field is applied, as shown in
Fig. (a). When this atom is subjected to the influence of the
electric field, the positive charge of the nucleus is acted upon by some force
in the direction of negative charges in the opposite direction. Therefore, the
effective centers of both positive and negative charges no longer coincident
as shown in Fig. (b). The electric charge of an atom
equivalent to Fig.(b) is shown in Fig. (c).

This gives raise to an electric dipole moment equal to P = q d, where d is

the distance between
the two centers and q is the charge on the nucleus.

Now, the atom is said to be polarized atom. If we apply alternating voltage

across the capacitor plate, we will get alternating electric field.

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Electric dipoles will also try to change their orientation according to the
direction of the impressed electric field. In doing so, some energy will be
wasted as inter-atomic friction, which is called dielectric loss.

As there is no perfect conductor, so there is no perfect insulator. All the

dielectric materials can be represented by a parallel combination of a leakage
resistor ‘R’ and a capacitor ‘C’ as shown in Fig. 4.15 (a) and (b).

If an AC voltage is applied across a piece of insulator, an electric current

flows; total current ‘I’ supposed to be made up of two components IC and IR ,
where I C is the capacitive current leading the applied voltage by 90° and I R is
in phase with applied voltage as shown in Fig. 4.15(c).

where ‘V' is the applied voltage in volts, ‘f’ is the supply frequency in Hz, ɛ 0
is the absolute permittivity of the medium = 8.854 × 10 -12 F/m, ɛ r is the relative
permittivity of the medium = 1 for free space, A is the area of the plate or
electrode (m2), d is the thickness of the dielectric medium, and δ is the loss
angle in radian.

From Equation (4.14):

Normally frequency used for dielectric heating is in the range of 1–40 MHz
The use of high voltage is also limited due to the breakdown voltage of thin
dielectric that is to be heated, under normal conditions; the voltage gradient
used is limited to 18 kV/cm.
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Advantages:

1.If the material to be heated is homogeneous, and the alternating (or varying)
electric field is uniform, heat is developed uniformly and simultaneously
throughout the entire mass of the charge.
2.As materials heated by this process are non-conducting, so by other
methods heat cannot be conducted to inside so easily.

Disadvantages:

1. Since heat produced in dielectric heating very much depends upon the type
of material, the product size, the power density, etc., so we can heat only
those materials which have a high dielectric loss. It is not possible to heat a
transparent or reflective material by this method.
2. The cost of equipment required for dielectric heating is so high that we use
this method only where other methods are impracticable or too slow.
3. The overall efficiency of dielectric heating is very low (about 50%).
4. High frequencies may cause radio interference.

9 a) What are the disadvantages of direct core type induction furnace? [5M]

The direct core type induction furnace has the following main drawbacks −

 1.In case of direct core type induction furnace, the magnetic coupling
between the primary winding and the secondary winding is poor, which
results in high leakage reactance and hence the low power factor.

 2.The crucible used for holding the charge is of odd shape, which is not
convenient from the metallurgical point of view.

 3.As the direct core type induction furnace requires low primary frequency
as the normal supply frequency causes the turbulence of the charge.
Therefore, it requires either a motor-generator set or a frequency converter,
which increases the cost of the heating.

 4.There is pinching effect, i.e., formation of bubble and voids, in case of
direct core type induction heating.

 5.The direct core type induction furnace cannot function if its secondary
circuity is not closed. Thus, for starting the furnace, a complete ring of the
charge is formed around the core. Also, to start the furnace, an iron ring or a
lining of graphite may be placed in the crucible.

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b) Determine the amount of energy required to melt brass at the rate of

one ton per hour in a single-phase Ajax Wyatt furnace. Specific heat of
brass is 0.094 Kcal/ Kg/oC. Latent heat of fusion is 40 Kcal/Kg, initial
temperature is 24 oC, melting point of brass is 920 oC. Assume efficiency
to be 65 %.

10 Write short notes on: [2M]

a) Infrared heating [2M]
b) pinch effect in induction heating. [2M]
c) various modes of heat transfer. [2M]
d) advantages of coreless induction furnace [2M]
e) disadvantages of direct core type induction furnace

a) Infrared heating:

In this method of heating, the heat energy is transferred from source

(incandescent lamp) and
focused upon the body to be heated up in the form of electromagnetic
radiations. Normally, this
method is used for drying clothes in the textile industry and to dry the wet
paints on an object.

b) pinch effect in induction heating:

If current density exceeds about 500 A/cm2 , it will produce high-

electromagnetic forces in the molten metal and hence adjacent molecules
repel each other, as they are in the same direction. The repulsion may
cause the interruption of secondary circuit (formation of bubbles and
voids), this effect is known as pinch effect.

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c)various modes of heat transfer:

The transmission of the heat energy from one body to another because of the
temperature
gradient takes place by any of the following methods:

1. conduction,
2. convection, or
3. radiation.

Conduction

In this mode, the heat transfers from one part of substance to another part
without the movement in the molecules of substance. The rate of the
conduction of heat along the substance depends upon the temperature
gradient.

Convection

In this mode, the heat transfer takes place from one part to another part of
substance or fluid due to the actual motion of the molecules. The rate of
conduction of heat depends mainly on the difference in the fluid density at
different temperatures.

Radiation

In this mode, the heat transfers from source to the substance to be heated
without heating the
medium in between. It is dependent on surface.

d)Advantages of coreless induction furnace

Following are the advantages of coreless furnace over the other furnaces:
o Ease of control.
o Oxidation is reduced, as the time taken to reach the melting
temperature is less.
o The eddy currents in the charge itself results in automatic stirring.
o The cost is less for the erection and operation.
o It can be used for heating and melting.
o Any shape of crucible can be used.
o It is suitable for intermittent operation.

e) Disadvantages of direct core type induction furnace

The disadvantages of direct core type induction furnaces are as follows:

1.high leakage reactance.
2.Low effect
3.Pimch effect

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4.odd crucible shape.

UNIT – III

ELECTRIC WELDING

1 a) Write briefly about flash welding. [5M]

Flash Welding:

Flash butt welding is a combination of resistance, arc, and pressure welding. This
method of welding is mainly used in the production welding. A simple flash butt
welding arrangement is shown in Fig. below.

In this method of welding, the two pieces to be welded are brought very nearer
to each other under light mechanical pressure. These two pieces are placed in a
conducting movable clamp. When high current is passed through the two metal
pieces and they are separated by some distance, then arc established between
them. This arc or flashing is allowed till the ends of the workpieces reach melting
temperature, the supply will be switched off and the pieces are rapidly brought
together under light pressure. As the pieces are moved together, the fused metal
and slag come out of the joint making a good solid joint.

b) Differentiate between A.C and D.C welding. [5M]

S.N A.C. Welding D.C.Welding
o
1. Motor generator set or rectifier is Only transformer is required.
required in case of the availability
of AC supply.
2. The cost of the equipment is high. The cost of the equipment is low.
3. Arc stability is more. Arc stability is less.
4. The heat produced is uniform. The heat produced is non uniform.
5. Both bare and coated electrodes Only coated electrodes should be
can be used used.
6. The operating power factor is The power factor is low. So, the
high. capacitors are necessary to improve
the power factor.
7. It is safer since no load voltage is It is dangerous since no load voltage
low. is high.

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8. The electric energy consumption The electrical energy consumption is

is 5–10 kWh/kg of deposited 3–4 kWh/kg of deposited metal.
metal.
9. The efficiency is low due to the The efficiency is high due to the
rotating parts. absence of rotating parts.
2 a) Briefly discuss the welding electrodes of various metals. [5M]
A welder needs an electrode to generate an electric current to do arc welding. In
welding, an electric current is conducted through an electrode which is used to
join the parent metals.

