Global Distribution of Forests

Forest Cover of the World

World Vegetation
 Arctic Tundra
• Arctic tundra occurs north of the tree line and
principally north of the Arctic Circle in an area
of low precipitation and little snow with cold
average temperatures. Vegetation consists of
small perennial herbs, low shrubs, creeping
willows, and a variety of grasses, sedges,
mosses and lichens.
 Boreal Forests or Taiga
• Taiga is the Russian name for the coniferous
forest that forms a wide belt between the
tundra of the north and the temperate
deciduous forest to the south. It is composed
primarily of species of pine, spruce, and fir with
an understory of ericaceous shrubs (heaths),
mosses, and lichens. Over 65 percent is
underlain by permafrost and thick peat deposits.
Lakes and ponds are common and soils are poor.
 Temperate Deciduous Forest
•  A mixture of broad‐leaved deciduous trees
(such as beech, maples, and oaks) together
with species of perennial herbs. Seasons are
pronounced with precipitation distributed
evenly throughout the year.
Temperate moist evergreen forest
• Also called “temperate rainforest,” .
• Occurs in areas of heavy precipitation both north and
south of the equator.
• In North America it is the forest of the northwestern
Pacific Coast. Western hemlock, white cedar, coast
redwood, spruce, and other trees attain large size with
mosses and lichens festooning their branches and the
whole forming a luxuriant, dense forest.
 Temperate grasslands
• Temperate grasslands are the typical
vegetation of the interior of continents where
they cover thousands of acres. Although
grasses are the dominant life form, trees occur
along streams in riparian woodlands.
• Most of the highly fertile grasslands have been
plowed and cropped and a majority of the
remaining grasslands are managed as
rangeland.
 Warm Deserts
• Warm deserts have hot summer temperatures with
great diurnal temperature variations. Precipitation
is slight and irregular. Shrubs, succulents, and
annuals are common life forms in deserts
worldwide. Productivity is low and limited by lack of
moisture. Some deserts may have no rainfall for 10
to 15 years and plants survive on dew.
 Cold Deserts
• Also known as polar deserts.
• Cold deserts are dominated by shrubs. The growing
season is condensed between cold winters and dry
summers. In contrast to the grasslands, most of the
photosyn thate here goes to wood production rather than
to digestible foods. Polar deserts lie closer to the pole in
the high arctic and are colder and drier than the
surrounding tundra and have only scattered patches of
vegetation in protected spots.
• Mediterranean scrub consists of shrubs and small trees with broad,
hard, evergreen leaves called sclerophylls. Many of the shrubs
produce secondary metabolites toxic to other plants, an example of
allelopathy. Five areas occur worldwide on the southwestern coasts
of continents in addition to the namesake area of the Mediterranean
Basin. All the areas have wet winters and warm, dry summers.
• Tropical savannas are grasslands with scattered trees and with three
growing seasons, warm and rainy, cool and dry, hot and dry. There is
no cold season. They are highly productive and in Africa, for example,
support large populations of grazing and browsing hoofed herbivores
and large carnivores.
 Tropical Rainforests
• Tropical rainforests have little climatic variation—no
seasons and no cold nor dry period–and are
either trade wind type (with steady, almost daily rains)
or equatorial (with frequent, heavy thunderstorms).
• Trees are broad‐leaved evergreens and are covered
with lianas and epiphytes, which forms dense jungles.
These are highly productive ecosystems with huge
numbers of decomposers.
 Ecosystem
• An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (biotic factors)
and nonliving (abiotic) factors that interact with one another.
• An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction
with the nonliving components of their environment,
interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic components
 are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.
• An ecosystem can be considered as a functional unit of nature
where living organisms interact with themselves as well as
there physical environment.
 Energy Flow in Ecosystem
• Energy enters the system through photosynthesis and is incorporated
into plant tissue.
• By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important
role in the movement of matter and energy through the system.
• They also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass
 present. By breaking down dead organic matter, decomposers
 release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient cycling
 by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that
can be readily used by plants and other microbes.
• Matter is always recycled in an ecosystem and energy is always
conserved in an ecosystem.
 Ecosystem Processes
• Ecosystems are controlled by external and internal 
factors. External factors such as climate, soil and 
topography, control the overall structure of an ecosystem
but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem.
• External factors are decomposition, root competition,
shading, disturbance, succession, and the types of
species present.
• Ecosystems are dynamic entities—they are subject to
periodic disturbances and are in the process of
recovering from some past disturbance.
 Change in Ecosystem
• Ecosystems also change over time in response to
disturbances such as fires, removal of a species, or climate
change.
• As an ecosystem forms, it undergoes ecological succession.
• Eventually, if enough time passes, the ecosystem will reach
a climax community, when no new species are added and
no species leave the community. This is when the ecosystem
is considered stable.
 Forest Stand
• A stand is a contiguous area that contains a number of trees that
are relatively homogeneous or have a common set of
characteristics.
• A contiguous community of trees sufficiently uniform in
composition, structure, age, size, class, distribution, spatial
arrangement, site quality, condition, or location to distinguish it
from adjacent communities.
• A stand is a spatially continuous group of trees and associated
vegetation having similar structures and growing under similar soil
and climatic conditions.
• A forest is a collection of stands.
• Normally a stand is studied or managed as a single unit.
 Stand Dynamics
• Forest stand dynamics is the study of changes in forest
stand structure with time, including stand behavior
during and after disturbances.
• Stand structure is the physical and temporal
distribution of trees and other plants in a stand.
• The distribution can be described by species; by vertical
or horizontal spatial patterns; by size of living and/or
dead plants or their parts, including the crown volume,
leaf area, stem, stem cross section, and others; by
plants ages; or by combinations of the above.
 Types of Trees Grouping
• Individuals – when there are a few unconnected trees
of a type.
• Troop – up to 5 trees connected of one type.
• Group – when there are more than 5 trees, but they are
shorter than a harvestable tree.
• Thicket – when there are more than 5 trees, but they
are taller than a harvestable tree to around 0.5 ha.
• Rotten group (cluster) – a packed together standing
aggregate of trees, trees in the rotten group have
different heights or a strip-wise arrangement.
 Stand Measurement
• Stand measurement involves the measurement
of individual trees within the stand.
• The parameters measured, and the ways trees
are selected for measurement will depend on
the measurement objectives.
• The measurements are summarised using
statistical and visual techniques to provide the
user with a quick and efficient way of
interpreting the data.
 Stand Parameters
Number of trees:

