XIII.
Pragmatics
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Pragmatics
• Charles Morris: syntax, semantics,
pragmatics.
• Pragmatics – the study of the relation of
linguistic units to people who
communicate.
• Linguistic pragmatics is the study of the
ability of language users to pair sentences
with the context in which they would be
appropriate.
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• Pragmatics is a branch of linguistics devoted to
the study of meaning as conveyed and
manipulated by participants in a communicative
situation. M.Baker
• “Pragmatics starts out from an active conception
of language as being used. Pragmatics is where
the action is. Pragmatics is needed if we want a
fuller, deeper and generally more reasonable
account of human language behaviour.”
Jacob Mey
3
• “Pragmatics is all about the meanings
between the lexis and the grammar and
the phonology. Meanings are implied and
the rules being followed are unspoken,
unwritten ones.” George Keith
4
“Both pragmatics and discourse analysis study the
meaning of words in context, analyzing the parts
of meaning that can be explained by knowledge
of the physical and social world, and the socio-
psychological factors influencing communication,
as well as the knowledge of the time and place
in which the words are uttered or written.”
Joan Cutting
5
“One cannot investigate the issue of
pragmatic value of an utterance in
abstraction from its specific context (verbal
or non-verbal). There is no pragmatics
outside the context of language users”.
Svitlana Shvachko
6
”The advantage of studying language via
pragmatics is that one can talk about people’s
intended meanings, their assumptions, their
purposes or goals, and the kind of actions that
they are performing when they speak. The big
disadvantage is that all these very human
concepts are extremely difficult to analyze in a
consistent and objective way.”
George Yule
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Прагматика (грец. pragma, pragmatos – діло, справа, дія)
комунікативна – складова спілкування, пов’язана з
виявом у мовленнєвому коді інтерактивних
співвідношень комунікантів, а також їх ставлення до
конситуації.
Ф.С.Бацевич
Прагматика вивчає людські виміри комунікації,
пов’язаність їх з мовними структурами. Прагматика ще
займається виробленням тих чи інших комунікативних
стратегій, пошуком аксіоматики нашого спілкування.
• Г.Г.Почепцов
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Thus, Pragmatics focuses
• on the conditions that allow speakers and writers
to achieve their communicative goal by bringing
about certain modifications in the behaviour,
knowledge, attitudes or beliefs of hearers and
readers;
• what language users mean, as distinct from
what their language means;
• the rules and principles governing the use of
language, over and above the rules of language
itself; and what makes certain applications of
language more appropriate than others in
particular situations.
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J.Austin “How to Do Things with
Words”:
• Constatives vs Performatives;
• Performatives do not state things; they do
things. The actions they stand for are
verbal, for the words themselves perform
them. e.g:
• My plane arrives at 8 p.m.
• I promise I’ll be there on time.
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A speech act includes three separate
acts:
• The locutionary act is the act of saying
something, it is the utterance itself.
• The illocutionary act is the specific
purpose the speaker has in mind.
• The perlocutionary act is the effect the
speaker has on the addressee through the
his speech.
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Examples:
• Locutionary act: He said to shoot her.
• Illocutionary act: He urged (advised,
ordered) me to shoot her.
• Perlocutionary act: He persuaded me to
shoot her.
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• The sentence is treated in pragmatics as a
meaningful linguistic unit which can
perform certain illocutionary functions.
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A propositional base (objective part)
Pragmatic component (subjective part)
It’s hot. just mentioning of the fact
explanation
excuse
Inducement to do … about it
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J.Austin’s classification
• verdictives: I estimate, grade etc..
• exercitives: I order, advice, etc..
• commissives: I promise, bet, etc..
• behabitives: I congratulate,apologize.
• expositives: I affirm, argue, etc..
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J.Searle’s Classification of Speech Acts
• Representatives: here the speaker asserts a
proposition to be true, using such verbs as: affirm,
believe, conclude, deny, report. The weather is fine
today.
• Directives: here the speaker tries to make the hearer do
something, with such words as: ask, beg, challenge,
command, dare, invite, insist, request. Read the text.
• Commisives:here the speaker commits himself (or
herself) to a (future) course of action, with verbs such as:
guarantee, pledge, promise, swear, vow, undertake,
warrant. I shall wait for you.
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• Expressives: the speaker expresses an attitude
to or about a state of affairs, using such verbs
as: apologize, appreciate, congratulate, deplore,
detest, regret, thank, welcome. I thank you for
doing it.
• Declarations: the speaker alters the external
status or condition of an object or situation by
making the utterance: I now pronounce you man
and wife, I sentence you to be hanged by the
neck until you be dead, I name this ship...
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Pocheptsov’s Classification
• Constatives: The Earth rotates round the
Sun.
• Promisives: I’ll come tomorrow.
• Menasives: He’ll punish you.
• Performatives: I quarantee it.
• Directives: Come here.
• Quesitives: When will you leave?