Basically, depending upon the process there are two types of welding electrodes:
1. 1.Consumable Electrodes
2. 2.Non-Consumable Electrodes
3.
Consumable electrodes have low melting point. These types of welding
electrodes are preferred to use in Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding. For making
consumable electrodes, materials such as mild steel and nickel steel are used.
Consumable electrodes are Bare Electrodes, Coated Electrode
These types of welding electrodes are also referred to as Refractory electrodes.
There are again two sub-types of non-consumable electrodes: Carbon or Graphite
electrodes ad Tungsten electrodes.

b) Explain briefly the arc welding process. [5M]

Electric arc welding is the process of joining two metallic pieces or melting of
metal is obtained due to the heat developed by an arc struck between an electrode
and the metal to be welded or between the two electrodes as shown in Fig. below

In this process, an electric arc is produced by bringing two conductors

(electrode and metal piece) connected to a suitable source of electric current,
momentarily in contact and then separated by a small gap, arc blows due to the
ionization and give intense heat.

The heat so developed is utilized to melt the part of workpiece and filler metal
and thus forms the weld.
In this method of welding, no mechanical pressure is employed; therefore, this
type of welding is also known as 'non-pressure welding’.

The length of the arc required for welding depends upon the following factors:
o The surface coating and the type of electrodes used.
o The position of welding.

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o The amount of current used.

When the supply is given across the conductors separated by some distance apart,
the air gap present between the two conductors gets ionized, as the arc welding
is in progress, the ionization of the arc path and its surrounding area increases.
This increase in ionization decreases the resistance of the path. Thus, current
increases with the decrease in voltage of arc. This V-I characteristic of an arc is
shown in Fig. (b), it also known as negative resistance characteristics of an arc.
Thus, it will be seen that this decrease in resistance with increase in current does
not remain the arc steadily. This difficulty cab be avoided, with the supply, it
should fall rapidly with the increase in the current so that any further increase in
the current is restricted.

For the arc welding, the temperature of the arc should be 3,500°C. At this
temperature, mechanical pressure for melting is not required. Both AC and DC
can be used in the arc welding.
Usually 70–100 V on AC supply and 50–60 V on DC supply system is sufficient
to struck the arc in the air gap between the electrodes. Once the arc is struck, 20–
30 V is only required to maintain it.
However, in certain cases, there is any danger of electric shock to the operator,
low voltage should be used for the welding purpose. Thus, DC arc welding of
low voltage is generally preferred.

Electric arc welding is extensively used for the joining of metal parts, the repair
of fractured casting, and the fillings by the deposition of new metal on base metal,
etc.

Various types of electric arc welding are:

1. Carbon arc welding.
2. Metal arc welding.
3. Atomic hydrogen arc welding.
4. Inert gas metal arc welding.
5. Submerged arc welding.

3 Explain the different methods of electric welding and their relative [10M]
advantages.
Welding:
It is defined as the process of joining two metal pieces, in which the
electrical energy is used to generate heat at the point of welding in
order to melt the joint.
Methods of welding:
The classification of welding process is shown in fig below.

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Advantages:

Some of the advantages of welding are:

o Welding is the most economical method to permanently
join two metal parts.
o It provides design flexibility.
o Welding equipment is not so costly.
o It joins all the commercial metals.
o Both similar and dissimilar metals can be joined by
welding.
o Portable welding equipment are available.
4 Discuss about the techniques used for arc welding. [10M]
Various types of electric arc welding are:
1. Carbon arc welding.
2. Metal arc welding.
3. Atomic hydrogen arc welding.
4. Inert gas metal arc welding.

Carbon arc welding:

It is one of the processes of arc welding in which arc is struck between two carbon
electrodes or the carbon electrode and the base metal. The simple arrangement of
the carbon arc welding is shown in Fig.

In this process of welding, the electrodes are placed in an electrode holder used
as negative electrode and the base metal being welded as positive. Unless, the
electrode is negative relative to the work, due to high temperature, there is a
tendency of the particles of carbon will fuse and mix up with the base metal,
which causes brittleness; DC is preferred for carbon arc welding since there is no
fixed polarity maintained in case of AC.
In the carbon arc welding, carbon or graphite rods are used as electrode. Due
to longer life and low resistance, graphite electrodes are used, and thus capable
of conducting more current. The arc produced between electrode and base metal;
heat the metal to the melting temperature, on the negative electrode is 3,200°C
and on the positive electrode is 3,900°C.
This process of welding is normally employed where addition of filler metal is

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not required. The carbon arc is easy to maintain, and also the length of the arc can
be easily varied. One major problem with carbon arc is its instability which can
be overcome by using an inductor in the electrode of 2.5-cm diameter and with
the current of about of 500–800 A employed to deposit large amount of filler
metal on the base metal.
Filler metal and flux may not be used depending upon the type of joint and
material to be welded.
Metal arc welding
In metal arc welding, the electrodes used must be of the same metal as that of the
work-piece to be welded. The electrode itself forms the filler metal. An electric
arc is stuck by bringing the electrode connected to a suitable source of electric
current, momentarily in contract with the workpieces to be welded and withdrawn
apart. The circuit diagram for the metal arc welding is shown in Fig. below

The arc produced between the workpiece and the electrode results high
temperature of the order of about 2,400°C at negative metal electrode and
2,600°C at positive base metal or workpiece.
This high temperature of the arc melts the metal as well as the tip of the
electrode, then the electrode melts and deposited over the surface of the
workpiece, forms complete weld.
Both AC and DC can be used for the metal arc welding. The voltage required
for the DC metal arc welding is about 50–60 V and for the AC metal arc welding
is about 80–90 V
In order to maintain the voltage drop across the arc less than 13 V, the arc
length should be kept as small as possible, otherwise the weld will be brittle. The
current required for the welding varies from 10 to 500 A depending upon the type
of work to be welded.
The main disadvantage in the DC metal arc welding is the presence of arc blow,
i.e., distortionof arc stream from the intended path due to the magnetic forces of
the non-uniform magnetic field with AC arc blow is completely reduced.

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Atomic Hydrogen arc welding

Inert gas arc welding

5 Describe with a neat sketch the various methods of electric resistance

welding.
Depending upon the method of weld obtained and the type of electrodes used, the
resistance welding is classified as:
1. Spot welding.
2. Seam welding.
3. Projection welding.
4. Butt welding.
(i) Spot welding

Spot welding means the joining of two metal sheets and fusing them together
between copper electrode tips at suitably spaced intervals by means of heavy
electric current passed through the electrodes as shown in Fig. 5.3.

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This type of joint formed by the spot welding provides mechanical strength
and not air or water tight, for such welding it is necessary to localize the welding
current and to apply sufficient pressure on the sheet to be welded. The electrodes
are made up of copper or copper alloy and are water cooled. The welding current
varies widely depending upon the thickness and composition of the plates. It
varies from 1,000 to 10,000 A, and voltage between the electrodes is usually less
than 2 V. The period of the flow of current varies widely depending upon the
thickness of sheets to be joined. A step-down transformer is used to reduce a high-
voltage and low-current supply to low-voltage and high-current supply required.
Since the heat developed being proportional to the product of welding time and
square of the current. Good weld can be obtained by low currents for longer
duration and high currents for shorter duration; longer welding time usually
produces stronger weld but it involves high energy expenditure, electrode
maintenance, and lot of distortion of workpiece.