Stand Diameter: The average diameter of the stand.

Stand Table (Frequency diagrams): Different ways of presenting

the frequency of trees in diameter classes.

Stand Structure: Distribution of trees by species and size (or

age) class. Commonly divided into even-aged and uneven-aged
stands.

Stand Basal Area: A summary of frequency and diameter

information. An important measure of competition.
 Stand Parameters
Stand Height: The average height of a defined component of the stand.

Stand Height Curve: The relationship between tree diameter and height.

Crown Closure: A measure of the amount of crown material. Also a

measure of competition.

Stand Volume:

Stand Density: Measurements of the competition within the stand.

Site Index: Measurements of the potential quality (potential for growth).

 Succession
• The series of vegetation changes on a single site is called plant or
vegetation succession.
• Succession on new areas is called primary succession
• Re-vegetation after disturbance is termed as secondary succession.
• Allogenic succession is succession driven by the abiotic
components of an ecosystem.
• Autogenic succession is driven by the biotic components of the
ecosystem.
• An allogenic succession can be brought about in a number of ways
which can include: Volcanic eruptions. Meteor or comet strike,
flooding, drought.
 Succession in Riverine Forests
• When a new kacho is formed, the soil is generally sandy and land
is low lying.
• It gets inundation annually and for longer periods. In this process,
fresh silt is deposited annually and the land level rises with
enrichment of soil quality class.
• Tamarix and Saccharum are the pioneer species which occupy the
unstable kacho lands.
• In the later stage, Populus euphratica starts growing in kacha areas
and it is the first stage of the succession.
• When soil stabilizes, and the duration of inundation reduces,
Acacia nilotica occupies stabilized kacha areas and this is the
second stage of succession.
 Succession in Riverine Forests
• After several inundation floods, silt is deposited to the extent that
the land is rendered high lying and hardly get inundated
periodically, Acacia nilitica starts disappearing and is replaced by
Prosopis cineraria which constitute third stage of succession.
• As the time passes and more silt depositions take place the lands
become very high lying and seldom receives inundations, the
Prosopis cineraria gives way to the hardy and thorny climax
species, such as Salvadora spp. Calotropis procera, Capparis
decidua etc. which is the fourth and final stage of succession.
• This stage continues till the area is eroded and the succession
cycle restarts from the first stage and progression follow the
pattern as before.
 Stages of Succession
(i) stand initiation
(ii) stem exclusion
(iii) understory re-initiation
(iv) steady state. 
 Stand Initiation
• The stand, or plant community of a location, initiates following the the
disturbance.
• Forest floor is cleared by the disturbance and full sunlight becomes
available that provides the essential resource to allow new plants to
establish or existing plants to begin growing and dominate.
• During this phase, most plants that will occur in the developing forest
will establish. 
• The duration of this phase is about 15 to 25 years when there is
abundant seed and soil resources are plentiful to the plants.
• Management during this phase might include those activities that
relate to the successful establishment and growth of species of interest.
 Stem Exclusion
• Within the stand or plant community, as plants continue to establish
and grow, a point is reached where sunlight and soil resources become
limiting and additional plants are excluded.
• As the existing plant then continue to grow, their competition for
sunlight results in some plants gaining an advantage over plants
adjacent to them, resulting in winners that live and losers that die. 
• Often the trees with the competitive advantage have forked stems and
thus bigger crowns that occupy more space.
• The duration of this phase depends on the mixture of species and their
growth rate. 
• For fast growing and shade intolerant species, the phase may last 20 to
30 years. This phase would be protracted with shade tolerant species
and poor soil conditions.
 Understory re-initiation
• During the stem exclusion phase, the depth of the canopy
elongates as fast growing trees get taller and those more
tolerant of shade or in the process of dying grow more slowly. 
• Some trees are now approaching sexual maturity and starting
to produce seed.  As the depth of the canopy elongates, as
