De La Salle University

DAS MAR I ŃAS

BIODIVERSITY and
ECOSYSTEM
STABILITY
SCENOO1-TP ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
 EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES
• After the module, the student will be able to:
• Understand the definition and significance of biodiversity
• Knowledgeable in the concepts and principles of biodiversity
• Realize the role of biodiversity in ecosystem stability
• Biodiversity and sustainable development
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
 “The variety of life at every
hierarchical level and spatial scale of
biological organizations: genes within
populations, population within species,
species within communities,
communities within landscapes,
landscapes within biomes, and biomes
within the biosphere”.
BIODIVERSITY EXPERT’S VIEWPOINT
• Why do wildlife scientists spend so much effort in the field
to determine the population of each species of plants or
animals?
• Why do they spend so much time in the field to look for
new species of plants or animals?
• Why are they sad when the last remaining member of a
species die and the species become extinct?
• What is a biodiversity “hotspot”?
• Why is the Philippines considered the “Center of the
Center” of marine biodiversity in the world?
IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
 Ecosystem Health
• Ecosystem health is the “state of ecosystem developments where
the geographic locations, radiation inputs, available water
nutrients, and regeneration sources are optimal or at viable levels
to maintain the ecosystem”.
• A healthy ecosystem is one that has the “capability of supporting
and maintaining a balanced, integrated, adaptive community of
organisms having a species composition, diversity and functional
organization comparable to the natural ecosystem within its
geographic region”.
• Ecosystem health is the “degree of overlap between what is
ecologically possible and what and what is desired by the current
generation”.
• “An ecosystem is healthy if it has the capacity to satisfy our values
and to produce desirable commodities in a sustained fashion”.
OTHER SIMILAR TERMINOLOGIES
Ecological Integrity
An ecosystem with ecological integrity is one that has persistence (i.e
capable of sustaining the functioning of the communities) and adaptability
(i.e capable of enduring stress through recovery,regeneration or modification
Ecosystems that have lost their ecological integrity are considered
“biologically dead”
 
Healthy Ecosystems
A healthy ecosystem has the ability to maintain itself with minimum human
intervention and repair itself when some natural or anthropogenic
disturbances occur
An ecosystem is said to be healthy if it can maintain its structure and
functions over a period of time even in the presence of environmental stress
 
Degraded Ecosystems
A degraded ecosystem is often referred to as the one that is “unhealthy” or
“deteriorated”
An unhealthy ecosystem is one that is incapable of maintaining its integrity
over time
 What are the signs of unhealthiness in terrestrial ecosystems?

1. Decline in species diversity and a shift in species

composition to more stress-tolerant species i.e.
displacement of native by alien species

2. Disease outbreaks and pest infestations e.g. pantropical

disease (which could be due to monoculture)

3. A decrease in the symbionts of plant roots (e.g.

mycorrhizae)
 Biological and Ecological Benchmark Sites:
Indicators •A yardstick against which
comparisons can be made
•Attributes of a pristine or
minimally disturbed natural
• Environmental indicators include biological area are commonly used in
and ecological measures to asses the setting the standards for a
conditions of the environment to monitor healthy ecosystem
change over a period of time in a particular
area.
• Researchers select a set of ecological
indicators considering resource and time
constraints to adequately and represent
reasonably significant information about
ecosystem structures and functions.
 The Philippines
Center of the Center of Marine Biodiversity
Ecosystem Approach
 An example of Ecosystem Approach
National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS)
• The National Integrated Protected Areas System Act of 1992 (Republic Act No. 7586,
NIPAS Act) was enacted “to secure for the Filipino people of present and future
generations the perpetual existence of all native plants and animals through the
establishment of a comprehensive system of integrated protected areas within the
classification of national park as provided for in the Constitution” (Section 2, NIPAS
Act).
• It provides the legal framework for the establishment and management of protected
areas (PAs)
• That the use and enjoyment of these protected areas must be consistent with the
principles of biological diversity and sustainable development.
• Intended to maintain essential ecological processes and life support systems, preserve
genetic diversity, ensure sustainable use of resources found therein, and maintain
their natural conditions to the greatest extent possible.
• NIPAS shall encompass outstandingly remarkable areas and
biologically important public lands that are habitats of rare and
endangered species of plants and animals, biogeographic zones and
related ecosystems, whether terrestrial, wetland or marine.
• Scope:
• national park game refuge bird and wildlife sanctuary
• wilderness area strict nature reserve watershed
• mangrove reserve fish sanctuary natural and historical
landmark
• protected and managed landscape/seascape
• identified virgin forests before the effectivity of NIPAS
Mt. Apo
Natural Park The mountain is home to over 272
bird species, 111 of which are
endemic to the area.
 Ecosystem Services
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005 defined Ecosystem services as benefits
people obtain from Ecosystems. There are different types of ecosystem, services and they
include the following

