EC6802

WIRELESS NETWORKS
 UNIT I
WIRELESS LAN
OVERVIEW:
Introduction
WLAN technologies: Infrared, UHF narrowband, spread spectrum
-IEEE802.11: System architecture, protocol architecture, physical layer,
MAC layer, 802.11b, 802.11a
Hiper LAN: WATM, BRAN, HiperLAN2
Bluetooth: Architecture, Radio Layer, Baseband layer, Link manager
Protocol, security - IEEE802.16
WIMAX: Physical layer, MAC, Spectrum allocation for WIMAX
 INTRODUCTION
Wireless means transmitting signals using radio waves as the medium
instead of wires.
Wireless technologies are used for tasks as simple as switching off the
television or as complex as supplying the sales force with information
from an automated enterprise application while in the field.
Now cordless keyboards, mice and cellular phones have become part of
our daily life.
Some of the inherent characteristics of wireless communications systems which

make it attractive for users, are given below −

Mobility − A wireless communications system allows users to access information

beyond their desk and conduct business from anywhere without having a wire

connectivity.

Reachability − Wireless communication systems enable people to be stay

connected and be reachable, regardless of the location they are operating from.

Simplicity − Wireless communication system are easy and fast to deploy in

comparison of cabled network. Initial setup cost could be a bit high but other

advantages overcome that high cost.

Maintainability − In a wireless system, you do not have to spend too much cost

and time to maintain the network setup.

Roaming Services − Using a wireless network system, you can provide service any

where any time including train, buses, aero planes etc.

New Services − Wireless communication systems provide various smart services

like SMS and MMS.

WIRELESS NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
There are basically three ways to set up a wireless network

POINT-TO-POINT BRIDGE
As you know, a bridge is used to connect two networks. A point-to-point
bridge interconnects two buildings having different networks. For example, a wireless
LAN bridge can interface with an Ethernet network directly to a particular access
point.
POINT-TO-MULTIPOINT BRIDGE
This topology is used to connect three or more LANs that may be located on different floors in a
building or across buildings
MESH OR AD HOC NETWORK
This network is an independent local area network that is not connected to a wired infrastructure
and in which all stations are connected directly to one another
WLAN TECHNOLOGIES:

 INFRARED

 UHF(Narrow band)

 SPREAD SPECTRUM
1. Infrared Technology:
Infrared is an invisible band of radiation that exists at lower end of visible electromagnetic
spectrum.
There are two types of infrared WLAN solutions:
• Direct beam (or line-of-sight)
• Diffused beam (uses reflected rays)
Direct beam WLANs offer faster data rates while diffused beam technology achieves lower data
rates in 1-2 Mbps range.
The advantage of using this technology is that there are no government regulations on its use and
also it is immune to EM and RF interference.
The disadvantage is that it is a short range technology (30-50 ft radius under ideal conditions).Also,
it requires line-of-sight. The signal gets affected by solid objects like doors, walls, etc. The signal is
also affected by fog, dirt, ice, snow.
2. UHF Narrowband technology:
The frequency range is 430 to 470 MHZ and rarely segments in 800 MHZ range. The
portion 430-450 MHZ is unlicensed while 450-470 MHZ band is licensed.
The term narrow band is used because RF signal is sent in a very narrow band width,
typically 12.5 KHz or 25 KHz.
There are two systems: Synthesized and Un-synthesized system uses crystal controlled
frequency operation. There can be frequency drift problem in crystal.
The synthesized uses single, standard crystal. Multiple frequencies are achieved using
dividing the crystal frequency and then multiplying it to desired channel frequency.
The advantage of this technology is that it has longest range and its low cost for large sites.
The disadvantages of this include the need of license, no multivendor inter operability and
interference potential.
3.Spread Spectrum Technology:
In this technique, the entire allotted bandwidth is shared instead of dividing it into
discrete private parts.
The spread spectrum spreads the transmission power over entire usable spectrum.
Thus, though bandwidth efficiency decreases; reliability, integrity and security increase.
In commercial applications, spread spectrum techniques currently offer data rates up to
2Mbps.
Two modulation schemes are used to encode spread spectrum signals : frequency
hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) and direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
FHSS uses a narrowband carrier that changes frequency in a pattern known to both
transmitter and receiver. To some other receiver, FHSS appears to be a short-duration
impulse noise. Thus, the data security increases.
Similarly, DSSS generates redundant bit pattern for every bit to be transmitted, known
as spreading code, known only to transmitter and receiver. To some other receiver, DSSS
appears as low-power, wideband noise and is rejected.
 IEEE 802.11

802.11  Wi-Fi Wireless LAN Media Access Control and Physical Layer specification. 802.11a,b,g,etc.
are amendments to the original 802.11 standard. Products that implement 802.11
standards must pass tests and are referred to as "Wi-Fi certified."