(ii) Seam welding

Seam welding is nothing but the series of continuous spot welding. If number
spots obtained by spot welding are placed very closely that they can overlap, it
gives rise to seam welding.
In this welding, continuous spot welds can be formed by using wheel type or
roller electrodes instead of tipped electrodes as shown in Fig. 5.5.

Seam welding is obtained by keeping the job under electrodes. When these
wheel type
electrodes travel over the metal pieces which are under pressure, the current
passing between them heats the two metal pieces to the plastic state and results
into continuous spot welds. In this welding, the contact area of electrodes should
be small, which will localize the current pressure to the welding point. After
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forming weld at one point, the weld so obtained can be cooled by splashing water
over the job by using cooling jets.
Seam welding is very important, as it provides leak proof joints. It is usually
employed in welding of pressure tanks, transformers, condensers, evaporators,
air craft tanks, refrigerators, varnish containers, etc.

(iii) Projection welding

It is a modified form of the spot welding. In the projection welding, both current
and pressure are localized to the welding points as in the spot welding. But the
only difference in the projection welding is the high mechanical pressure applied
on the metal pieces to be welded, after the formation of weld. The electrodes used
for such welding are flat metal plates known as platens.
The two pieces of base metal to be weld are held together in between the two
platens, one is movable and the other is fixed, as shown in Fig. 5.7.

One of the two pieces of metal is run through a machine that makes the bumps
or projections of required shape and size in the metal. As current flows through
the two metal parts to be welded, which heat up and melt. These weld points soon
reach the plastic state, and the projection touches the metal then force applied by
the two flat electrodes forms the complete weld.

The projection welding needs no protective atmosphere as in the spot welding

to produce successful results. This welding process reduces the amount of current
and pressure in order to join two metal surfaces, so that there is less chance of
distortion of the surrounding areas of the weld zone. Due to this reason, it has
been incorporated into many manufacturing process.

(iv) Butt welding

Butt welding is similar to the spot welding; however, the only difference is, in
butt welding, instead of electrodes the metal parts that are to be joined or butted
together are connected to the supply.
The three basic types of the butt-welding process are:
a) Upset butt welding.
b) Flash butt welding.

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a) Upset butt welding

In upset welding, the two metal parts to be welded are joined end to end and are
connected across the secondary of a welding transformer as shown in Fig. 5.8.

Due to the contact resistance of the metals to be welded, heating effect is

generated in this welding. When current is made to flow through the two
electrodes, heat will develop due to the contact resistance of the two pieces and
then melts. By applying high mechanical pressure either manually or by toggle
mechanism, the two metal pieces are pressed. When jaw-type electrodes are used
that introduce the high currents without treating any hot spot on the job.

This type of welding is usually employed for welding of rods, pipes, and wires
and for joining metal parts end to end.

(b) Flash butt welding

Flash butt welding is a combination of resistance, arc, and pressure welding. This
method of welding is mainly used in the production welding. A simple flash butt
welding arrangement is shown in Fig. 5.9.

In this method of welding, the two pieces to be welded are brought very nearer
to each other under light mechanical pressure. These two pieces are placed in a
conducting movable clamp.
When high current is passed through the two metal pieces and they are separated

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by some distance, then arc established between them. This arc or flashing is
allowed till the ends of the workpieces reach melting temperature, the supply will
be switched off and the pieces are rapidly brought together under light pressure.
As the pieces are moved together, the fused metal and slag come out of the joint
making a good solid joint.

6 a) Explain about metal arc welding, carbon arc welding methods with [5M]
necessary illustrations.
Carbon arc welding
It is one of the processes of arc welding in which arc is struck between two carbon
electrodes or the carbon electrode and the base metal. The simple arrangement of
the carbon arc welding is shown in Fig.

In this process of welding, the electrodes are placed in an electrode holder used
as negative electrode and the base metal being welded as positive. Unless, the
electrode is negative relative to the work, due to high temperature, there is a
tendency of the particles of carbon will fuse and mix up with the base metal,
which causes brittleness; DC is preferred for carbon arc welding since there is no
fixed polarity maintained in case of AC.
In the carbon arc welding, carbon or graphite rods are used as electrode. Due
to longer life and low resistance, graphite electrodes are used, and thus capable
of conducting more current. The arc produced between electrode and base metal;
heat the metal to the melting temperature, on the negative electrode is 3,200°C
and on the positive electrode is 3,900°C.
This process of welding is normally employed where addition of filler metal is
not required. The carbon arc is easy to maintain, and also the length of the arc can
be easily varied. One major problem with carbon arc is its instability which can
be overcome by using an inductor in the electrode of 2.5-cm diameter and with
the current of about of 500–800 A employed to deposit large amount of filler
metal on the base metal.
Filler metal and flux may not be used depending upon the type of joint and
material to be welded.
Metal arc welding

In metal arc welding, the electrodes used must be of the same metal as that of the

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work-piece to be welded. The electrode itself forms the filler metal. An electric
arc is stuck by bringing the electrode connected to a suitable source of electric
current, momentarily in contract with the workpieces to be welded and withdrawn
apart. The circuit diagram for the metal arc welding is
shown in Fig. below

The arc produced between the workpiece and the electrode results high
temperature of the order of about 2,400°C at negative metal electrode and
2,600°C at positive base metal or workpiece.
This high temperature of the arc melts the metal as well as the tip of the
electrode, then the electrode melts and deposited over the surface of the
workpiece, forms complete weld.
Both AC and DC can be used for the metal arc welding. The voltage required
for the DC metal arc welding is about 50–60 V and for the AC metal arc welding
is about 80–90 V
In order to maintain the voltage drop across the arc less than 13 V, the arc
length should be kept as small as possible, otherwise the weld will be brittle. The
current required for the welding varies from 10 to 500 A depending upon the type
of work to be welded.
The main disadvantage in the DC metal arc welding is the presence of arc blow,
i.e., distortionof arc stream from the intended path due to the magnetic forces of
the non-uniform magnetic field with AC arc blow is completely reduced.
b) What type of electric supply is suitable for electric arc welding? [5M]

Both AC and DC can be used in the arc welding. Usually, 70 – 100 V on AC

supply and 50 – 60 V on DC system is sufficient to strike the arc in the air gap
between the electrodes.
Once the arc is struck, 20 – 40 V is only required to maintain it. The current rating
is usually 50 – 1000 A.
Two types of rotating machinery are used that supply power for arc welding.
Generators produce direct current and Alternators provide alternating current.
The final supply type however, can be further transformed by suitable means to
meet requirements.
Electrode positive is ideal when deeper penetration is required while electrode
negative offers a faster rate of deposition. Since there is no constant fluctuation
in the direction of current flow, DC welding produces a more stable arc when

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welding.
7 Explain in detail about the following with respect to Welding: [10M]
i) Spot welding ii) Seam welding iii) Butt welding iv) projection welding

(i) Spot welding:

Spot welding means the joining of two metal sheets and fusing them together
between copper electrode tips at suitably spaced intervals by means of heavy
electric current passed through the Electrode.