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J.Austin J.Searle D.Wunderlich B.Fraser J.Leech G.Pocheptsov
expositive representati representativ statement assertive constative
ve e
exercitive directive directive request directive Injunctive
requestive
commisive commisive commisive Binding act commisive Promisive
menasive
behabitive expressive satisfactive Attitude to expressive
addressee
declarative declarative Act of power performative
reaction
vocative
interrogative quesitive
verdictive Act of
evaluation 21
Pragmatic types of texts
Text type Function of speech Predominant Examples
illocutionary force
Informative texts: Cognitive I want you to get to Novels, Stories,
Constatives know X Reports
Quesitives I want you to give Inquires
me information on X
Directive texts Regulatory I want you to do X Instructions, Offers,
Recommendations
Expressive texts Expressive I express my attitude Condolences,
to you because of X Sympathies,
Messages of
thanks/appreciation
Commissive texts Changing of the I commit myself to X Vows, Promises,
Speaker/addressee (future action) Threat
status
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Direct vs indirect speech acts
direct speech act – a direct relationship
between a structure and a function;
indirect speech act - an indirect relationship
between a structure and a function.
e.g. It’s cold outside.
I hereby tell you about the weather.
I hereby request of you that you close the
door
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• “Come on”, he said, ”I’ll give you a lift.” In his fragile
state, Rebus felt this to be the nicest kindest thing
anyone had said to him in weeks. “Are you sure you
have room?” he said. (Rankin)
• “I don’t know” may be a statement (“Я не
знаю”) or expression of hesitation (“Та як
вам сказати?” ).
• “Is Mr.Smith there, please?” may be a
question or a disguised request meaning
“Запросіть до телефону пана Сміта?”
• the same utterance can be a statement, a
request, a command or a joke.
• It is very important for the translator to
decipher the message correctly. Very often
the speaker’s intention differs from what
the utterance seems to say.
The number and range of illocutionary
functions remain almost the same in
different languages. The difference can be
observed in the use of certain speech acts
and the choice of forms for their realization
in different situations. These restrictions
are caused by socio-cultural factors.
1. a speech act of the source language correlates
with the same type of a speech act in the target
language;
2. a speech act of the source language correlates
with another type of a speech act in the target
language;
3. a direct speech act in the source language
correlates with an indirect speech act in the
target language.
“There are things going on, sir, that I don’t
understand”. Armstrong said sharply: “Things?
What things?” (A.Christie)
“Тут відбуваються такі події, сер, які я не
можу збагнути”. “Події? Які ще події?” –
різко урвав його Армстронг.
Нащо їй зараз набридати. - Don’t bother her
now.
Невже так неодмінно дірявити один одного
сорок пятим калібром? - Well – it isn’t as if
we were going to stand up and pot each other
with forty-fives.
She said to herself angrily: “You must keep cool.
This isn’t like you. You’ve always had excellent
nerves”. –
“Зберігай спокій, невпинно повторювала
собі. –
Не панікуй, тримайся. Не втрачай
рівноваги. Адже ти завжди відзначалася
міцними нервами.” (A.Christie)
• In India it is a SA of ‘praising’ and
‘congratulating’ a person on their
appearance (indicator of prosperity
and health in that country).
• In Britain it’s used as a SA of
‘criticizing’ (being slim is beautiful).
• Ukr.: Будь ласка, повідомте нам
про ...; Будемо вдячні, якщо Ви
повідомите нам про…
• Eng.: we should be grateful if you would
let us know…’ or we should like to
suggest…
• If a passenger wants to get off a crowded bus, he/she is
not supposed to ask the passengers blocking the way if
they are getting off or not the way people do in Ukraine. A
direct speech act would be taken as meddling in other
people’s personal matters.
• Instead a request to make way must be disguised as a
statement: “Excuse me, I am getting off” or as a question in
the first person: “Could I get off please?”
• To ask for information, native speakers do not
often use direct speech acts because they are not
suitable from the point of view of speech etiquette.
That is why to master the art of conversation, one
must be able to use indirect declarative questions,
e.g. "I'd like to know if you are interested in
football" or "I wonder if we could be pen-pals", etc.
The ability to convey illocutionary
functions properly is an essential
aspect of translation skills.
Indirect speech acts
- are associated with greater politeness than
direct Speech Acts.
- are a matter of asking or stating if
the felicity conditions for a Speech Act
are satisfied.
“Why don’t you be quiet? It would be a good idea
if you gave me the money now. How many times
have I told you (must I tell you) not to eat with
your fingers? I would appreciate it if you could
make less noise”
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Felicity conditions
Expected or appropriate circumstances for the performance of a
speech act to be recognized as intended.
Preparatory conditions: e.g. for a promise – the event will
not happen by itself, the event will have a beneficial effect for the
Hearer/Addressee: I will be there in time.
Sincerity condition: for a promise - the Speaker
genuinely intends to carry out the future action.
Essential condition: for a promise - the utterance changes
the S’s state from non-obligation to obligation.
Content condition: for a promise - concerns future action.
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Indirect requests
a Content Future act of Will you do X?
condition Hearer
(=H will do X)
b Preparatory H is able to Can you do X?
condition perform act
(=H can do X)
c Sincerity S wants H to do X I want you to do X
condition
d Essential H must do X You must do X
condition
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Semantic principle of “+/-”
• There’s little chalk left. = Bring some
more.
