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Assignments / quizzes 30% Midterm exam 30% Final exam- 40%

By the end of this learning unit, students will be able to answer some basic questions about Forensic Chemistry:
What is Forensic Science? How is chemistry used in Forensic Science? What determines the value of each item of evidence? Is the analysis for each item of evidence the same? What type of information allows for an exclusive link?

Forensic Science: applies science principles, techniques, and methods to the investigation of crime. Role of forensic scientist
Analyse physical evidence in a crime laboratory and spend little time at the crime scene. Do not involve directly in solving the crimes.

Crime Scene Investigators/police - Collect evidence to solve the crime

Involvement of various individuals in an investigation

A large number of forensic scientists are chemists. Forensic chemists employ their knowledge of chemistry to analyze evidence such as fibers, paint, explosives, charred debris, drugs, glass, soil, documents, tool marks, and firearms. Forensic chemists also use their knowledge for toxicology (the study of poisons and their effects), fingerprints, footwear impressions, tire impressions, and hair analyses.
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Although many forensic analyses require the expertise of a chemist, chemistry is not the only discipline that contributes to the extremely vast and truly interdisciplinary field of forensic science. Other disciplines and professions contributing to the field include engineering, computer science, entomology, anthropology, pathology, physics, nursing, and psychology, among many others.

Historically, forensic scientists are generalists who would analyze all types of physical evidence. Forensic generalists are slowly being replaced by forensic specialists due to the ever-increasing complexity of the field of forensic science. Forensic chemistry, for example, is now a specialized field of forensic science. The forensic chemist does not typically analyze biological evidence or carry out DNA analyses. These analyses are typically performed by a forensic biologist.
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With the wide variety of evidence that may be analyzed by the forensic chemist, subspecialization is also quite common. It is not unusual for a forensic chemist to be given a subtitle such as firearms analyst, trace evidence analyst, fingerprint analyst, or drug chemist.

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Forensic chemists may also be given the title of criminalist. The branch of forensic science heavily enriched in chemistry and biology applications for the analysis of physical evidence. Criminalistics encompasses a broader area of forensic science than just forensic chemistry and includes most of the areas of forensic science practiced in a traditional crime laboratory.
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Introduction to Forensic Science: Basic Crime Lab

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Physical science unit: applies principles and techniques of chemistry, physics & geology to evidence evaluation; examinations of soil, drugs, glass, paint, explosives etc are examined Biology unit: applies principles and techniques to identify DNA for profiling, stains & body fluids, hair & fiber comparison, wood and plants

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Firearms unit: examination of firearms, discharged bullets, cartridge cases, shot gun shells, ammunitions, garments and other objects examined to detect discharge of residues etc. Document examination unit: handwriting and typewriting on questioned documents studied; analysis of paper & ink; erasures, obliterations, document charred or burned

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Photography: examine and record evidence; digital imaging, infrared, ultraviolet, and Xray photography techniques make invisible information visible; court room presentations

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Toxicology unit: body fluids & organs examined determine presence or absence of drugs & poisons often this is shared with the medical examiners or coroners office Latent fingerprint unit: examination of latent fingerprints submitted with other lab examinations Voiceprint analysis unit: cases involving telephone threats, tape-recorded messages may use to identify persons
Sound patterns are suppose to be unique to the person & and are captured on a voiceprint

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To analyze physical evidence, forensic chemistry draws on chemistry principles and concepts. Investigating the physical and chemical properties of a substance is central to forensic chemistry.

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Physical properties are properties of a substance that can be described or displayed without requiring a chemical change. For example, sulfur is yellow, cocaine is a white solid, and the density of a glass fragment broken from a windowpane at a crime scene is approximately 2.5 g/mL.

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Chemical properties are properties of a substance that can be described through a chemical change only. For example, a chemical property of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) is its reactivity with vinegar (acetic acid) to produce carbon dioxide bubbles

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Although the exact manner in which the physical and chemical properties are analyzed for each substance differs, the analyses are all based on the principles of the scientific method. The scientific method: The process of investigation involving observation and hypothesis testing.