This type of joint formed by the spot welding provides mechanical strength
and not air or water tight, for such welding it is necessary to localize the welding
current and to apply sufficient pressure on the sheet to be welded. The electrodes
are made up of copper or copper alloy and are water cooled. The welding current
varies widely depending upon the thickness and composition of the plates.
A step-down transformer is used to reduce a high-voltage and low-current supply
to low-voltage and high-current supply required. ince the heat developed being
proportional to the product of welding time and square of the current. Good weld
can be obtained by low currents for longer duration and high currents for shorter
duration.

ii) Seam welding :

Seam welding is nothing but the series of continuous spot welding. If number
spots obtained by spot welding are placed very closely that they can overlap, it
gives rise to seam welding. In this welding, continuous spot welds can be formed
by using wheel type or roller electrodes instead of tipped electrodes

Seam welding is obtained by keeping the job under electrodes. When these
wheel type electrodes travel over the metal pieces which are under pressure, the
current passing between them heats the two metal pieces to the plastic state and
results into continuous spot welds. In this welding, the contact area of electrodes
should be small, which will localize the current pressure to the welding point.
After forming weld at one point, the weld so obtained can be cooled by splashing
water over the job by using cooling jets.

Seam welding is very important, as it provides leak proof joints. It is usually

employed in welding of pressure tanks, transformers, condensers, evaporators,
air craft tanks, refrigerators,
varnish containers, etc.

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iii) Butt welding

Butt welding is similar to the spot welding; however, the only difference is, in
butt welding, instead of electrodes the metal parts that are to be joined or butted
together are connected to the supply.

(iv) Projection welding:

It is a modified form of the spot welding. In the projection welding, both current
and pressure are localized to the welding points as in the spot welding. But the
only difference in the projection welding is the high mechanical pressure applied
on the metal pieces to be welded, after the formation of weld. The electrodes used
for such welding are flat metal plates known as platens. The two pieces of base
metal to be weld are held together in between the two platens, one is movable and
the other is fixed.

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One of the two pieces of metal is run through a machine that makes the bumps
or projections of required shape and size in the metal. As current flows through
the two metal parts to be
welded, which heat up and melt. These weld points soon reach the plastic state,
and the projection touches the metal then force applied by the two flat electrodes
forms the complete
weld.
The projection welding needs no protective atmosphere as in the spot welding
to produce successful results. This welding process reduces the amount of current
and pressure in order to
join two metal surfaces, so that there is less chance of distortion of the
surrounding areas of the weld zone. Due to this reason, it has been incorporated
into many manufacturing process.

8 a) Write about various types of equipment used for electric welding. [6M]

The various equipment required for the electric arc welding (AC and DC) are
shown in the figure and described below.

Welding Machine:The welding machine used for electric arc welding can
either be an AC or DC welding machine.

AC Welding Machine: The AC arc welding machine has a step-down

transformer to reduce the input supply voltage of 220 V to 80 V.

DC Welding Machine: The DC arc welding machine commonly consists of

a motor-generator set. Where, the motor is a squirrel cage induction motor and
the generator is the differential compound DC generator to give drooping
characteristics.

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Electrode Holder: The electrode holder is the equipment used for holding the
electrode at a desired angle.
Leads or Cables: The cables or leads carry the electric current from the
welding machine to the work-piece. The cable used for welding process are
made of copper or aluminium and are flexible.
b) What are the advantages of using coated welding electrodes? [4M]
Advantages of Coated Electrodes
 Can be Used with AC Supply. ...
 Helps in Maintaining the Arc. ...
 Shielding the Molten Metal from Oxidization. ...
 Can be Used for High Welding Current. ...
 Prevents the Spattering of Metal. ...
 Overhead and Vertical Welding is Easy. ...
 Sudden Cooling of the Weld is Prevented.

9 a) What is the technique of weld metal deposition by electric arc? [5M]

In a basic arc welding process, the power supply is switched on, and the
electrode is brought near the base material.
Then, intense heat is generated to produce the electric arc.
The heat then melts the base metal, electrode core and flux coating. The flux
coating then provides a shielding environment to weld.

b) What are the qualities of a good weld? [5M]

The sign of a quality and secure weld is that you will not see the weld at all. If
there is any visible evidence of a weld, it will be in the form of a bead that has
no holes or cracks and is uniform overall. A high-quality weld is made using
high-quality materials.
 No cracks or holes found in the bead.
 The bead has uniform waves, width and height.
 The finished product satisfies the design dimensions and has almost no
distortion.
 The welding meets the required strength.

10 a) Write short notes on: [10M]

a) Welding transformer characteristics:

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b) Spot welding:
c)
Spot welding means the joining of two metal sheets and fusing them together
between copper electrode tips at suitably spaced intervals by means of heavy
electric current passed through the Electrode.

d) arc stability :
e)
A stable arc has three main features: a constant shape of droplets, constant length
of arc, and low amount of spatter. When welding with a short arc, there can be a
lack of fusion and the deposition rate is low.

f) arc welding accessories:

g)
o Welding gloves, aprons and helmets, dust masks, extraction systems and
other safety equipment.
o chipping hammers and wire brushes.
o Gas nozzles and contact tips for MIG/MAG welding.
o Tungsten rods for TIG/GTAW welding.
o Abrasive discs for angle grinders.
o Electrodes for resistance spot welding.

h) Advantages of resistance welding:

The advantage of Resistance welding is its high operation speed, high volume,
low cost and the elimination of filler material in every welds.

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UNIT - IV
ELECTROLYSIS

1 a) What is electrolysis? Give advantages of using this processing method. [5M]

Electrolysis is a technique that uses direct current (DC) power to power chemical
reactions that are not otherwise spontaneous.
Cations are reduced at the cathode and anions are oxidized at the anode.
Explanation:
Advantages of electrolysis:
 1. Electrolysis is used to permanently remove facial hair from the body.
 2. This electrolysis is an effective way to remove hair compared to creams, ointments,
waxes, and medicines.
 3 .Electrolysis is cheaper than other methods and the results are
 generally permanent.
 4. The electrolyte used protects the metal from corrosion and rust.
 5. Electrolysis makes metals attractive and gives them an expensive look.
 6. Many of the useful substances are produced by the electrolysis process.
 7.Chlorine can be produced by electrolyzing a solution of salt. Hydrogen is also
produced by the electrolysis of water.
 8. Heavy water such as deuterium oxide used in nuclear reactors is
 also produced by electrolysis of water.
 9. Electrolysis is a safe and effective way to remove hair.
 10.Electrolysis of a metal solution yields pure metal. Impurities
 from the metal are removed by electrolysis.
 Some metals such as silver, copper, lead, zinc and nickel are refined or refined by an
electrolytic refining process

b) Explain the widely used areas of electrolysis. [5M]

Electrolysis, as stated above, is a process of converting the ions of a compound in a
liquid state into their reduced or oxidized state by passing an electric current through
the compound. Thus, electrolysis finds many applications, both in experimental and
industrial products. Some of the important ones are given below:

1) Determination of equivalent weight of substances.

2) Metallurgy of alkali and alkaline earth metals.
3) Purification of metals.
4) Manufacture of pure gases.
5) Manufacture of compounds like sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, potassium
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chlorate etc.
6) Electroplating for corrosion resistance, ornaments etc.

2 Discuss the various applications of electrolysis in detail. [10M]

Determination of Equivalent Weight of Substances

We know Faraday’s second law states that the mass of substances deposited is
proportional to their equivalent weight. The mass of any deposited substance can be,
mathematically related as:

M1/E1=M2/E2
The equivalent mass of an unknown metal or substance can be calculated by passing a
known current through the solutions and determining the mass of substances (M1 and
M2) deposited in their respective cells. If the equivalent mass of one substance is
known, the equivalent mass of the unknown substance can be calculated from the above
equation.