• There's too much chalk. = Take away
some.
• There's water. = Wipe it off.
• There’s no water. = Bring some.
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The conversational implicature
• is a message that is read between the
lines.
• The hearer is able to infer this message,
by appealing to the rules governing
successful conversational interaction.
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Paul Grice
proposed that implicatures can be calculated by
understanding three things:
•The usual linguistic meaning of what is said.
•Contextual information (shared or general
knowledge).
•The assumption that the speaker is obeying what
Grice calls the cooperative principle.
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The Cooperative Principle
• Speakers shape their utterances to be
understood by hearers.
• The principle can be explained by four
underlying rules or maxims.
• They are also sometimes named Grice's
or Gricean maxims.
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MAXIMS OF CONVERSATION
• Quality: try to make your conversation
true, don’t say things, for which you have
not enough grounds.
• Quantity: make your contribution as
informative as required, don’t make it more
informative than required.
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MAXIMS OF CONVERSATION
• Relevance: speakers' contributions should
relate clearly to the purpose of the
exchange.
• Manner: avoid obscurity and ambiguity, be
brief and orderly. Avoid confusion.
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Maxims of conversation explain
in what way the Speaker’s sense may
include something bigger, than a literal
meaning of the sentence,
how it may deviate from a literal meaning
or even be opposite to it.
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Conversational implicature is connected with the
violation of maxims, e.g.
Is Mr. Smith a good scientist?
He plays chess well.
The S means that he is not of a high opinion of a
scientific abilities of Smith. Otherwise Maxim of
relevance would be violated.
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Polonius: What do you read, My Lord?
Hamlet: Words, words, words.
(Maxim of Quantity)
A: Can you tell me the time?
B: The bell has gone.
(Maxim of relevance)
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expression English verbal Ukrainian verbal
behavior behavior
imposition implicit explicit
Positive overstatement understatement
evaluation
Negative understatement Strong
evaluation overstatement
• Intensification: so, too, extremely, awfully,
terribly, absolutely etc.,
e.g.: Thank you so much/ very much indeed! I’m
terribly sorry.
• Exaggeration: like, want – dream, adore, love,
enjoy etc.; good – happy, delighted, super,
smashing etc.,
e.g.: How is it going! – Great! I really hate to
bother you.
• Minimizing adverbs: a little, a bit, just,
only, somewhat etc.,
e.g.: It is just a slip of the tongue. The news
somewhat shocked me.
• Fillers: a sort of, a kind of, more or less, so to
speak etc.,
e.g.: I’ve got a bit of a problem.
• Verbs of intention: to intend, to mean, feel etc.,
e.g.: You tend to miss your classes.
• Negation: not, hardly ever, barely, not, to fail,
to lack etc., e.g.: Sorry, but I’m not quite clear on
…(= I don’t understand).
I hardly ever speak in public. (= I never speak in
public).
The British hardly ever say what they mean
and very often say the exact opposite. Thus
when you are telling a story to an
Englishman which elicits the response:
“How interesting!” it should not be taken
at face value. Faint praise damns as surely
as criticism”.
• Using language for different purposes, such as
greeting (e.g., hello, goodbye)
informing (e.g., I'm going to get a cookie)
demanding (e.g., Give me a cookie)
promising (e.g., I'm going to get you a cookie)
requesting (e.g., I would like a cookie, please)
talking differently to a baby than to an adult
giving background information to an
unfamiliar listener
speaking differently in a classroom than on
a playground
taking turns in conversation
introducing topics of conversation
staying on topic
rephrasing when misunderstood
how to use verbal and nonverbal signals
how close to stand to someone when
speaking
how to use facial expressions and eye
contact
These rules may vary across cultures
and within cultures.
• Language Internal • Language External
Semantics vs
• Linguistic meaning • Communication
• What expressions • What the Speaker
mean means
• What is implied
• What is said • Use of Language
• Language itself
Pragmatics
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• In analysing utterances and searching for
relevance we can use a hierarchy of
propositions - those that might be
asserted, presupposed, entailed or
inferred from any utterance.
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• Assertion: what is asserted is the
obvious, plain or surface meaning of the
utterance (though many utterances are not
assertions of anything).
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• Presupposition: what is taken for granted
in the utterance.
“I saw the Mona Lisa in the Louvre”
presupposes that the Mona Lisa is in the
Louvre.
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• Entailments: logical or necessary
corollaries of an utterance, thus, the above
example entails:
– I saw something in the Louvre.
– I saw something somewhere.
– Something was seen.
– There is a Louvre.
– There is a Mona Lisa, and so on.
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• Inferences: these are interpretations that
other people draw from the utterance, for
which we cannot always directly account.
From this example, someone might infer,
rationally, that the Mona Lisa is, or was
recently, on show to the public. They might
infer, less rationally, that the speaker has
been to France recently - because if the
statement were about something from
years ago, he or she would have said so.
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