Additional features of the WLAN should include the support of power management to
save battery power, the handling of hidden nodes, and the ability to operate worldwide.
The 2.4 GHz ISM band, which is available in most countries around the world, was
chosen for the original standard.
IEEE 802.11:
• System architecture
• Protocol architecture
• Physical layer
• MAC layer
• 802.11b
• 802.11a
 System architecture
Wireless networks can exhibit two different basic system architectures infrastructure-based or ad-hoc.

Station (STA)
802.11 LAN • terminal with access mechanisms to the wireless medium
802.x LAN
and radio contact to the access point
Basic Service Set (BSS)
STA1 • group of stations using the same radio frequency
BSS1
Access Portal Access Point
Point • station integrated into the wireless LAN and the
distribution system
Distribution System
Portal
Access • bridge to other (wired) networks
ESS Point
Distribution System
BSS2 • interconnection network to form one logical network
(EES: Extended Service Set) based
on several BSS

STA2 802.11 LAN STA3

Infrastructure-based
Extended Service Set (ESS) and has its own identifier, the ESSID. The ESSID is the ‘name’ of a network and is used to

separate different networks. Without knowing the ESSID (and assuming no hacking) it should not be possible to

participate in the WLAN.

Stations can select an AP and associate with it. The APs support roaming (i.e., changing access points), the distribution

system handles data transfer between the different APs. APs provide synchronization within a BSS.

In addition to infrastructure-based networks, IEEE 802.11 allows the building of ad-hoc networks
 ARCHITECTURE OF AN AD-HOC NETWORK
Direct communication within a limited range 802.11 LAN
• Station (STA): terminal with access mechanisms to the
wireless medium
STA1
• Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS): group of stations STA3
IBSS1
using the same radio frequency
In this case, an IBSS comprises a group of stations
using the same radio frequency. STA2
This means for example that STA3 can communicate
directly with STA2 but not with STA5.
IBSS2

STA5

STA4 802.11 LAN

 PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE
Applications should not notice any difference apart from the lower bandwidth and
perhaps higher access time from the wireless LAN. The WLAN behaves like a slow wired
LAN.
The higher layers (application, TCP, IP) look the same for wireless nodes as for wired
nodes.

An IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN connected to

a switched IEEE 802.3 ethernet via a bridge.
The IEEE 802.11 standard only covers the physical layer PHY and medium access layer MAC like the other 802.x
LANs do.

The physical layer is subdivided into the physical layer convergence protocol (PLCP) and the physical medium
dependent sublayer PMD

The main tasks of the PHY management include channel tuning and
PHY MIB maintenance.

PLCP sublayer provides a carrier sense signal, called clear channel assessment (CCA), and provides a common PHY
service access point (SAP) independent of the transmission technology. Finally, the PMD sublayer handles modulation
and encoding/decoding of signals.

The basic tasks of the MAC layer comprise medium access, fragmentation of user data, and encryption.
PHYSICAL LAYER:

IEEE 802.11 supports three different physical layers:

One layer based on infra red
Two layers based on radio transmission

The PHY layer offers a service access point (SAP) with 1 or 2 Mbit/s transfer rate to the MAC layer.

THREE VERSIONS OF PHY LAYER:

1.
2.
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum } Radio Transmission

3. Infra Red
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
 Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a spread spectrum technique which allows for the
coexistence of multiple networks in the same area by separating different networks using different
hopping sequences.
 The original standard defines 79 hopping channels for North America and Europe, and 23 hopping
channels for Japan.
 The selection of a particular channel is achieved by using a pseudo-random hopping pattern.
 The standard specifies Gaussian shaped FSK (frequency shift keying), GFSK, as modulation for the FHSS
PHY. For 1 Mbit/s a 2 level GFSK is used (i.e., 1 bit is mapped to one frequency), a 4 level GFSK for 2 Mbit/s
(i.e., 2 bits are mapped to one frequency).
 While sending and receiving at 1 Mbit/s is mandatory for all devices, operation at 2 Mbit/s is optional.
 This facilitated the production of low-cost devices for the lower rate only and more powerful devices for
both transmission rates in the early days of 802.11.
 Format of an IEEE 802.11 PHY frame using FHSS

Synchronization: This pattern is used for synchronization of potential receivers and signal detection by the CCA.