Electrolysis of Molten Salts

Metallurgy of alkali and alkaline earth and third group metals ores of metal is
concentrated and converted mostly to oxides. Oxides are reduced with reducing agents
such as carbon, aluminium etc. Since alkali and alkali earth metals have the largest
reduction potentials, any other metals or their compounds cannot reduce them.

The only way of isolation of alkali and alkali earth metals is to directly electrolyze their
molten chlorides. Mixing with other halides, like calcium chlorides, reduces the melting
point of pure halides.

Electrorefining – Purification of Metals

Metals obtained after concentration and reduction of ores have a purity of about 90-
99%. An aqueous solution of the metal salt with the impure metal as the anode and the
pure metal as the cathode is electrolyzed. The pure metal of more than 99% purity
deposits on the cathode, and the impurities are collected at the bottom as mud. Copper
and nickel are some examples of the metal purified by electrorefining.

Electroplating
An object can be coated to the required thickness with a select metal by electrolysis.
The object to be coated is made of the cathode. An aqueous solution of the metal salt
to be coated is the electrolyte. The same metal or any inert metal can be the anode. In
electrolysis, metal ion from the electrolyte deposit on the object. The loss of metal ions
in the solution will be compensated if the same metal made the anode.

The deposition can be used to protect the metal from corrosion for making ornaments,
etc. Coating iron with metals like zinc, lead, chromium, and nickel improves the
corrosion resistance of iron. Gold and silver coating on cheaper metals is used for
making ornaments.

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It is also used in electrochemical machining (ECM). Here, an electrolytic cathode is

used as a shaped tool for removing material by anodic oxidation from a workpiece.
ECM technique is often used for deburring or for putting a permanent mark or logo on
metal surfaces like tools or knives.

Electro-forming
Electroforming is a process of making a replica of objects using electrolysis. The object
to be replicated is pressed in wax to make a mould. Graphite powder is coated
uniformly to make it conductive. This is used as a cathode, and the salt of the metal to
be deposited is taken as the electrolyte. After getting the required coating by
electrolysis, the wax and the graphite are melted away.

Manufacture of Pure Gases

Aqueous salts on hydrolysis yield different products depending on the relative
concentrations of salt and water. Electrolysis of concentrated brine (sodium chloride)
forms pure hydrogen and chlorine gases. Pure chlorine gas is collected in the Chlor -
alkali industries by the electrolysis of brine aqueous solution.

Pure hydrogen and oxygen are obtained by hydrolysis of water in the presence of acid
or base or inert salt of alkali and alkaline earth metals. The percentage of hydrogen for
commercial use is manufactured by the electrolysis of water worldwide.

Continuous electrolysis of water removes all the normal hydrogen isotopes leaving the
deuterium ions. The deuterium oxide leftover after electrolysis of normal water is
‘heavy water’. Heavy water is used as a moderator in nuclear reactors producing
electrical energy from nuclear reactions.

Manufacture of Compounds
Compounds like sodium hydroxide, sodium hydrosulphite, potassium permanganate,
potassium chlorate, ammonium per-sulphate, heavy wateretc., are manufactured by
electrolysis. Sodium hydroxide is a side product in the chloralkali industries, preparing
chlorine gas by the electrolysis of brine.

Potassium permanganate is obtained by the electrolysis of potassium manganite

solution. Ammonium sulphate or ammonium bisulphate on electrolysis forms
ammonium persulphate.

Electrocrystallization

This is a specialised application of electrolysis. In this process, conductive crystals are

grown on one of the electrodes from oxidized or reduced species that are generated in
situ. This technique is popularly used to manufacture single crystals of low-dimensional
electrical conductors, such as linear chain compounds or charge-transfer salts.

3. a) Discuss about the process of electro plating. [5M]

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Figure- 1,

Figure- 1, schematically illustrates a simple electrochemical plating system. The

―electro‖ part of the system includes the voltage/current source and the electrodes,
anode and cathode, immersed in the ―chemical‖ part of the system, the electrolyte or
plating bath, with the circuit being completed by the flow of ions from the plating
bath to the electrodes. The metal to be deposited may be the anode and be ionized and
go into solution in the electrolyte, or come from the composition of the plating bath.
Copper, tin, silver and nickel metal usually comes from anodes, while gold salts are
usually added to the plating bath in a controlled process to maintain the composition
of the bath. The plating bath generally contains other ions to facilitate current flow
between the electrodes. The deposition of metal takes place at the cathode. The
overall plating process occurs in the following sequence:
1. Power supply pumps electrons into the cathode.

2. An electron from the cathode transfers to a positively charged metal ion in the
solution and the reduced metal plates onto the cathode.

3. Ionic conduction through the plating bath completes the circuit to the anode.

4. At the anode two different processes take place depending on whether the anode
material is soluble, the source of the metal to be plated, or insoluble, inert. If the
anode material is soluble, a metal atom gives up an electron and goes into the solution
as a positively charged metal ion replenishing the metal content of the plating bath. If
the anode is inert a negatively charged ion from the plating bath gives up an electron
to the anode.
5. The electron flows from the anode to the power supply completing the circuit. The
deposition of metal at the cathode requires an electron so the rate of deposition Fig-1.
Electrochemical Plating depends on the flow of electrons, that is, the current flowing
from the rectifier. The thickness of the deposit, therefore, depends on the current and
the length of time the current is applied. This relationship is a result of Faraday‘s law
which relates the weight of a substance produced by an anode or cathode electrode
reaction during electrolysis as being directly proportional to the quantity of electricity
passed through the cell.

b) Discuss about Faraday’s laws of electrolytic process. [5M]

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Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis

From his experiments, Faraday deduced two fundamental laws which govern the
phenomenon of electrolysis. These are:
(i) First Law. The mass of ions liberated at an electrode is directly proportional
to the quantity of electricity i.e. charge which passes through the electrolyte.
Or
The weight of a substance liberated from an electrolyte in a given time is
proportional to the quantity of electricity passing through the electrolyte.
(i.e) W α Q α It , where I is the current and t is the time.

W = Zit
Where Z is a constant called electro-chemical equivalent.
If I = 1 ampere and T= one second then,
Z = W , which gives a definition of Z.
The electro-chemical equivalent of a substance is the amount of that
substance by weight liberated in unit time by unit current.

(ii) Second Law:

The masses of ions of different substances liberated by the same quantity of
electricity are proportional to their chemical equivalent weights.
or,
If the same current flows through several electrolytes, the weights of ions
liberated are proportional to their chemical equivalents. The chemical
equivalent of a substance is the weight of the substance which can displace
or combine with unit weight of hydrogen .Obviously, the chemical
equivalent of hydrogen is 1 by definition.
4. Describe briefly the process of electrolysis and power supply for electrolysis. [10M]
Electrolytic Process
Definition of Electrolysis
An electrolyte is such a chemical that's atoms are normally closely bonded together
but when it is dissolved in water, its molecules split up into positive and negative
ions. The positively charged ions are referred as cations whereas negatively charged
ions are referred as anions. Both cations and anions move freely in the solution.
Principle of Electrolysis As discussed in the definition of electrolyte, whenever any
electrolyte gets dissolved in water, its molecules split into cations and anions moving
freely in the electrolytic solution. Now two metal rods are immersed in the solution
and an electrical potential difference applied between the rods externally preferably
by a battery. These partly immersed rods are technically referred as electrodes. The
electrode connected with negative terminal of the battery is known as cathode and the
electrode connected with positive terminal of the battery is known as anode. The
freely moving positively charged cations are attracted by cathode and negatively
charged anions are attracted by anode. In cathode, the positive cations take electrons
from negative cathode and in anode, negative anions give electrons to the positive
anode. For continually taking and giving electrons in cathode and anode respectively,