provisioning services- the products people obtain from ecosystems

Examples: food, freshwater, timber, fibers, medicinal plants

regulating services- benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes

Examples: regulation of climate, water and some human diseases

supporting services – that are necessary for the maintenance of all other ecosystem
services
Examples: biomass production, production of atmospheric oxygen, soil formation and
retention, nutrient cycling, water cycling, and provisioning of habitat

cultural services- the non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems

Examples: spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation and
aesthetic experience such as knowledge systems, social relations and aesthetic values
Deforestation and Forest Management
• Deforestation is the natural or anthropogenic removal
of vegetation that converts forest land to non-forest.
Rehabilitation cannot fully restore the original or
former condition of a degraded ecosystem. However,
it can provide substantial opportunities for
conserving biodiversity and improving ecosystem
functions, including water management.
• Reforestation is the natural or intentional restocking
of existing forests and woodlands that have been
depleted, usually through deforestation, but also after
clearcutting.
Natural Regeneration
• Pertains to the process of allowing an ecosystem to recover on
its own through natural succession. From the biodiversity point
of view, natural regeneration is the most appropriate
rehabilitation method but only when the protection of the
rehabilitation is sustained.

Ecological enrichment through agroforestry

• Ecological enrichment is a method used to repair/rebilitate
degraded areas through certain approaches, such as
agroforestry.

Rehabilitation of forest reserves and Protected areas

• Planting native wild food plants in the rehabilitation of
protected areas in the Philippines can attract seed-dispersing
birds and mammals. It can also serve as a physical barrier to the
influx of unwanted species into the forest interior.
 Slash-and-Burn Agriculture
• deforestation in Philippine uplands often begins with
commercial logging, frequently followed by slash-and-
burn agriculture. This traditional form of farming is
referred to as “swidden farming” or “shifting cultivation”
or locally known as “kaingin”.
• It usually involves 3 basic steps:
a) felling of trees ( usually in second-growth forests and
logged-over areas)
b) burning of forest debris
c) clearing the site for crop production.
 Forest Ecosystem in the Philippines
The Philippine forest ecosystem currently consists of patches of old
growth (primary) and second-growth forests, ranging in size from
small to quite large. The old-growth forests, sometimes referred to as
“virgin forests”, is not in the true sense “untouched” because it has
actually been used and modified for hundreds of years by indigenous
peoples.