Start frame delimiter (SFD): The following 16 bits indicate the start of the frame and provide frame synchronization.

PLCP_PDU length word (PLW): This first field of the PLCP header indicates the length of the payload in bytes

PLCP signalling field (PSF): This 4 bit field indicates the data rate of the payload following.

Header error check (HEC): Finally, the PLCP header is protected by a 16 bit checksum
Direct sequence spread spectrum
 Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) is the alternative spread spectrum method separating

by code and not by frequency.

 In the case of IEEE 802.11 DSSS, spreading is achieved using the 11-chip Barker sequence (+1, –1,

+1, +1, –1, +1, +1, +1, –1, –1, –1). The key characteristics of this method are its robustness against

interference and its insensitivity to multipath propagation.

 However, the implementation is more complex compared to FHSS.

 The system uses differential binary phase shift keying (DBPSK) for 1 Mbit/s transmission and

differential quadrature phase shift keying (DQPSK) for 2 Mbit/s as modulation schemes.
 Format of an IEEE 802.11 PHY frame using DSSS

Synchronization: The first 128 bits are not only used for synchronization, but also gain setting, energy detection (for the

CCA), and frequency offset compensation.

Start frame delimiter (SFD): This 16 bit field is used for synchronization at the beginning of a frame

Signal: Only two values have been defined for this field to indicate the data rate of the payload. The value 0x0A indicates 1

Mbit/s (and thus DBPSK), 0x14 indicates 2 Mbit/s (and thus DQPSK).

Service: This field is reserved for future use

Length: 16 bits are used in this case for length indication of the payload in microseconds.

Header error check (HEC): Signal, service, and length fields are protected by this checksum.
Infra Red
 The PHY layer, which is based on infra red (IR) transmission, uses near visible light at 850–950 nm.

 The standard does not require a line-of-sight between sender and receiver, but should also work with

diffuse light. This allows for point-to-multipoint communication.

 The maximum range is about 10 m if no sunlight or heat sources interfere with the transmission.

 Typically, such a network will only work in buildings, e.g., classrooms, meeting rooms etc.

 Today, no products are available that offer infra red communication based on 802.11.

 Proprietary products offer, e.g., up to 4 Mbit/s using diffuse infra red light. Alternatively, directed infra red

communication based on IrDA can be used (IrDA, 2002).

Medium access control layer
 It has to control medium access, but it can also offer support for roaming, authentication, and power
conservation.
 The basic services provided by the MAC layer are the mandatory asynchronous data service and an optional
time-bounded service.
 While 802.11 only offers the asynchronous service in ad-hoc network mode, both service types can be
offered using an infrastructure-based network together with the access point coordinating medium access.
The following three basic access mechanisms have been defined for IEEE 802.11:

1. The mandatory basic method based on a version of CSMA/CA

2. An optional method avoiding the hidden terminal problem } distributed coordination function (DCF)

point coordination function (PCF).

3. A contention-free polling method for time-bounded service.

DCF only offers asynchronous service, while PCF offers both asynchronous and time-bounded.

The MAC mechanisms are also called distributed foundation wireless medium access control (DFWMAC).
 Medium access and inter-frame spacing

Short inter-frame spacing (SIFS): The shortest waiting time for medium access (so the highest priority) is defined

for short control messages, such as acknowledgements of data packets or polling responses .

PCF inter-frame spacing (PIFS): A waiting time between DIFS and SIFS (and thus a medium priority) is used for

a time-bounded service.