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there must be flow of electrons in the external circuit of the electrolytic. That means,
electric current continues to circulate around the closed loop created by battery,
electrolytic and electrodes. This is the most basic principle of electrolysis

Electrolysis of Copper Sulfate Whenever copper sulfate or CuSO4 is added to water, it

gets dissolved in the water. As the CuSO4 is an electrolyte, it splits into Cu+ + (cation)
and SO4 − − (anion) ions and move freely in the solution. Now if two copper electrodes
are immersed in that solution, the Cu+ + ions (cation) will be attracted towards cathode
i.e. the electrode connected to the negative terminal of the battery. On reaching on the
cathode, each Cu+ + ion will take electrons from it and becomes neutral copper atoms.
Similarly the SO4 − − (anion) ions will be attracted by anode i.e. the electrode
connected to the positive terminal of the battery. So SO4 − − ions will move towards
anode where they give up two electrons and become SO4 radical but since SO4 radical
can not exist in the electrical neutral state, it will attack copper anode and will form
copper sulfate. If during electrolysis of copper sulfate, we use carbon electrode instead
of copper or other metal electrodes, then electrolysis reactions will be little bit different.
Actually SO4 can not react with carbon and in this case the SO4 will react with water
of the solution and will form sulfuric acid and liberate oxygen.

The process described above is known as electrolysis. In the above process, after taking
electrons the neutral copper atoms get deposited on the cathode. At the same time,
SO4reacts with copper anode and becomes CuSO4 but in water it cannot exist as single
molecules instead of that CuSO4 will split into Cu++, SO4 − − and dissolve in water.
So, it can be concluded that, during electrolysis of copper sulfate with copper
electrodes, copper is deposited on cathode and same amount of copper is removed from
anode.

5. It is required, to repair a worn-out circular shaft 15 cm in diameter and 32 cm [10M]

long bv coating it with a layer of 1.6 mm of nickel. Determine the theoretical
quantity of electricity required and the time taken if the current density used is
210 A/m2. Electrochemical equivalent of nickel is 30.4x10 -8 Kg/C of electricity and
density of nickel is 8.9 x103 Kg/m3 .

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6. a) Explain the factors on which quality of electrodeposition depends. [5M]

Factors Affecting the Quality of Electrodeposition

The factors on which the quality of electrodeposition depends are described below.

Nature of Electrolyte

The nature of electrolyte used in the electrodeposition process greatly affects the
formation of smooth deposit. A smooth deposit can be provided by employing the
electrolyte from which complex ions can be obtained.

Current Density

The process of electrodeposition depends upon the rate at which crystals grow and the
rate at which fresh nuclei are formed. Therefore, the deposit of metal will be uniform
and fine grained if the current density is used at the rate higher than at which the nuclei
are formed.

The deposition will be strong and porous if the rate of nuclei formation is very high due
to very high current density.

Conductivity

The electrolytic solution of good conductivity provides economy in power consumption

and also reduces the tendency to form tress and rough deposits.

Temperature of Solution

The low temperature of the electrolytic solution results in the formation of small crystal
of metal while the high temperature causes the formation of large crystals.

In addition, the high temperature gives the following beneficial results −

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 Increased conductivity,
 Increased solubility of slats,
 Decreased occlusion of hydrogen in the deposit metal, etc.

Electrolytic Concentration

The increased concentration of electrolyte results in higher current density. Thus, by

increasing the electrolytic concentration, a uniform and fine-grain deposit can be
obtained.

Polarization

As we know, the rate of metal deposition increases with the increase in current density
up to a certain limit after which electrolyte surrounding the base metal becomes so
much depleted of metal ions that the further increase in the current density does not
cause increase in rate of deposition. The use of current density beyond this limit results
in the electrolysis of water and liberation of hydrogen on the cathode. This liberated
hydrogen on the cathode blankets the base metal that reduces the rate of metal
deposition. This phenomenon is known as polarization.

The polarization can be reduced by reversing the current at regular intervals.

Addition of Agents

The addition of acids or other substances to the electrolyte decreases the resistance of
the electrolytic solution. Also, some additional agents like gums, dextrose, etc.
influence the nature of the deposit. The nuclei of the crystal absorb the additional agents
added in the electrolyte. This prevents its large growth and hence the deposition will
be fine grained.

Throwing Power

Throwing power is the ability of the electrolyte to produce uniform deposit on an article
of irregular shape. As the distance between the various potions of the cathode and anode
will be different because of irregular shape of the cathode. Therefore, it is necessary
that the electrolyte should have relatively better throwing power so that uniform deposit
can be produced.

The throwing power of an electrolyte can be increased in two ways as −

 By increasing the distance between the anode and cathode.

 By reducing the voltage drop at the cathode surface.
b) Explain the terms used in electrolytic processes: [5M]
(i) Current efficiency (ii) Energy efficiency
Current Efficiency

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On account of the impurities which cause secondary reactions, the quantity of a

substance liberated is less than that calculated from faraday‘s Law. Current efficiency
is the ratio of the actual mass of a substance liberated from an electrolyte by the passage
of current to the theoretical mass liberated according to Faraday's law. Current
efficiency can be used in measuring electro deposition thickness on materials in
electrolysis. Current efficiency is also known as faradic efficiency, faradic yield and
columbic efficiency.
Energy Efficiency

On account of secondary reactions, the voltage actually required for the deposition or
liberation of metal is higher than the theoretical value which increases the actual energy
required.
It is a process by which a metal is deposited over another metal or non-metal. Electro-
plating is a very common example of such process.
7. Calculate the thickness of copper deposited on a plate area of 2.2 cm2 during [10M]
electrolysis if a current of 1 A is passed. for 90 minutes. E.C.E. of copper = 32.95
x 10-8 kg/C and density of copper is 8900 Kg/m3.

8. a) Explain Electrodeposition of rubber in detail. [5M]

Electrolysis is also employed for electro-deposition of rubber. The rubber latex obtained
from the tree consists of very fine colloidal particles of rubber suspended in water. These
particles of rubber are negatively charged. On electrolysis of the solution, these rubber
particles move towards the anode and deposit on it.

In the form in which we commonly meet it, rubber is a remarkably resilient

solid, distinguished also by high electrical-insulating properties ; therefore at first sight
it is not a very promising material for an electrochemical process. But rubber
originally appears in nature as latex, a milky or rather a creamy fluid that exudes from
the inner bark of certain plants or trees when they are cut. Usually the latex is collected
in open vessels and crude rubber is coagulated from this by a process that resembles
somewhat the curdling of milk. The curd or coagulum is washed and sheeted
mechanically at the plantations and is then exported in bales.

Fresh latex is an unstable material that rapidly undergoes a series of chemical and
physical changes that lead to coagulation unless this is overcome by preservatives such

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as ammonium. Due to the fact that the chief rubber roducing plants are tropic growth
scientific investigation has been made only recently on the properties of latex If rubber
is to be deposited on metal as a permanent covering, or if metal anodes are used for
forming rubber products, a choice of various metals that behave differently as electrodes
in rubber deposition can be exercised among three classes of metals, which are listed.
Zinc is the most satisfactory metal, and the most promising procedure that has been
developed is to give other metals a preliminary zinc-coating. Satisfactory adhesion of
rubber to metal has been secured, and this opens a large and valuable field for the
process.

b) What are the various operations involved in electroplating. [5M]

9. a) Explain about Electro-polishing. [5M]

b) What are the objectives of electroplating. [5M]

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10. Calculate the quantity of aluminum produced from aluminium oxide in 24 hours [10M]
if the average current is 2800 A and. current efficiency is 95 per cent.
Aluminiurn is trivalent and atomic weight is 27. The chemical equivalent weight
and E.C.E of sliver are 107.98 and 111x10 -8 Kg/C respectively.