Lowland rainforest -supporting more than 200-300 woody species

and numerous other species of plants and animals, covering about 60-
70% of the land area of the country in the early 1900s.
 It is now the most degraded forest type in the Philippines because of
over-harvesting of the highly prized timber (Philippine Mahogany)
and associated non-timber products (e.g. rattan, wildlife) as well as
the conversion of forests to agriculture and other uses.
 Because lowland tropical rainforests have thin topsoil and low
nutrient content, the removal of vegetation makes them highly
vulnerable to soil erosion, esp. during heavy rainfall.
 Montane (mossy) forest
• Located at about 1000-3,000 meters in elevation
• Dominated by tree species in the oak and laurel families
• With numerous ferns and epiphytes
• With high rainfall and the trees and the forest floor are shrouded with thick
mats of moss that excel at receiving and slowly releasing rainwater forming
the headwaters of most of the rivers in the Philippines and play an especially
important role in hydrology
• Removal of forest often causes catastrophic floods and landslides at this
elevation but severe drought at lower elevation.
• Grades into mossy forest or upper montane forest.
• This forest type is sometimes called “cloud forest” because it is often covered
with rain clouds
• Trees are stunted (2-8 meters) and twisted due to high winds and steep terrain
• The leaves of trees are usually smaller, harder, and thicker than those found
at the lower altitudes; forest floor is covered with slowly decomposing
organic matter.
Pine Forest
 Pine forests in the Philippines are of two-types-one type is
dominated by Benguet Pine (Pinus insularis) in the Central
Cordillera) at 1,000-2,5000 meters elevation, and the other type is
dominated by Mindoro Pine (Pinus merkusii) in northwestern
Mindoro.
 These species are fire tolerant.

Coastal forests
 These include mangrove, beach, and karst forests:
 The mangrove forest is dominated by evergreen, woody trees (e.g.
Rhizopora, Avicennia), which adapt to varying levels of salinity.
 The mangrove forest forms an interphase between the terrestrial
lowland forest ecosystems and the marine notably seagrass beds
and coral reefs.
Beach forest is found along sandy and gravely beaches along the
seacoast.
 It forms a narrow strip of vegetation dominated by widely
distributed species such as Terminalia cattapa, Casuarina
equisetifolia, Acasia farnesina.
 Much of the beach forest in the country has been indiscriminately
removed to give way to tourism and human settlement.

Karst forest is a special forest type found in several coastal areas

in the country.
 Karst is a limestone landscape formed by minerals in solution in
natural waters
 Because soil moisture and nutrients are limiting, only a few but
highly distinctive species survive on coastal mountains
 SPECIES APPROACH
• A single species/taxon or a species assemblage (functional group/guild) has often been used as indicator of the conditions of
natural ecosystem
• Species richness is sometimes preferred as an ecological indicator because of its high level of precision
• Biodiversity Indicators:
 Keystone species-is one upon which many other species depend for biological necessities (food, shelter, etc.). Such organisms
have a vital role in ecosystem processes because their loss or decline could result in the collapse of biological integrity. Examples
are fruit bats and forest birds, insect pollinators, snake, burrowing crabs
 Sensitive species-the disappearance of certain organisms from a site could be an indication of their sensitivity to habitat
degradation. Examples are Haplonycteris fischeri (bat species), Cynopterus brachchyotis
 Tolerant Species-species that can be used to assess the extent of pollution. Examples are green mussels
 Endemic species-indicators of the status of habitats and ecosystems. Examples are endemic birds
• Other Useful Indicators:
o Umbrella Species-usually one with large habitat or range and which exerts a major ecological influence on the community
o Flagship species- either plants or animals that have captured the support and sympathy of the general public; used as rallying
calls for conservation.
o Charismatic species-also nominated as flagship species because of their appeal to the general public; many tend to be large,
brightly colored or endowed with unique and interesting features.
What are the threats to Species?

The following are considered threats to species and are also considered
as drivers to the loss of biodiversity. An acronym ‘HIPPCO’ will be
used for you to easily remember them. Again, these also affect human
health directly and through their impacts on biodiversity.
 H – is for Habitat destruction, degradation,
and fragmentation
• Rate of biodiversity loss is closely linked to the rate and extent of
deforestation
• Loss of habitat has been identified as a primary threat to about 85-90%
of the birds, mammals and amphibians listed as threatened with
extinction
• Habitat loss in the Philippines is caused mainly by the extensive
removal of vegetation and fragmentation of forests
• The country is considered one of the most critical areas of global
conservation concern because of the rapid loss of vegetation cover.
I- is for Invasive Species

• An invasive species is an introduced foreign species that has

successfully established itself in a new habitat and subsequently
displaced native populations due to competition or predation
• They are also called as alien species, exotic or non-native species of
plants and animals introduced, accidentally or deliberately to a place
that is not part of their natural habitat or distributional range. Exotic
species, esp. those that were introduced to an area with no natural
predators or competitors, will flourish in their new habitats.
What are Alien Species in the Philippines?