seeds are produced, and as some trees die, the potential for a
new understory to initiate begins. 
• The duration of this phase depends on the longevity of the
dominant species.  If long-lived species were early dominants,
their natural life span will slow the rate of their death and thus
extend the duration of this phase.
 Steady State
• The final phase is the mature forest.  Early successional dominants have
died. 
• The majority of the upper canopy are those species able to reproduce
with limited amounts of light or that depend on a large disturbance for
re-establishment of the dominant species. 
• In the absence of external disturbances the forest reproduces itself
among those species that can survive in sunlight available through small
openings in the canopy as single trees die. 
• The absence of external disturbances is infrequent, and thus the forest
that is maintained is more heterogenous and reflects trees species that
grow in small to mid- to large-sized canopy gaps. 
• Human and natural events create canopy openings of various sizes and
these favor tree species with different requirements of sunlight.
 Tree Morphology: Crown
• The crown is the upper branchy
part of a tree above the bole. It is
formed of foliage of the branches
springing from the bole.
• The tree crown is the top part of
the tree, which features branches
that grow out from the main trunk
and support the various leaves
used for photosynthesis.
• The shape and size of the crowns
of trees vary with species and the
conditions in which they grow.
 Crown Shapes
• In Chir, Deodar and some other conifers, the lower branches are longer while the
upper branches are gradually shorter, giving the crown a conical shape. On the
other hand, the crowns of Mangifera indica, Azadirachta indica are spherical in
shape.
• In Albizzia  the crown is broad and flat-topped, while in Abies pindrow it is more
or less cylindrical. Except for the palms, the crowns of other trees are affected by
the situation in which they grow.
• Normally, the trees grew in open have large branches and big crowns, while those
in dense forests have smaller branches and smaller crows because the branches
on the lower part of the bole die out gradually due to shade and the crowns are
limited to the upper part of the bole the tree. The size of the crown depends
upon crown development which is “the expansion of crown measured as crown
length and crown width”.
 Mode of Branching
• The mode of branching varies with species and sometimes, it is characteristic of the genus
or the family.
• In most of the species, it is absolutely unsystematic.
• In species with opposite leaves, the branches are also in opposite pairs, though
sometimes, this is visible only in the upper branches.
• Some species, e.g., Bombex ceiba, Pinus wallichiana, Alstonia with alternate leaves
sometimes develop branches in whorls.
• The angle that the branches make with the stem, is also specific character. T
• hough in most cases, the branches make an angle of 60° to 70° with the stem, yet in some
species. e.g., Populus nigra, cuppressus sempervirens, they make angles upto 20° to 30°.
• In quite a few species, e.g., old deodar  the branches are almost horizontal and form
terraces of foliage, while in other, e.g., Terminalia, leading shoot of young deodar and
branchlets and twigs of spruce, they are drooping downwards ground.
 Crown Class
• Crown class is a term used to describe the
position of an individual tree in the forest canopy. 
• General layer of the canopy refers to the bulk of
the tree crowns in the size class or cohort being
examined. 
• Crown classes are most easily determined in even-
aged stands.
• In an uneven-aged stand, a tree’s crown would be
compared to other trees in the same layer.
 Crown Classes
• Dominant trees   A dominant tree crown reaches over all other plants in the forest,
including the crowns of other trees.
• Dominant crowns extend above the general level of the canopy.  They receive full light from
above and some light from the sides. 
• Generally, they have the largest, fullest crowns in the stand.
• Codominant trees  These crowns make up the general level of the canopy.  They receive
direct light from above, but little or no light from the sides. 
• Generally they are shorter than the dominant trees.
• Intermediate trees   These crowns occupy a subordinate position in the canopy.  They
receive some direct light from above, but no direct light from the sides.  Crowns are
generally narrow and/or one-sided, and shorter than the dominant and codominant trees.
• Suppressed trees (Overtopped trees)   These crowns are below the general level of the