DCF inter-frame spacing (DIFS): This parameter denotes the longest waiting time and has the lowest priority for

medium access. This waiting time is used for asynchronous data service within a contention period
1.Basic DFWMAC-DCF using CSMA/CA

• Station ready to send starts sensing the medium (carrier sense based on CCA, clear channel
assessment)
• If the medium is free for the duration of an inter-frame space (IFS), the station can start sending
(IFS depends on service type)
• If the medium is busy, the station has to wait for a free IFS, then the station must additionally
wait a random back-off time (collision avoidance, multiple of slot-time) CW = 7, 15, 31, 63, 127
• If another station occupies the medium during the back-off time of the station, the back-off timer
stops (fairness)
802.11 - competing stations - simple version (no RTS/CTS)
DIFS DIFS DIFS DIFS
boe bor boe bor boe busy
station1

boe busy
station2

busy
station3

boe busy boe bor

station4

boe bor boe busy boe bor

station5
t

busy medium not idle (frame, ack etc.) boe elapsed backoff time

packet arrival at MAC bor residual backoff time

802.11 - CSMA/CA access method II
Sending unicast packets
Station has to wait for DIFS before sending data
Receivers acknowledge at once (after waiting for SIFS) if the packet was received
correctly (CRC)
Automatic retransmission of data packets in case of transmission errors

DIFS
data
sender
SIFS
ACK
receiver
DIFS
other data
stations t
waiting time contention
2. 802.11 – DFWMAC (Distributed Foundation Wireless MAC)
Sending unicast packets
• Station can send RTS with reservation parameter after waiting for DIFS (reservation determines amount
of time the data packet needs the medium)
• Acknowledgement via CTS after SIFS by receiver (if ready to receive)
• Sender can now send data at once, acknowledgement via ACK
• Other stations store medium reservations distributed via RTS and CTS

DIFS
RTS data
sender
SIFS SIFS
CTS SIFS ACK
receiver

NAV (RTS) DIFS

other NAV (CTS) data
stations t
defer access contention
NAV – Network Allocation Vector
 The RTS packet includes the receiver of the data transmission to come and the duration of the whole data

transmission.

 This duration specifies the time interval necessary to transmit the whole data frame and the

acknowledgement related to it.

 Every node receiving this RTS now has to set its net allocation vector (NAV) in accordance with the duration

field.
Fragmentation
DIFS
RTS frag1 frag2
sender
SIFS SIFS SIFS
CTSSIFS ACK SIFS
1 ACK2
receiver

NAV (RTS)
NAV (CTS)
NAV (frag1) DIFS
other NAV (ACK1) data
stations t
contention
3. DFWMAC-PCF with polling
 The two access mechanisms presented so far cannot guarantee a maximum access delay or minimum
transmission bandwidth.

 To provide a time-bounded service, the standard specifies a point coordination function (PCF) on top of
the standard DCF mechanisms.

 Using PCF requires an access point that controls medium access and polls the single nodes. Ad-hoc
networks cannot use this function.
DFWMAC-PCF
t0 t1
SuperFrame

medium busy
PIFS SIFS SIFS
D1 D2
point
coordinator SIFS SIFS
U1 U2
wireless
stations

stations‘ NAV
NAV
contention free period
DFWMAC-PCF II (cont.)
t2 t3 t4

PIFS SIFS
D3 D4 CFend
point
coordinator SIFS
U4
wireless
stations

stations‘ NAV
NAV contention free period t
contention
period

CFend - contention free period end

802.11b
 Some companies offered proprietary solutions with 11 Mbit/s.

 This standard describes a new PHY layer and is by far the most successful version of IEEE 802.11 available

today.

 All the MAC schemes, management procedures etc. are still same.

 Depending on the current interference and the distance between sender and receiver 802.11b systems offer

11, 5.5, 2, or 1 Mbit/s. Maximum user data rate is approx. 6 Mbit/s. The lower data rates 1 and 2 Mbit/s use

the 11-chip Barker sequence

 The standard defines several packet formats for the physical layer. The mandatory format interoperates with

the original versions of 802.11. The optional versions provide a more efficient data transfer
long PLCP PPDU:

 One difference is the rate encoded in the signal field this is encoded in multiples of 100 kbit/s.

0x0A represents 1 Mbit/s

0x14 is used for 2 Mbit/s

0x37 for 5.5 Mbit/s

0x6E for 11 Mbit/s.

Short PLCP PPDU:

 The short synchronization field consists of 56 scrambled zeros instead of scrambled ones.

 The length of the overhead is only half for the short frames (96 μs instead of 192 μs).
 IEEE 802.11b non-overlapping channel selection

 The spacing between the center frequencies should be at least 25 MHz

 This results in the channels 1, 6, and 11 for the US/Canada or 1, 7, 13 for Europe, respectively.

 It may be the case that, e.g., travellers from the US cannot use the additional channels (12 and 13) in Europe as their

hardware is limited to 11 channels.