UNIT - V
ELECTRIC TRACTION

1 a) Compare A.C traction with D.C traction. [5M]

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Comparison between A.C and D.C Traction:

S.No D.C Traction A.C Traction

1. In D.C traction, d.c series motor In A.C trains, starting and running
develop more starting and running torque developed by a.c motor of
torque and are capable of giving same size less and hence
high acceleration and retardation. acceleration and retardation.
2. Number of speeds obtained by d.c Number of speeds obtained are
motor is limited except by chopper many by tap changing method.
method.
3. D.C Series motor are cheap, lighter A.C motors are somewhat
and more efficient. expensive and less efficient.
4. In case of d.c, the overhead In case of a.c, the overhead
distribution is lighter and less costly distribution is heavy and thus
as the losses. expensive.
5. D.C system produces less A.C system produces more
interference with communication interference with communication
lines. lines.
6. For a given length of track, the For a given length of track, the
number of substations required is number of substations required is
more as the voltage above less as the voltage above
prescribed. prescribed.
7. D.C motors requires less A.C motors requires less
maintenance. maintenance.

b) Explain about the different methods of electric braking systems in the case of [5M]
traction.
Electric braking can be applied to the traction vehicle, by any one of the following
methods,
namely:
1. Plugging.
2. Rheostatic braking.
3. Regenerative braking.

Plugging:

In this method of braking, the electric motor is reconnected to the supply in such a way
that it has to develop a torque in opposite direction to the movement of the rotor. Now,
the motor will decelerate until zero speed is zero and then accelerates in opposite
direction.
Immediately, it is necessary to disconnect the motor from the supply as soon as system
comes to rest. The main disadvantage of this method is that the kinetic energy of the

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rotating parts of the motor is wasted and an additional amount of energy from the supply
is required to develop the torque in reverse direction, i.e., in this method, the motor
should be connected to the supply during braking. This method can be applied to both
DC and AC motors.

Rheostatic braking:

During Rheostatic braking, motor is made to work as generator and all the kinetic
energy of the moving masses is converted into electrical energy which is dissipated in
resistance connected as electrical load.

Regenerative braking:

Regenerative braking is an energy recovery mechanism that slows down a moving

vehicle or object by converting its kinetic energy into a form that can be either used
immediately or stored until needed. In this mechanism, the electric traction motor uses
the vehicle's momentum to recover energy that would otherwise be lost to the brake
discs as heat. This method contrasts with conventional braking systems. In those
systems, the excess kinetic energy is converted to unwanted and wasted heat due to
friction in the brakes, or with rheostatic brakes, where the energy is recovered by using
electric motors as generators but is immediately dissipated as heat in resistors. In
addition to improving the overall efficiency of the vehicle, regeneration can
significantly extend the life of the braking system as the mechanical parts will not wear
out quickly.

2 Discuss the electrical features of a traction motor for effective traction systems [10M]
The Electrical features of a traction motor for effective traction system are:

1.High-starting torque
A traction motor must have high-starting torque, which is required to start the motor on
load during the starting conditions in urban and suburban services.
2.Speed control
The speed control of the traction motor must be simple and easy. This is necessary
for the frequent starting and stopping of the motor in traction purpose.
3.Dynamic and regenerative braking
Traction motors should be able to provide easy simple rheostatic and regenerative
braking subjected to higher voltages so that system must have the capability of
withstanding voltage fluctuations.
4.Temperature
The traction motor should have the capability of withstanding high temperatures during
transient conditions.
5.Overload capacity
The traction motor should have the capability of handling excessive overloads.
6.Parallel running
In traction work, a greater number of motors need to run in parallel to carry more load.
Therefore, the traction motor should have such speed–torque and current–torque
characteristics and those motors may share the total load almost equally.

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7.Commutation
Traction motor should have the feature of better commutation, to avoid the sparking at
the brushes and commutator segments.

3 a) What are the mechanical features of traction motors? [5M]

The mechanical features of traction motors are:

1. A traction motor must be mechanically strong and robust and it should be

capable of withstanding severe mechanical vibrations.
2. The traction motor should be completely enclosed type when placed beneath
the locomotive to protect against dirt, dust, mud, etc.
3. In overall dimensions, the traction motor must have small diameter, to arrange
easily beneath the motor coach.
4. A traction motor must have minimum weight so the weight of locomotive will
decrease. Hence, the load carrying capability of the motor will increase.

b) What are the requirements of ideal traction system? [5M]

The requirements of ideal traction systems are:
o Ideal traction system should have the capability of developing high tractive effort
in order to have rapid acceleration.
o The speed control of the traction motors should be easy.
o Vehicles should be able to run on any route, without interruption.
o Equipment required for traction system should be minimum with high efficiency.
o It must be free from smoke, ash, durt, etc.
o Regenerative braking should be possible and braking should be in such a way to cause
minimum wear on the break shoe.
o Locomotive should be self-contained and it must be capable of withstanding
overloads.
o Interference to the communication lines should be eliminated while the locomotive
running along the track.
4 a) How the electric traction system is classified? Briefly discuss. [5M]
Traction system is normally classified into two types based on the type of energy given
as input to drive the system and they are:

1. Non-electric traction system:

Traction system develops the necessary propelling torque, which do not involve the use
of electrical energy at any stage to drive the traction vehicle known as electric traction
system.
Ex: Direct steam engine drive and direct internal combustion engine drive.

2. Electric traction system:

Traction system develops the necessary propelling torque, which involves the use of
electrical energy at any stage to drive the traction vehicle, known as electric
traction system.

Based upon the type of sources used to feed electric supply for traction system, electric
traction may
be classified into two groups:
1. Self-contained locomotives.
2. Electric vehicle fed from the distribution networks.
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Self-contained locomotives:
In this type, the locomotives or vehicles themselves have a capability of generating
electrical energy for traction purpose. Examples for such type of locomotives are:

1. Steam electric drive

In steam electric locomotives, the steam turbine is employed for driving a generator
used to feed the electric motors. Such types of locomotives are not generally used for
traction because of some mechanical difficulties and maintenance problems.

2. Diesel electric trains

A few locomotives employing diesel engine coupled to DC generator used to feed the
electric motors producing necessary propelling torque. Diesel engine is a variable high-
speed type that feeds the self- or separately excited DC generator. The excitation for
generator can be supplied from any auxiliary devices and battery. Generally, this type
of traction system is suggested in the areas where coal and steam tractions are not
available.

Petrol electric traction

This system of traction is used in road vehicles such as heavy lorries and buses
These vehicles are capable of handling overloads. At the same time, this system
provides fine and smooth control so that they can run along roads without any jerking.
Battery drives In this drive, the locomotive consists of batteries used to supply power
to DC motors employed for driving the vehicle. This type of drives can be preferred for
frequently operated services such as local delivery goods traction in industrial works
and mines, etc. This is due to the unreliability of supply source to feed the
electric motors. Electric vehicles fed from distribution network Vehicles in electrical
traction system that receives power from over head distribution network fed or
substations with suitable spacing.

