Ray F. Evert • Susan E.

Eichhorn

Raven Biology of Plants

Eighth Edition
CHAPTER 4
The Movement of Substances
Into and out of Cells
Lecture presentation by Dr. Mohammad Brake
Jerash University

© 2013 W. H. Freeman and Company

CHAPTER OUTLINE
• Principles of Water movement
• Cells and Diffusion
• Osmosis and living Organisms
• Structure of cellular Membranes
• Transport of Solutes across Membranes
• Vesicle-Mediated Transport
• Cell-to-Cell Communication
Eukaryotic cells are:
1. Surrounded by plasma membrane
2. Have different membrane system(ER)
3. Their organelles are surrounded by membrane
4. These membranes are preamble barriers
5. These membranes regulate the amount, kind and direction of
substances that pass a cross their membranes.
The membrane permit:
•Differences in electrical voltage between the cell and the environment
•Differences in chemical concentration
The differences in electrical voltage and chemical concentration form a
potential energy that is essential to many cellular processes.
Water is the most important molecule found within and around the cell
Principles of water movement:
The movement of water, whether in living organisms or in the nonliving
world is governed by three basic processes:
1. Bulk Flow
2. Diffusion
3. Osmosis
Bulk flow:
Bulk flow is the overall movement of a liquid.
Bulk flow means the movement of water molecules together from one place to
another because of differences in potential energy (water potential).
Water potential: is the potential energy of water per unit volume relative to
pure water in reference conditions.
Potential energy: is energy stored within a physical system as a result of the
position.
Water moves from a region of higher water potential to one of lower water
potential, regardless of the reason for the difference in potential.
Reasons for difference in potential could be:
1- Gravity
2- pressure
The bulk flow generated by pressure inside the plant body is the predominant
mechanism responsible for the long-distance transport of food from the leaves
to the other parts of plant body thought phloem.
Water potential is usually measured in terms of the pressure required to stop
the movement of water and the units used are bar and megapascal (MPa).
Megapascal=10 bars
Water potential of pure water =0
Water potential of aqueous solution of a substance= negative value, because
a higher solute concentration results in lower water potential.
Diffusion:
Results in the uniform distribution of a substance
Example:
Drop of dye in tank of water:
The dye molecule will slowly become distributed throughout the tank,
the distribution process in influenced by:
1- Size of the tank
2- Temperature
3- Size of dye molecule
Why do the dye molecules move a part?
The molecules move from the region of higher concentration to the
region of lower concentration.
After the equal distribution of molecules in tank, the molecules still
moves but no net direction
Such movement called (down or along concentration gradient).
Concentration gradient: is the concentration difference of a substance
per unit distance.
Substances moves from the region of lower concentration to region of
higher concentration would be moving against a concentration gradient.
Diffusion is more rapid in gas than in liquid?
Diffusion is more rapid at higher than lower temperature
The movement of dye and water molecules continues until equilibrium
reached?
1- Dye moves
2-water moves
The concept of water potential is also useful in understanding diffusion:
In dye drop: high concentration of dye molecules and low concentration
of water molecules (lower water potential).
Water molecules moves down concentration gradient
Water molecules moves from region of higher water potential to the
region of low water potential .
The essential characteristics of diffusion are:
1- Each molecule moves independently of the other
2- These movements are at random
Diffusion: the dispersion of substances by a movement of their ions or
molecules, which tends to equalize their concentrations throughout the
system.
Cells and diffusion:
Small molecules (water) diffuse freely across the plasma membrane
(openings in the lipid of plasma membrane).
The permeability rate depends on the size of molecules because the
openings are small.
Diffusion is the principle way in which substances move within cells and
the transport of materials is speeded up by active streaming of the
cytoplasm.
Efficient diffusion requires a sharp concentration gradient which means:
1- Short distance
2- A high concentration difference: cell maintain such gradients by their
metabolic activities
e.g: in nonphotosynthesizing cell
O2 is used up within the cell almost as rapidly as it enters
Maintaining a sharp (steep) gradient from outside to inside.
osmosis:
Osmosis Is the movement of water across selectivity permeable
membrane.
Selectivity permeable membranes are: membranes that permit the passage
of some substances while inhibiting the passage of others.
The movement of water by osmosis is from:
1- Region of higher water potential
2- Lower solute concentration
3-higher osmotic pressure
Osmotic pressure: is the pressure that must be applied to a solution to
prevent the inward flow of water a cross a selectivity permeable
membranes.
Osmosis and living organisms:
The movement of water across the plasma membrane in response to