 802.11a
• Initially aimed at the US 5 GHz U-NII (Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure) bands IEEE 802.11a offers up
to 54 Mbit/s using OFDM.
• ETSI (Europe) defines different frequency bands for Europe: 5.15–5.35 GHz and 5.47–5.725 GHz
• It requires two additional mechanisms for operation: dynamic frequency selection (DFS) and transmit power control
(TPC)
• Japan allows operation in the frequency range 5.15–5.25 GHz and requires carrier sensing every 4 ms to minimize
interference.
• To be able to offer data rates up to 54 Mbit/s IEEE 802.11a uses many different technologies.
• The system uses 52 subcarriers (48 data + 4 pilot) that are modulated using BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM, or 64-QAM. To
mitigate transmission errors, FEC is applied using coding rates of 1/2, 2/3, or 3/4.

• To offer a data rate of 12 Mbit/s, 96 bits are coded into one OFDM symbol. These 96 bits are distributed over 48
subcarriers and 2 bits are modulated per sub-carrier using QPSK
 HIPERLAN
(High Performance Local Area Network)
WLAN allowing for node mobility and supporting ad-hoc and infrastructure-based topologies

 Names have changed and the former HIPERLANs 2, 3, and 4 are now called HiperLAN2, HIPERACCESS, and

HIPERLINK.

 The current focus is on HiperLAN2, a standard that comprises many elements from ETSI’s BRAN (broadband radio

access networks) and wireless ATM activities.

 Neither wireless ATM nor HIPERLAN 1 were a commercial success.

Historical: HIPERLAN 1

 Wireless LAN supporting priorities and packet life time for data transfer at 23.5 Mbit/s, including forwarding
mechanisms, topology discovery, user data encryption, network identification and power conservation
mechanisms. HIPERLAN 1 should operate at 5.1–5.3 GHz with a range of 50 m in buildings at 1 W transmit
power.
 The service offered by a HIPERLAN 1 is compatible with the standard MAC services known from IEEE 802.x
LANs.
 For power conservation, a node may set up a specific wake-up pattern. This pattern determines at what time
the node is ready to receive, so that at other times, the node can turn off its receiver and save energy. These
nodes are called p-savers and need so-called p-supporters that contain information about the wake-up
patterns of all the p-savers they are responsible for. A p-supporter only forwards data to a p-saver at the
moment the p-saver is awake.
Elimination-yield non-preemptive priority multiple access (EY-NPMA)

It is a heart of the channel access providing priorities and different access schemes. EY-NPMA divides the medium

access of different competing nodes into three phases:

Prioritization: Determine the highest priority of a data packet ready to be sent by competing nodes.

Contention: Eliminate all but one of the contenders, if more than one sender has the highest current priority.

Transmission: Finally, transmit the packet of the remaining node.

IPS IPA IES IESV IYS

elimination survival
The contention phase is
synchronization

elimination burst
priority assertion
priority detection further subdivided into

yield listening

user data
an elimination phase

verification
and a yield phase.

transmission prioritization contention transmission t

EY-NPMA (Elimination Yield Non-preemptive Priority Multiple Access)
3 phases: priority resolution, contention resolution, transmission

Finding the highest priority

• Every priority corresponds to a time-slot to send in the first phase, the higher the priority the earlier the
time-slot to send
• Higher priorities can not be preempted

• If an earlier time-slot for a higher priority remains empty, stations with the next lower priority might send

• After this first phase the highest current priority has been determined
Several terminals can now have the same priority and wish to send
CONTENTION PHASE
Elimination Burst: all remaining terminals send a burst to eliminate contenders
(11111010100010011100000110010110, high bit- rate)
Elimination Survival Verification: contenders now sense the channel, if the channel is free they can continue,
otherwise they have been eliminated
Yield Listening: contenders again listen in slots with a nonzero probability, if the terminal senses its slot idle it is free to
transmit at the end of the contention
DATA TRANSMISSION
The winner can now send its data (however, a small chance of collision remains).if the channel was idle for a longer
time a terminal can send at once without using EY-NPMA
synchronization using the last data transmission
 Wireless ATM
(Wireless Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
 WATM: sometimes also called wireless, mobile ATM, wmATM
 IEEE WLANs originate from the data communication community, many WATM aspects come
from the telecommunication industry
Motivation for WATM:

1. The need for seamless integration of wireless terminals into an ATM network.

2. ATM networks scale well from LANs to WANs – and mobility is needed in local and wide area
applications.

3. For ATM to be successful, it must offer a wireless extension.

4. WATM could offer QoS for adequate support of multi-media data streams.
Wireless ATM working group:
ATM Forum formed the Wireless ATM Working Group in 1996, which aimed to develop a set of specifications that
extends the use of ATM technology to wireless networks.
The following more general extensions of the ATM system also need to be considered for a mobile ATM:
Location management: Similar to other cellular networks, WATM networks must be able to locate a wireless terminal
or a mobile user.
Mobile routing: Even if the location of a terminal is known to the system, it still has to route the traffic through the
network to the access point currently responsible for the wireless terminal. Each time a user moves to a new access
point, the system must reroute traffic.
Handover signalling: The network must provide mechanisms which search for new access points
QoS and traffic control: In contrast to wireless networks offering only best effort traffic, and to cellular networks
offering only a few different types of traffic, WATM should be able to offer many QoS parameters. To maintain these
parameters, all actions such as rerouting, handover etc. have to be controlled.
Network management: All extensions of protocols or other mechanisms also require an extension of the
management functions to control the network
WATM services:

1. Office environments

2. Universities, schools, training centre

3. Industry

4. Hospitals

5. Home

6. Networked vehicles
 Generic reference model
radio segment fixed network segment

MATM WATM fixed

EMAS EMAS ATM-
termi- terminal RAS end
-E -N Switch
nal adapter system

 A mobile ATM (MATM) terminal uses a WATM terminal adapter to gain wireless access to a WATM RAS (Radio
Access System).
 MATM terminals could be represented by, e.g., laptops using an ATM adapter for wired access plus software for
mobility.
 The WATM terminal adapter enables wireless access, i.e., it includes the transceiver etc., but it does not support
mobility.
 The RAS with the radio transceivers is connected to a mobility enhanced ATM switch (EMAS-E), which in turn
connects to the ATM network with mobility aware switches (EMAS-N)
 Finally, a wired, non-mobility aware ATM end system may be the communication partner in this example.
 BRAN
Broadband Radio Access Networks
 The main motivation behind BRAN is the deregulation and privatization of the telecommunication

sector in Europe.

 Many new providers experience problems getting access to customers because the telephone

infrastructure belongs to a few big companies.

 One possible technology to provide network access for customers is radio. The advantages of radio

access are high flexibility and quick installation.

 BRAN standardization has a rather large scope including indoor and campus mobility, transfer

rates of 25–155 Mbit/s, and a transmission range of 50 m–5 km.

BROADBAND NETWORK TYPES
HIPERLAN/2
• short range (< 200 m), indoor/campus, 25 Mbit/s user data rate
• access to telecommunication systems, multimedia applications, mobility (<10 m/s)
HIPERACCESS
• wider range (< 5 km), outdoor, 25 Mbit/s user data rate
• fixed radio links to customers (“last mile”), alternative to xDSL or cable modem,
quick installation
• Several (proprietary) products exist with 155 Mbit/s plus QoS
HIPERLINK – currently no activities
• intermediate link, 155 Mbit/s
• connection of HIPERLAN access points or connection between HIPERACCESS nodes
HiperLAN2
 Reference model and configurations

Sector handover (Inter sector): If sector antennas are used for an AP, which is optional in the standard, the AP shall support
sector handover. This type of handover is handled inside the DLC layer so is not visible outside the AP
Radio handover (Inter-APT/Intra-AP): As this handover type, too, is handled within the AP, no external interaction is
needed. In the example of Figure the terminal MT 3, moves from one APT to another of the same AP. All context data for the
connections are already in the AP
Network handover (Inter-AP/Intra-network): This is the most complex situation: MT 2 moves from one AP to another. In this
case, the core network and higher layers are also involved. This handover might be supported by the core network

AP
MT1
1 APT APC Core
Network
MT2 (Ethernet,
3 Firewire,
AP ATM,
MT3 APT
UMTS)
2 APC

MT4 APT
Centralized vs. direct mode

AP AP/CC

control control
control
data
data
MT1 MT2 MT1 MT2 MT1 MT2 +CC
data control

Centralized Direct
HiperLAN2 protocol stack
Higher layers

DLC control Convergence layer DLC user

SAP SAP

Radio link control sublayer Data link control -

basic data
Radio DLC
Assoc. transport function
resource conn.
control Scope of
control control
HiperLAN2
Error
standards
control
Radio link control