Battery drives
In this drive, the locomotive consists of batteries used to supply power to DC motors
employed for driving the vehicle. This type of drives can be preferred for frequently
operated services such as local delivery goods traction in industrial works and mines,
etc. This is due to the unreliability of supply source to feed the electric motors.

Electric vehicles fed from distribution network

Vehicles in electrical traction system that receives power from over head distribution
network fed or substations with suitable spacing. Based on the available supply, these
groups of vehicles are further subdivided into:

1. System operating with DC supply. Ex: tramways, trolley buses, and railways.
2. System operating with AC supply. Ex: railways.

b) A train has schedule speed of 30 km/hr over a level track distance between stations
being 1 km. Duration of stop is 20 sec. Assuming braking retardation of 3
km/hr/sec and maximum speed 25% greater than average speed, calculate
acceleration required to run the service.

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5 A train is to run between two stations 1.6 km apart at an average speed of 40 [10M]
kmph, the run is to be made to a quadrilateral N-T curve. Maximum speed is to
be limited to 64 kmph, acceleration, to 2 kmphps, coasting retardation to 0.16, and
braking retardation to 3.2, Determine the duration of acceleration, coasting and
braking periods.

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6 a) Discuss the speed-time curves for urban service. [5M]

Speed–time curve for urban service:

The speed–time curve for urban service consists of three distinct periods. They are:
1.Acceleration.
2.Coasting.
3.Retardation.

 For this service, there is no free-running period. The coasting period is comparatively
longer since the distance between two stops is more. Braking or retardation period is
comparatively small.

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 It requires relatively high values of acceleration and retardation. Typical acceleration

and retardation values are lying between 1.5 and 4 kmphp and 3 and 4 kmphp,
respectively.
 The speed–time curve urban or city service is almost similar to suburban service and is
shown in Fig.

Fig: Typical speed–time curve for urban service

b) A sub urban electric train has a maximum speed of 70 km/hr. The schedule speed [5M]
including a station stop of 30 sec in 45 km/hr. If the acceleration is 1.5 km/hr/sec.
Find the value of retardation when the average distance between stops is 600 m.

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7 Describe how Plugging, Rheostatic braking and Regenerative braking are employed [10M]
with DC series motor
PLUGGING:

Plugging is nothing but reverse current braking. This method of braking can be applied
to both DC shunt and DC series motors by reversing either the current through armature
or the field winding in order to produce the torque in opposite direction, but not both.
The connection diagrams for both DC shunt and DC series motors during normal and
braking periods are given as follows.

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Fig: Plugging of DC series motor

where V is the supply voltage, E is the back emf, and R is the armature resistance.
Current flowing through the armature during braking period:

∴ Electric braking torque, T 𝖺 φ I .

But we know that:

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Substitute Equation (9.3) in Equation (9.2)

Where,

We know that, in case of series motor flux (φ) developed by the winding is depending
the current flowing through it.

2. RHEOSTATIC BRAKING:
The rheostatic braking can be applied to both DC shunt and DC series motors, by
disconnecting the armature from the supply and reconnecting it across and external
resistance. This is required to dissipate the kinetic energy of all rotating parts thereby
brining the motor to rest.

In this braking, which is applied to DC series motor, the armature is disconnected from
the supply and is reconnected across an external resistance ‘R’ shown in Fig.9.11 (a)
and (b). But, simply, it is not possible to develop the retarding torque by the DC series
motor after connecting armature across the resistance as DC shunt motor.

Fig. Rheostatic braking of DC series motor

In case of DC series motor, both the field and armature windings are connected
across the resistance after disconnecting the same from the supply; current directions
of both the field and armatures are reversed. This results in the production of torque in
same direction as before. So, in order to produce the braking torque only the direction
of current in the armature has to be reversed.

3. REGENERATIVE BRAKING:

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If one or more series motors are running in parallel, during the braking period, the field
windings, of all series motors, are connected across the supply in series with suitable
resistance.

The main advantage of this method is, all armatures are connected in parallel and
current supplied to one machine is sufficient to excite the field windings of all the
machines, and the energy supplied by remaining all the machines is fed back to the
supply system, during the braking period.

8 a) Discuss the speed-time curves for main line services. [5M]

Typical speed–time curve of a train running on main line service is shown in Fig. It
mainly consists of the following time periods:

1. Constant accelerating period.

2. Acceleration on speed curve.
3. Free-running period.
4. Coasting period.
5. Braking period.

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FIG: Speed–time curve for mainline service

Acceleration on speed-curve:

During the running period from T to T, the voltage across the motor remains constant
and the current starts decreasing, this is because cut out at the instant ‘T’.
Free-running or constant-speed period:

The train runs freely during the period T to T at the speed attained by the train at the
instant ‘T’. During this speed, the motor draws constant power from the supply lines.
This period is shown by the curve BC.

Coasting period:

This period is from T to T, i.e., from C to D. At the instant ‘T’ power supply to

the traction, the motor will be cut off and the speed falls on account of friction, windage
resistance, etc. During this period, the train runs due to the momentum attained at that
particular instant. The rate of the decrease of the speed during coasting period is known
as coasting retardation. Usually, it is denoted with the symbol ‘β’.
Braking period:

Braking period is from T to T, i.e., from D to E. At the end of the coasting period, i.e.,
at ‘T’ brakes are applied to bring the train to rest. During this period, the speed of the
train decreases rapidly and finally reduces to zero.

In main line service, the free-running period will be more, the starting and braking
periods are very negligible, since the distance between the stops for the main line
service is more than 10 km.
b) A train has schedule speed of 60 km/hr between the stops which are 6 km apart. [5M]
Determine the crest speed over the run assuming trapezoidal speed time curve. The
train accelerates at 2 km/hr/sec and retards at 3 km/hr/sec. Duration of stops is 60s.

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9 An electric train is to have acceleration and breaking retardation of 0.8 km/hr/sec [10M]
and 3.2 km/hr/sec respectively. If the ratio of maximum to average speed is 1.3 and
time for stop is 26 sec, find the schedule speed for a run of 1.5 km. Assume simplified
trapezoidal speed time curve.

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10 With the help of Speed-Time curve, define and explain the importance of following [10M]
factors in a traction system.
a) Notching period.
b) Free running period.
c) Coasting period.
d) Braking period.
e) Write any two advantages of electric traction system.
Speed-time curves are the most convenient means of studying the movement of trains
and their energy consumption.

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Notching period:

During the notching up period (0 to t0), the current to the motor is maintained
approximately constant and the voltage across the motor is gradually increased
by cutting out the starting resistance. Therefore, t he tractive effort is constant and
hence the acceleration remains constant during this period

b. Free running period:

At the end of speed curve running, i.e., at 𝑡2 , the train attains the maximum speed.
During this period, the train runs with constant speed attained at the time instant t 2
and constant power is drawn by the motor.

c. Coasting period:

At the end of speed curve running, i.e., at 𝑡2 , the train attains the maximum speed.
During this period, the train runs with constant speed attained at the time instant t 2
and constant power is drawn by the motor.

d. Braking period:

At the end of coasting period, i.e., at 𝑡4 , the brakes are applied to bring the train to
rest. During this period, the speed decreases rapidly and finally reach to zero.

Advantages of electric traction system:

o Electric traction system is cleaner and easier to handle.

o No need of storage of coal and water that in turn reduces the maintenance cost as
well as the saving of high-grade coal.

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o Electric energy drawn from the supply distribution system is sufficient to maintain
the common necessities of locomotives such as fans and lights; therefore, there is no
need of providing additional generators.

o The maintenance and running costs are comparatively low.

o The speed control of the electric motor is easy.

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