differences in water potential causes some crucial problems for living
systems, particularly those in an aqueous environment.
e.g:
1- the water potential of bacterial cell that live in salt water is usually similar to
the water potential of the environment.
2- euglena(one-celled organism) which live in fresh water:
The water potential of the cell is lower than outside of the cell
The water tends to move from outside of the cell to inside
Euglena prevented the rupture of the plasma membrane by a contractile
vacuole which collect water from all parts of the cell and pump it outside.
Turgor pressure contributes to the stiffness of plant cells:
The plant cell dose not ruptures (due to water uptake) because it is
surrounded by the rigid cell wall.
Plant cell accumulate salt, sugar,…. In their vacuoles which mean low water
potential inside the cell and as a result plant cell absorb water by osmosis and
build up their internal hydrostatic pressure (turgor pressure).
turgor pressure: the main pressure of the cell content against the cell wall
Keep the cell turgid (stiff)
Is the result of osmosis or imbibitions
Wall pressure: equals to and opposing turgor pressure
turgor pressure in the plant is especially important in the support of nonwoody
plant parts (growth in plant as the result of water uptake)
turgor is maintained in most plant cells because they (plant cells) generally exist
in a medium with relatively high water potential.
Plasmolysis: is the process in plant cell where the plasma membrane pulls away
from the cell wall due to the loss of water through osmosis when it is placed in a
solution with low water potential
The loss of turgor by plant cell may result in wilting or drooping of leaves and
stems, or of your dinner salad.
Structure of cellular membranes:
All the biological membranes consist of:
1- lipids (phospholipids or sterols)
2- Transmembrane proteins
3- Peripheral proteins
Integral proteins are transmembrane proteins and other lipid-bound proteins.
The fluid-mosaic model: means that the protein and lipid molecules can move
within the plasma membrane.
Glycoproteins (carbohydrate+ protiens) are attached to the transmembrane
protein of the outer surface of the plasma membrane.
Glycopprotiens play important roles in the recognition of molecules (hormones)
that interact with the cell.
Small proportion of glycolipids (lipid + carbohydrate) is present in the plasma
membrane.
Configuration of transmemebrane proteins:
•Single alpha helix
•Multiple alpha helix
The plasma membrane composed of:
1) Lipid: 40-50 %
Proved the basic structure and impermeable nature of cellular membrane
2) proteins:
50-60%
Responsible for most membrane functions
Membrane functions:
1. Energy transduction (membrane of mitochondria).
2. Some membrane proteins are enzymes.
3. Transport of specific molecules.
4. Receiving and transduction chemical signals.
Transport of solutes a cross membrane
Small non polar molecules (O2, CO2) and small uncharged polar molecules
(H2O) can permeate cellular membranes freely by simple diffusion.
Polar molecules require transport proteins.
Transport proteins are highly selective (one protein for one type of ion or
molecule like K+ or sugar and amino acids).
Transport proteins: transport solutes a cross the membrane without the solutes
coming into contact with the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer.
Transport proteins grouped into three classes:
Pumps:
Use energy (chemical energy, ATP or light).
In plant cell they pumps proton.
Transport 500 molecules/ second.
Carriers:
Driven by the of electrochemical gradients.
Electrochemical gradients: the driving force that causes an ion to move a
cross a membrane due to:
•The difference in the electric charge a cross the membrane
•The difference in the ion’s concentration on the two sides of the membrane
Bind the specific solute being transported and undergo a conformational
change in order to transport the solute a cross the membrane.
Transport 500-10000 molecules/second.
Channel:
Driven by the energy of electrochemical gradients
Form water-filled pores that extend a cross the membrane and when open allow specific
solutes (K+, CA+2) to pass through them.
Transport 10000 to many millions of molecules/second.
The plasma membrane and tonoplast also contain water channel proteins called
aquaporins.
Aquaporins functions:
1. Facilitate the movement of water a cross cell membrane.
2. Facilitate the rapid flow of water from soil into root cells.
3. Facilitate the rapid flow of water through xylem during periods of high transpiration
4. Block the influx of water into root cells during times of flooding in the surrounding soil.
Transport down concentration gradient or an electrochemical gradient is called passive
transport.
Passive transport: transport without energy
Passive transport divided into two types:
1. Simple diffusion: diffusion of small polar molecules a cross lipid bilayer.
2. Facilitated diffusion: transport requires carrier and channel proteins.
All channel proteins are uniporters (transport only one solute from one side of the membrane
to the other).
Some carriers are uniporter and others are cotransport systems (in which the transfer of one
solute depends on the simultaneous or sequential transfer of a second solute).
The second solute may be transported in the same direction (symport) or in the opposite
direction (antiport).