Medium access control

Physical layer
Physical layer reference configuration
PDU train from DLC
(PSDU)
scrambling FEC coding interleaving

PHY bursts radio

mapping OFDM
(PPDU) transmitter
1. Scrambling of all data bits with the generator polynomial for DC blocking and whitening of the spectrum.
2. FEC coding for error protection
3. For mitigation of frequency selective fading interleaving is applied.
4. mapping process first divides the bit sequence in groups of 1,2, 4, or 6 bits depending on the modulation
scheme (BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM, or 64-QAM).
5. The OFDM modulation step converts these symbols into a baseband signal with the help of the inverse FFT.
6. Creation of PHY bursts Each burst consists of a preamble and a payload.
7. radio transmission shifts the baseband signal to a carrier frequency depending on the channel number
Bluetooth
Idea
• Universal radio interface for ad-hoc wireless connectivity
• Interconnecting computer and peripherals, handheld devices, PDAs, cell phones –
replacement of IrDA
• Embedded in other devices, goal: 5€/device (2005: 40€/USB bluetooth)
• Short range (10 m), low power consumption, license-free 2.45 GHz ISM
• Voice and data transmission, approx. 1 Mbit/s gross data rate

One of the first modules (Ericsson).

Characteristics
2.4 GHz ISM band, 79 (23) RF channels, 1 MHz carrier spacing
• Channel 0: 2402 MHz … channel 78: 2480 MHz
• G-FSK modulation, 1-100 mW transmit power
FHSS and TDD
• Frequency hopping with 1600 hops/s
• Hopping sequence in a pseudo random fashion, determined by a master
• Time division duplex for send/receive separation
Voice link – SCO (Synchronous Connection Oriented)
• FEC (forward error correction), no retransmission, 64 kbit/s duplex, point-to-point, circuit switched
Data link – ACL (Asynchronous ConnectionLess)
• Asynchronous, fast acknowledge, point-to-multipoint, up to 433.9 kbit/s symmetric or 723.2/57.6 kbit/s
asymmetric, packet switched
Topology
• Overlapping piconets (stars) forming a scatternet
 Piconet

• Collection of devices connected in an ad hoc fashion

P
S
• One unit acts as master and the others as slaves for the lifetime of
the piconet S
M P
• Master determines hopping pattern, slaves have to synchronize
• Each piconet has a unique hopping pattern SB S
• Participation in a piconet = synchronization to hopping sequence P SB
• Each piconet has one master and up to 7 simultaneous slaves
(> 200 could be parked)
• 3 bit address is used by Bluetooth device. M=Master P=Parked
S=Slave SB=Standby
 Forming a piconet
All devices in a piconet hop together
• Master gives slaves its clock and device ID
• Hopping pattern: determined by device ID (48 bit, unique worldwide)
• Phase in hopping pattern determined by clock
Addressing
• Active Member Address (AMA, 3 bit)
• Parked Member Address (PMA, 8 bit)
P 
 SB  S
SB S
 SB M P
 SB  SB
 SB S
 SB  SB P 
 SB SB
SB
 Scatternet
Linking of multiple co-located piconets through the sharing of common master
or slave devices
• Devices can be slave in one piconet and master of another
Communication between piconets
• Devices jumping back and forth between the piconets
Piconets
(each with a
capacity of
720 kbit/s)
P
S S
S
P
P
M=Master M
S=Slave M
P=Parked SB S
SB=Standby P SB SB

S
Bluetooth protocol stack
audio apps. NW apps. vCal/vCard telephony apps. mgmnt. apps.

TCP/UDP OBEX
AT modem
IP
commands
TCS BIN SDP
BNEP PPP Control

RFCOMM (serial line interface)

Audio Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) Host

Controller
Link Manager Interface

Baseband

Radio

AT: attention sequence SDP: service discovery protocol

OBEX: object exchange RFCOMM: radio frequency comm.
TCS BIN: telephony control protocol specification – binary
BNEP: Bluetooth network encapsulation protocol
Baseband states of a Bluetooth device
standby unconnected

detach inquiry page connecting

transmit connected active

AMA AMA

park hold sniff low power

PMA AMA AMA

Standby: do nothing Park: release AMA, get PMA

Inquire: search for other devices Sniff: listen periodically, not each slot
Page: connect to a specific device Hold: stop ACL, SCO still possible, possibly
Connected: participate in a piconet participate in another piconet
Security User input (initialization)
PIN (1-16 byte) Pairing PIN (1-16 byte)