canopy. They receive no direct light. 
• Suppressed Crowns are generally short, sparse, and narrow.
Crown Classes
 Crown Classes
• Crown classes are a function of tree vigor, tree growing
space, and access to sunlight.
• These in turn are influenced by stand density and species
shade tolerance. 
• A light demanding suppressed tree is likely of low vigor and
will probably die out.  It typically would not be able to
respond to an increase in sunlight if a neighboring tree fell
over.  
• A shade tolerant “suppressed” tree may survive very nicely
and be able to take advantage of increased sunlight if a
neighboring tree were to fall over.
 Crown Classes
• Crown class distribution can also infer overall vigor of an
evenaged stand. 
• If most trees are in the intermediate crown class, then the stand
is likely too crowded and the trees are stagnated. 
• A stand with nearly every tree in the dominant category is either
very young, with all of the trees receiving plenty of sun, or very
sparse and may be considered “understocked.” 
• A typical evenaged stand has the majority of trees in the
codominant class, and the fewest trees in the suppressed class. 
• The relative ratios of dominant and intermediate classes are
generally a function of species composition.
Shapes of Crown
 Frondose Habit
• A frond is a large, divided leaf.
• The leaves of ferns are referred to as
fronds.
• In some trees e.g. Terminalia and
Pterocarpus the development of a fully
vertical axis and symmetrical crown is
delayed for several years during which
the upper part of the main stem bends
to one side and the crown tends to be
flattened giving the appearance of a
fern and so called frondose.
 Evergreen and Deciduous Habit
• In botany an evergreen is a plant whose foliage remains green and functional
through more than one growing season.
• Deciduous plants completely lose their foliage during the winter or dry season.
• Evergreen plants include both trees and shrubs.
• Most species of conifers
• Oaks, Acacias
• Most angiosperms from frost-free climates, such as eucalypts and rainforest trees.
• Broad-leaved evergreen species have thicker leaves than deciduous species with a
larger volume of parenchyma and air spaces per unit leaf area.
• Evergreens have generally a larger fraction of total plant biomass present as
leaves.
• Evergreen species have leaf traits supporting lower photosynthesis and
transpiration rates, in order to conserve water during dry periods.
 Reasons for Evergreen
• Deciduous trees shed their leaves usually as an adaptation to a cold or
dry season.
• Evergreen trees also lose leaves, but each tree loses its leaves gradually
and not all at once.
• Most tropical rainforest plants are considered to be evergreens,
replacing their leaves gradually throughout the year as the leaves age
and fall.
• Species growing in arid climates may be either evergreen or deciduous.
• Most warm temperate climate plants are also evergreen.
• In cool temperate climates, few plants are evergreen.
• In this climate, conifers are dominant because few
evergreen broadleaf plants can tolerate severe cold below about −15 °F.
 Conditions favouring Evergreen
• In areas where there is a reason for being deciduous, e.g. a cold
season or dry season, evergreen plants are usually an adaptation
of low nutrient levels.
• Whereas, deciduous trees lose nutrients whenever they lose their
leaves.
• In warmer areas, species such as some pines and cypresses grow
on poor soils and disturbed ground.
• Rhododendron grows in mature forests but are usually found on
highly acidic soil where the nutrients are less available to plants.
• In taiga or boreal forests, it is too cold for the organic matter in the
soil to decay rapidly, so the nutrients in the soil are less easily
available to plants, thus favoring evergreens.
 Conditions favouring Evergreen
• In temperate climates, evergreens can reinforce their
own survival; evergreen leaf and needle litter has a
higher carbon-nitrogen ratio than deciduous leaf litter,
contributing to a higher soil acidity and lower soil
nitrogen content.
• These conditions favor the growth of more evergreens
and make it more difficult for deciduous plants to persist.
• In addition, the shelter provided by existing evergreen
plants can make it easier for younger evergreen plants to
survive cold and drought.
Leaf Morphology
Types of Leaves
Types of Leaves
Forms of Compound Leaves
 Leaf Size
• Leptophyll: less than 25 square millimetres
• Nanophyll: 25–225 square mm
• Microphyll: 225-2,025 square mm
• Mesophyll: 2,025-18,225 square mm
• Macrophyll: 18,225-164,025 square mm
• Megaphyll: greater than 164,025 square mm