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The scientific method begins with observations. Scientists attempt to organize observations and look for trends or patterns.

When the scientists find what appears to be a relationship among the observations, they suggest a hypothesis (an educated guess) that tentatively explains what is being observed.

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Forensic Chemistry: The scientific method

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An unknown substance is submitted to a crime laboratory, The forensic chemist will first observe the properties of the substance. She may notice that the substance is a crushed and dried green-leafy material.

Next, she will suggest a hypothesis as to the identity of the substance: The unknown substance is marijuana. This is an extremely crucial step because the analysis to be performed (the plan for testing the hypothesis) is different for each unknown substance.

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The chemist will then devise a plan to test the hypothesis: to view the substance under the microscope looking for properties of crushed marijuana leaves. If the microscopic observations validate the hypothesis, she will develop a subsequent plan to further validate the hypothesis: to react the marijuana leaves with DuquenoisLevine reagent to observe chemical properties. If the microscopic features do not validate the hypothesis, she will suggest and test an alternative hypothesis: The unknown substance is oregano.

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In chemistry, physical and chemical properties are used to characterize and distinguish one compound or element from another. In forensic chemistry, these properties aid in the identification, classification, and individualization of physical evidence.

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A plan is devised to test the hypothesis. The plan is carried out and further observations are made. If the new observations contradict the original hypothesis, a new hypothesis is suggested and tested. However, if the new observations validate the original hypothesis, the scientists often choose to devise a subsequent plan to further validate the hypothesis.
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After a police officer or investigator has collected evidence at a crime scene, some evidence may be brought to the crime lab for a forensic chemist to analyze. The chemist follows a specific process, based on the scientific method, for analyzing evidence.

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Samples collected from a crime scene and brought to the lab for analysis are called questioned samples because the identities and origins of those samples are unknown. In order to draw conclusions about the identity or origins of questioned samples, the forensic chemist will need known samples as a reference. A known sample might be collected as part of the evidencefor instance a hair sample collected from a suspect.
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Forensic analyses may be performed to

identify a questioned sample or compare a questioned sample to a known sample for the purpose of determining the source or origin of the sample (where it came from).

The results of such comparisons can link a questioned sample and several known samples either to a class of samples with several possible origins (classification) or to a single origin (individualization).
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When a questioned sample is submitted to a crime laboratory for analysis, the first task is identification. For example, if a white powder is submitted for analysis, the primary objective will be to determine its identity. If the powder is suspected of being a controlled substance, the forensic scientist will carry out a series of analyses to identify the powder
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Two types of analysis can be used to identify the substance: presumptive and confirmatory.

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Presumptive analyses look at chemical and physical properties that are not unique enough by themselves for identification but that provide enough information to narrow the search. For example, the forensic scientist may guess that the questioned sample is methamphetamine. A known chemical property of methamphetamine is that it will react with sodium nitroprusside in the presence of sodium bicarbonate and produce a very deep blue colored product.
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However, a number of similar compounds (all containing a nitrogen atom with one hydrogen atom and two attached carbon atoms) will also produce a deep blue-colored product. This analysis does not confirm that the substance is methamphetamine, but it does reduce the number of possibilities. Presumtive analyses are usually quick and inexpensive to perform. When presumptive analyses are negative, they exclude potential drug candidates; when they are positive, they direct the forensic scientist toward viable confirmatory analyses.
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Confirmatory analyses identify a questioned sample absolutely. These analyses use the unique chemical or physical properties of a substance for the purpose of identification.

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Typically, confirmatory analyses require more time and expense than presumptive analyses. These analyses often require the use of sophisticated chemical instrumentation to measure the unique properties that lead to identification.

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Thin layer chromatography (TLC)

Analysis of inks & drugs

Chromotography- sample cleanup & analyte isolation Confirmation of tentative identification

Infrared spectroscopy Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS)

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Many forensic analyses end with identification (for example, identifying an unknown substance as a drug, explosive, or accelerant used in arson), but some proceed on to comparison.