Authentication key generation

E2 E2
(possibly permanent storage)

link key (128 bit) Authentication link key (128 bit)

Encryption key generation

E3 E3
(temporary storage)

encryption key (128 bit) Encryption encryption key (128 bit)

Keystream generator Keystream generator

payload key Ciphering payload key

Cipher data
Data Data
WiMAX
Emerging Technologies
 Current Scenario
Think about how you access the Internet today. There are basically three different options:

Broadband access - In your home, you have either a DSL or cable modem. At the office,
your company may be using a T1 or a T3 line.

WiFi access - In your home, you may have set up a WiFi router that lets you surf the Web
while you lounge with your laptop. On the road, you can find WiFi hot spots in restaurants,
hotels, coffee shops and libraries.

Dial-up access - If you are still using dial-up, chances are that either broadband access is
not available, or you think that broadband access is too expensive.
 Current Scenario
 The main problems with broadband access are that it is pretty expensive and it doesn't
reach all areas. The main problem with WiFi access is that hot spots are very small, so
coverage is sparse.
 What if there were a new technology that solved all of these problems? This new
technology would provide:

 The high speed of broadband service.

 Wireless rather than wired access, so it would be a lot less expensive than cable or DSL
and much easier to extend to suburban and rural areas.
 Broad coverage like the cell phone network instead of small WiFi hotspots.
 Wireless Broadband
This system is actually coming into being right now, and it is called WiMAX. WiMAX is short for
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access, and it also goes by the IEEE name 802.16.

 Also known as Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (Wireless MAN).

 Offers an alternative to high bandwidth wired access networks like fiber optic, cable modems and
DSL.

 Provides network access to buildings through exterior antennas communicating with radio base
stations.

 Networks can be created in just weeks by deploying a small number of base stations on buildings or
poles to create high capacity wireless access systems.
 WiMax Vs. WiFi
 WiMAX operates on the same general principles as WiFi - it sends data from one computer to another

via Radio signals.

 A computer (either a desktop or a laptop) equipped with WiMAX would receive data from the WiMAX

transmitting station, probably using encrypted data keys to prevent unauthorized users from stealing access.

 The fastest WiFi connection can transmit up to 54 megabits per second under optimal conditions.

WiMAX should be able to handle up to 70 megabits per second.

 Even once that 70 megabits is split up between several dozen businesses or a few hundred home users, it

will provide at least the equivalent of cable-modem transfer rates to each user.
 WiMax Vs. WiFi
 The biggest difference isn't speed; it's distance. WiMAX outdistances WiFi by miles. WiFi's range is about

100 feet (30 m). WiMAX will blanket a radius of 30 miles (50 km) with wireless access.

 The increased range is due to the frequencies used and the power of the transmitter.

 Of course, at that distance, terrain, weather and large buildings will act to reduce the maximum range in

some circumstances, but the potential is there to cover huge tracts of land.

 WiMax is not designed to clash with WiFi, but to coexist with it.

 WiMax specifications also provides much better facilities than WiFi, providing higher bandwidth and high

data security by the use of enhanced encryption schemes.

Overview of IEEE 802.16
 Basics of IEEE 802.16

IEEE 802.16 standards are concerned with the air interface between a subscriber’s
transceiver station and a base transceiver station
 The Physical Layer
 MAC Layer
 Convergence Layer
 Physical Layer

 Specifies the frequency band, the modulation scheme, error-correction techniques,

synchronization between transmitter and receiver, data rate and the multiplexing structure
 Both TDD and FDD alternatives support adaptive burst profiles in which modulation and
coding options may be dynamically assigned on a burst-by-burst basis
 Three physical layer for services: Wireless MAN-SC2, Wireless MAN-OFDM and Wireless
MAN-OFDMA
 Medium Access Control Layer

 Designed for point-to-multipoint broadband wireless access

 Addresses the need for very high bit rates, both uplink (to the base station) and
downlink (from the base station)
 Services like multimedia and voice can run as 802.16 MAC is equipped to accommodate
both continuous and bursty traffic
 Convergence Layer
 Provides functions specific to the service being provided
 Bearer services include digital audio/video multicast, digital telephony, ATM, Internet
access, wireless trunks in telephone networks and frame relay