Raunkiaer’s classification, 1934

 Polymorphy
• Two different kinds or shapes
of leaves growing on the same tree
are called polymorphic leaves.
• Example: Mulberry, Populus
euphratica
• Leaf shape is one of the most
variable plant traits.
• Leaf‐shape variation is adaptive.
• Leaf shape influences
thermoregulation, water balance,
and resistance to natural enemies. 
 Drip
• Some plants have leaves with pointy tips.
This allows water to run off the leaves
quickly without damaging or breaking the
leaves.
• Adaptation to high rainfall to avoid
damage to leaves as well as young
regeneration and splash erosion.
• Many tropical rainforest leaves have a
drip tip. These drip tips enable rain drops
to run off quickly. Plants need to shed
water to avoid growth of fungus and
bacteria in the warm, wet tropical
rainforest.
• E.g. Teak, Dipterocarpus, Ficus religiosa
 Stem Morphology: Variations in Stem Shapes
• Stem shape and orientation are important components
of the architectural diversity among trees.
• They control light interception and mechanical stability
and are thus helpful in the adaptation of trees to their
environment.
• In case of fruit trees, stem shape and orientation have a
qualitative and quantitative impact on fruit production. 
• The bending or tilting of stems typically reduces
vegetative growth and modifies the branching pattern of
the stems, and in some cases increases flowering. This
phenomenon is called gravimorphism.
 Bole
• The lower portion of the stem upto the point
where main branches are given off.
• Some trees have an inherent tendency to form
a tall erect straight bole with small branches;
e.g. conifers, eucalyptus, populus.
• Some trees produce many branches, dense
crown and forked stem like shisham,
largestroemia.
 Forked Stems
• When there are two leading shoots
instead of a single bole.
• Undesirable in forestry.
• When there are several leading
shoots, it is called candelabra. It is
usually due to repeated injury.
• Forking is also caused by injuries
e.g. frost damage, wind, hail storms
or insect attack (budworms, shoot
borer, defoliator)
 Development of Clean Bole
• Development of clean bole is important for timber quality.
• The death and shedding of side branches result in clean bole.
• During the period of bole formation in some trees, either no
side branches are developed or small branches are developed
which are shed due to the shade of the crown. E.g. coniferous
species and semal.
• Some times side branches starve, die and broken off by wind
or snow.
• The point of insertion is covered by the growing cambium all
around it.
• This process is very slow in kail.
 Natural Pruning
• Increasing the density of plants results in
enhancement of natural death of the lower
branches due to reduction in light and
produces clear bole.
• Important in kail, deodar.
• The branches of shade tolerant trees persist
longer than those of light demanders.
 Epicormic Branches
• Sometimes a tree
develops a large number
of small branches on a
clear bole as a result of
shock e.g. frost, fire,
drought, defoliation,
heavy thinnig.
• It is caused by deficient
water supply or lack of
balance between roots
and crown, e.g. sal, teak.
 Buttressed Stems
• It is exhibited by plain tall trees
e.g. Bombax ceiba.
• It is caused by absence of a
pronounced tape root due to
rock, pan, water table or sterile
and badly aerated subsoil.
• The position of the butresses is
above the major lateral roots.
 Fluted Stem
• Irregular involutions and swellings in the stem.
• It is a serious defect for timber production.
• Sometimes it develops immediately below the
base of the branch e.g. teak.
• It is caused by shocks such as epicormic
branches, insect attack, faulty pruning,
unsuitable site conditions.
 Bark
• The outer bark consists of dead cork tissues forming an
insulating coat in extremely cold climate e.g. Betula utilis
and fire prone areas e.g. chirpine. In such conditions the
bark is more thicker and persistent than other areas.
• In wet tropical areas the bark is thin and delicate.
• Bark thick increases with stem diameter.
• Hard bark is present in sal, oak, mapples, terminalia.
• Bark of Betula utilis is in the form of paper-thin layers.