• Invasion by alien species in the Philippines may be attributed to one or any

combination of the following mechanisms:
Transport of organisms to a new habitat-this could be between islands or
countries.
Establishment and propagation of the alien species in the new habitat-either
natural or man-made habitats, such as enclosures, artificial ponds, reforestation
areas, and gardens.
Uncontrolled spread from initial population over large area-either through
deliberate release or accidental escape.
 Use of Exotic Species in Reforestation

The Philippine forestry statistics revealed that the tree

species used in reforestation were mostly exotic species.
Examples are the following:
 Gmelina arborea (47%)
 Acacia auriculiformis (9%)
 Amazinia mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla (9%)
 Philippine Narra (Pterocarpus indicus) (12%)

Extent and mechanisms of displacement of native species

in reforestation areas planted to exotic species are
unknown.
 Reasons why exotics species are preferred
over native species in reforestation
1. inadequate supply of native seeds/seedlings for
reforestation
2. slow regeneration and growth rates of native species
3. poor appreciation or understanding of the watershed
value of natural forest stand against that of a
reconstructed forest or tree plantation
4. misguided notion of the general public that simply
greening an area is as good as ecosystem restoration
5. absence of adequate data on forest biodiversity
• P- is for Population growth (human pressure)
• Population size increases through births and immigration and
decreases through deaths and emigration.
• The average number of children born to women in a population (total
fertility rate) is the key factor that determines the size of population.

• P- is for Pollution
• Pollution comes in different forms (solid, liquid, gaseous) and
composition (organic, inorganic) and causes a wide range of direct and
indirect effects on ecosystems and living organisms including humans
(plastics, organochlorines).
• C- is for Climate Change
Global warming has the potential of generating large-scale and long-term changes
in
the climate. The vulnerability of small islands is often associated with increased
occurrence of extreme weather conditions.

• O- is for Overexploitation
• Exploitation of plant and animal resources is a major direct cause of
species extinctions
o Over-exploitation of forests for timber and other non-timber products, either
legally or illegally, has decimated the native vegetation cover
o Over-harvesting of marine and freshwater resources
o Wild animals are over-collected for domestic and international trade:
 Convention on the International Trade of
Endangered Species (CITES)
• Regulation of international trade through CITES

• Primary global mechanism that regulates the trade in wildlife across international borders
• Domestic use and trade in wildlife-biodiversity loss due to over-utilization of and trade in many species

o Trend may be attributed to increasing poverty

o human population pressure
o ignorance about the limits of nature
o improved hunting technology
o efficiency in transportation and travel.

• International trade in wildlife

o A lucrative business

o Wild plants and animals are sold on market either dead or alive.
International Union for the Conservation of
Nature (IUCN)
• Established in 1964, IUCN’s Red List of Threatened Species has evolved to become
the world’s most comprehensive information source on the global conservation
status of animal, fungi and plant species.
• The IUCN Red List is a critical indicator of the health of the world’s biodiversity.
Far more than a list of species and their status, it is a powerful tool to inform and
catalyze action for biodiversity conservation and policy change, critical to
protecting the natural resources we need to survive. It provides information about
range, population size, habitat and ecology, use and/or trade, threats, and
conservation actions that will help inform necessary conservation decisions.
• The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria are intended to be an easily and widely
understood system for classifying species at high risk of global extinction.
• The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria aims to:
o Provide a system that can be applied consistently by different people;
o Improve objectivity by providing users with clear guidance on how to evaluate different
factors which affect the risk of extinction;
o Provide a system which will facilitate comparisons across widely different taxa;
o Give people using threatened species lists a better understanding of how individual species
were classified