Comparative analyses are to link a questioned sample and a known sample to a common origin.
The origin may be broad, resulting in a classification, or exclusive, resulting in individualization.
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Class characteristics are properties of a substance that are shared by a group of substances, but are not unique to all substances of a single origin. They allow for the placing of a questioned sample into a class or group of several possible origins.

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For example, a class characteristic of hair is its color. If a questioned hair sample is brown, it could be determined that the hair originated from a person with brown hair. These properties are analogous to those used when conducting a presumptive test for the purpose of identification.
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Not only are class characteristics common to other substances, but they may also vary within a substance. A class characteristic that varies within a substance is called natural variation.

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Virtually all physical evidence has class characteristics. These characteristics are more common than individual characteristics. Many items of evidence, like hair, fiber, glass, soil, and paint, routinely only have class characteristics. In other words, classifications are more common than individualizations.
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The ability to exclude is a very powerful aspect of class characteristics. A comparative analysis excludes a questioned hair from originating from the suspects head, this information is just as important as individualizationthe suspect may be exonerated (set free of guilt). Individual characteristics are properties of a substance that are unique and can be used to establish origin.
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For example, if the brown hair sample contained enough DNA in its root for a DNA analysis, the DNA would be considered an individual characteristic that would exclusively link the hair sample to a single origin (person). Many items do not have individual characteristics, so investigators must rely on class characteristics.
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Scientific evidence can be described as: Ex. of inclusive evidence:

Inclusive Exclusive

Ex. of exclusive evidence:

Red fiber from a crime scene belonged to the same class as fibers from a suspects red nylon jacket The jacket is included in the population of items that could been the source of the fiber in question.

Fibers from the jacket have a different cross section that of the fiber found at the scene The jacket could not have been the source

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Direct evidence is known to a person by personal knowledge

Circumstantial evidence

Eyewitness testimony Such evidence, if found to be true, would prove a point in contention without requiring any additional analysis or inference

Evidence that requires inference to move logically from the information provided to the answer to a question Ex: if blood is found on a knife, but not directly on the suspect DNA typing showed that the blood matched that of a suspect to 1 person in 6 trillion

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The chain a paper form that tract evidence from its creation or collection to its final disposal. A Cradle-to-grave document that completely describes the history of a sample or an exhibit constituting evidence. A chain is initiated when the sample is collected or created and is updated each time the sample is transferred from one person to another. Maintenance of the chain is a fundamental responsibility of any forensic analyst.

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Analytical chemistry in the forensic field:

Forensic toxicology
Work with biological evidence Follow the trail of drugs and poisons ingested by human or other organism Often associated with death investigation

Forensic chemistry
Work with physical evidence Often employ in crime labs

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Deal with: Drugs Trace Fingerprints Firearms Arson

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Apply scientific disciplines to physical evidence A Forensic chemist

is a professional chemist who analyzes evidence that is brought in from crime scenes reaches a conclusion based on tests run on that piece of evidence to identify and characterize the evidence as part of the larger process of solving a crime. rarely conduct any investigative work; they handle the evidence collected from the crime scene Evidence may include hair samples, paint chips, glass fragments, or blood stains.

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Often need to give expert testimony in court must be able to give an impartial explanation to the jury that will assist in a final judgment forensic chemists analyze the evidence but do not determine the verdict.

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Be skilled in making conclusions regarding examined samples Be ready to defend their conclusions in the courtroom Able to speak in public in a high-pressure courtroom setting Able to answer objections to ones testimony

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Forensic chemist should be: Assuming nothing Be resourceful Think outside the box Be creative Know their limitation Be flexible Be persistent

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May conclude that an evidence object & a reference object show similar traits Must understand and communicate the limitations inherent in the conclusion limitations are a combined function of the nature of the traits the sensitivity and resolution of the detection methods the state of the evidence

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