Simple diffusion and passive transport can’t transport solutes against
concentration or electrochemical gradient.
Active transport:
Transport solute against concentration or electrochemical gradient.
Use pump and carrier proteins.
Requires energy
Active transport divided into:
Primary active transport
Secondary active transport
Example of active transport: active transport of sucrose.
Vesicle-mediated transport:
Vesicle: are small membrane-enclosed sacs that can store or transport
substances
Vesicle types:
1. Vacuoles
2. Lysosomes (contain enzymes).
Transport proteins:
Transport ions and small polar molecules a cross the plasma membrane
Cannot transport large molecules like proteins, polysaccharides, and large
particles (microorganism).
Large molecules and particles are transported by means of vesicle that bud
off from or fuse with plasma membrane.
eg:
The hemicelluloses, pectin, and glycoproteins (large molecules) are
synthesized in Golgi bodies and are used for cell wall building.
These substances are transported from Golgi bodies by vesicle-mediated
transport process.
The vesicle fuse in the plasma membrane and they release their content in
the cell wall.
Vesicle-mediated transports are divided into two main types:
1) Exocytosis:
A process by which a cell directs the content of secretary vesicles out of the
cell membrane
eg: the digestive enzymes secreted by carnivorous plants, are carried out to
the plasma membrane in vesicles derived from E.R.
2) Endocytosis: is the process by which cells absorb molecules (proteins)
from outside the cell by engulfing it with their cell membrane.
There are three forms of endocytosis:
a) Phagocytosis (cell eating): involves the ingestion of large particles
(bacteria) via large vesicles derived from plasma membrane.
eg: amoeba feed in this way.
b) Pincytosis (cell drinking): involves the taking in of liquids.
Occurs in all eukaryotic cells
c) Receptor-mediated endocytosis: is a process by which cells internalize
molecules by the inward budding of plasma membrane vesicles containing
proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being internalize.
During endocytosis portions of the plasma membrane
are returned to Golgi bodies and used for the
expansion of the plasma membrane during
enlargement.
Cell-to-cell communication:
In multicellular organisms, cells are not isolated and surrounded by watery
environment, but cells are organized into tissues and tissues organized to
form organs to do specific function.
Signal transduction is the process by which cells use chemical
messengers to communicate.
Cells in multicellular organisms are communicated to create harmonious
tissues and organs to do specific work.
The communication is done by chemical signals (substances that are
synthesized within and transported out of one cell and then travel to
another cell).
In plant, the chemical signals are hormones (produced by one cell type and
regulate the function of cell elsewhere in plant body).
When the chemical signals reach the plasma membrane of target cell, they
may be:
Transported into the cell by endocytosis
Remain outside the cell where they bind to specific receptors on the outer
surface of the membrane.
Receptors are:
Transmembrane proteins
Become active when they binds a chemical signals (primary messengers)
Generate secondary signals (secondary messengers) on the inside of the cell.
The second messengers make chemical changing within the cell (activation of
cellular processes: calcium ion, cyclic AMP).
Signals transduction: the process by which a cell converts extracellular
signals into a response.
Signal transduction path way may be divided into three steps:
1) Reception: binding of the hormone to its specific receptors.
2) Transduction:
The Ca+2 is formed or released into the cytosol
Ca+2 is stored in the vacuoles
Ca+2 enter cytosol through specific Ca+2 channels in the tonoplast
Ca+2 binds with calmodulin (protein)
3) Induction: Ca+2 –calmodulin complex induce numerous cellular processes,
generally by activation of certain enzymes.
Plasmodesmata enable cells to communicate:
Plasmodesmata are strands of cytoplasm
Plasmodesmata functions are:
Interconnect the protoplast of neighboring plant cells
In cell to cell communication
Symplast: is the protoplast of the plant body cells and their plasmodesmata
Apoplast: the cell wall of the plant body cells.
Symplastic transport: movement of substances through plasmodesmata
Apoplastic transport: movement of substances through cell wall.
Plasmodesmata are two types:
1. Primary plasmodesmata: formed during cytokinesis
2. Secondary plasmodesmata: formed after cytokinesis
Secondary plasmodesmata establish communication between neighbor
cells not derived from the some parent cells
A plasmodesmata typically is traversed by a tubular strand of endoplasmic
reticulum called desmotubule which is continous with the E.R. of the
adjacent cells.
Plasmodesmata provide a more efficient pathway between neighboring
cells
eg:
Cells a way from nutrient sources are supplied by bulk flow or diffusion
through plasmodesmata.
Evidences for transport between cells via plasmodesmata come from
studies using florescent dyes.
Dyes are large molecules cannot pass through plasma membrane
Dyes pass from one to another through plasmodesmata
Plasmodesmata can allow the passage of molecules up to molecular
weight of 800 to 1000 dalton (1 dulton= weight of H).
The end