Introduction to Materials
VII. Failure of Materials
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Failure
Ductile Fracture:
(Fig.1)
The crack propagation involves high amount of energy
absorbtion The fracture surface is dull and microscopically dimple formation is seen.
Brittle Fracture: (Fig.2) No or very low energy absorbtion during fracture.
The fracture surface is flat and shiny
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
The transmission axe of a 4x4 vehicle
The half of a charpy impact specimen
Fig.7.1. Brittle Fracture
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
The half of a charpy impact specimen
Necking in a rectangular tensile test specimen
Fig.7.2. Ductile Fracture
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Fatigue Failures
Fatigue failures occur in materials subjected to cyclic loading. Cyclic loading amplitude can be even lower than the yield strength of the material. A small crack is nucleated on the tension side and propagates. Tensile stresses are needed to propagate a crack.
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Fatigue Failures
Micromechanisms of Fatigue: Crack nucleation can take place due to: 1. Formation of Slip Bands (Crystallographic Slip) 2. Inclusions or hard second phase particles (especially important for hardened alloys)
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Fatigue Failures
Animation.7.1. Single Amplitude Loading
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Fatigue Failures
Animation.7.2 Cyclic Loading on a Beam
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Factors Affecting Fatigue Life
Surface Irregularities: The Fatigue crack can propagate more easily, if the surface is irregular. The stress distribution just at the tip of the crack is high. (Fig.7.3) A scratch at the surface or a sharp corner act as stress concentration point. So, even the nominal stress 0 may be low, the stress max just at the tip of the crack may be very high. Also the crack length a and the crack tip radius effect the fatigue life. The large cracks (large a) and sharper cracks (smaller ) causes a higher max . So fatigue crack propagation become easy.
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Factors Affecting Fatigue Life
Fig.7.3. Notch effect
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Factors Affecting Fatigue Life
Tensile Strength: The Fatigue life of a component increase, with an increase in the Ultimate Tensile Strength (Fig.7.4) Therefore, high strength materials give higher fatigue strength. This is due to that the crack initiation by plastic deformation at the surface becomes more difficult. However, this relation is lost at very high strength values, because the surface imperfections become the limiting factor. No further increase is observed
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Factors Affecting Fatigue Life
Fig.7.4. The relation between UTS and Fatigue Life. Real data shows a scatter (due to surface imperfections)
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Fig.7.5. Initiation of a fatigue crack after a plastic deformation.
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Factors Affecting Fatigue Life
Surface Hardness: Improves the fatigue life: Cold Working Shot peening and cold working are advantageous (E.G. Cold threading of the bolts) Case Hardening Induction hardening, carburizing improves the fatigue life. Surface Softening Cladding, decarburization has an adverse effect
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Fig.7.6. Effect of strength on fatigue life.
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Factors Affecting Fatigue Life
As mentioned previously non-metallic inclusion stem from
steelmaking process. Steels having lower content of non-metallic inclusions are named as clean steels. Clean steels have better fatigue life (Figure.7.6b)
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Fig.7.6b. Effect of non-metallic inclusions on fatigue life.
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Creep
Tendency of a material to deform slowly under stress and high
temperature Deformation is permanent For materials, creep is observed at temperatures above 0,5Tm (Melting Temperature). The stages of creep can be divided into (Fig.4) 1. Primary Creep 2. Secondary Creep 3. Tertiary Creep
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Creep
Fig.7.7. Stages of a creep failure
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
The Mechanism of Creep
Creep starts with dislocation motion in elastic region
Grains slip on each other and form POROSITY at three-point
juctions (Fig.7.8) These porosities weaken the material and rupture takes place Creep is one of the events, where COARSE GRAINS are wanted
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Creep
Fig.7.8. The grain boundary slip at high temperatures and formation of porosity.
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Design for Creep Resistant Materials
Generally Ni based alloys are used.
Coarse grained materials. Microalloying to form grain boundary precipitates, which delay the
grain boundary sliding. Powder metallurgy products, with Al2O3 or Y2O5 oxide particle additions. For very critical parts single crystal superalloys
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Ductile to Brittle Transition Temperature
A sudden ductility loss is observed below a definite temperature.
This temperature is named as Ductile to Brittle Transition
Temperature (DBTT) Charpy impact testing is helpful in determining the DBTT As seen in Fig.7.9, metal starts to behave like a glass, below a definite temperature. No toughness left. In polymers, it is named as Glassy Transition Temperature Tg.
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Fig.7.9. The ductile to brittle temperature transformation of steels.
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Introduction to Materials
Ductile to Brittle Transition Temperature
DBTT is an important failure type for BCC
It is seen at cryogenic temperatures
Fig.7.10. The DBTT behaviour of FCC and BCC metals.
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Introduction to Materials
Design for Improved DBTT
Finer grained metals have lower DBTT
Lower amount of inclusions also improve (shift to lower
temperatures) the DBTT. Steels with lower carbon content has also a low DBTT. Steels with low amount of dissloved oxygen content has also a low DBTT.
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Fig.7.11a. The effect of dissolved oxygen on DBTT of steels.
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Fig.7.11b. The effect of sulphur content on DBTT of steels.
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Stress Corrosion Cracking
Cracks form in metal alloys under definite environmental conditions.
- All these factors must be present together: Residual Tensile Stress An environment
A susceptible material
- Austenitic stainless steels >>>in Cl environment - High strength steels >> Halide ions, nitric acid - Copper alloys >> NH3 containing solutions
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Stress Corrosion Cracking
Sources of stress: Residual stresses from manufacture (cold deformation, assembly, welding, solidification (casting)) In service: Residual stresses due to: Overloading, Thermal cycling.
Fig.7.12. A crack formed due to SCC.
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Hydrogen Embrittlement
Source of Hydrogen in steels:
During refining (precipitates upon solidification from supersaturated
concentrations) Acid cleaning (pickling) prior to coating etc. Electroplating Contact with water or other hydrogen-containing liquids or gases
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Hydrogen Embrittlement
The failure types caused by hydrogen: Hydrogen Embrittlement Hydrogen induced blistering (small bubble-like failures on the metal surface) Inner cracks in large sectioned steels.
It is especially a problem for high strength steels.
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
Introduction to Materials
Fig.7.13. Intergranular fracture in a steel failed due to HE. (during cadmium plating).
Prof.Dr. Bilgehan gel