• Bark constitutes 10-20% volume of stem.
 Cork
• In some trees outer bark be removed in slabs
from the inner bark without damage.
• Cork cambium is developed in the cortex and
produces cork cells on the outer side.
• Commercial cork is obtained from Quercus
suber.
• Capparis decidua also has thick deeply
fissured corky bark.
Structure of a Tree
Types of Roots
 Tap Root Development
• Tap root sometimes penetrates to great depth
such as in Prosopis and Acacia nilotica upto 100
feet or more to reach water table.
• Tap root of shisham penetrates upto 30-50 ft in
Chichawatni irrigated plantation in 10 year.
• Plants raised from direct seed sowing have long
tape roots instead of tube plants or cutting.
• Different species have different root depths so
that competition is low among them.
 Lateral Roots Development
• Little knowledge about the horizontal development of roots.
• Usually it is upto a radius of 8-12 ft in irrigated plantations of
10-12 years.
• Lateral roots are generally confined to the area covered by the
crown.
• Sometimes they extend much further and overlap the roots of
surrounding trees.
• On edges these roots may spread upto 50 ft.
• Root development is the characteristic of the species but soil
conditions have also a great impact.
• In irrigated areas the development of roots is shallow.
 Prop Roots
• Prop roots develop from the upper part of the
stem, especially the horizontal branches.
• The roots are quite long.
• Prop roots pass down into the soil in a vertical
position.
• They provide support to the plant like pillars or
poles.
• Young prop roots are hygroscopic.
• Prop roots are quite thick and massive.
 Stilt Roots
• A root that arises from the lower bole and
that runs obliquely to the ground, as in
mangroves (Rhizophora) and a few palms.
• Stilt roots develop from the basal nodes
of the main stem.
• They are comparatively short.
• The roots develop obliquely at an angle to
the stem.
• Stilt roots provide support like ropes of a
tent or pole.
• Young stilt roots are non-hygroscopic.
• Stilt roots are comparatively little thick or
massive.
 Pneumatophores
• Also called breathing roots.
• Composed of soft spongy tissues
• Developed in mangroves e.g.
Avicennia marina and other
species growing in marshy
conditions e.g. shorea, taxodium
 Lignotubers
• In dry climate, young seedling
develops a pronounced
lignified swelling in the basal
part of the radicle which is
able to produce new shoots if
the aboveground part of the
plant die from drought or fire
or grazing.
• E.g. Eucalyptus
 Vegetative Propagation
• Any form of asexual reproduction occurring in plants in which a
new plant grows from a fragment of the parent plant or a
specialized reproductive structure other than seed.
• Meristem tissue makes the process of asexual reproduction
possible.
• It is normally found in stems, leaves, and tips of stems and roots.
• Another important ability that allows for vegetative propagation
is the ability to develop adventitious roots which arise from other
vegetative parts of the plants such as the stem or leaves. These
roots allow for the development of new plants from body parts
from other plants.
 Types of Vegetative Propagation
• Cutting
- Stem cutting
- Root cutting
- Leaf cutting
• Layering
• Budding
• Grafting
 Stem Cutting
• Cutting from healthy plants.
• Preferably from upper part of the
plant.
• Cutting should be made from
current or previous year growth.
• Remove any leaf or flower when
prepare cutting.
• Make a flat cut on top and slanted
cut on down or bottom.
• 9 inch is common size
• E.g Poplar, Tamarix, Fig, willow,
 Root Cutting
• Cutting should be made from large fleshy root.
• The thicker the better.
• Water the plant after making root cuttings to
settle the roots back into the soil.
• E.g poplar, shisham, albizzia, paulownia
 Leaf Cutting
• Some plants produce
adventitious buds on their
leaves.
• These buds remain
dormant when leaf is
attached with plant.
• When leaves get in contact
with moist soil,
adventitious buds are
activated and produce
new plantlets.
 Grafting
• Grafting is a technique that
joins two plants into one. In
general, a wound is created
on one of the plants, and the
other is inserted into that
wound so each plant's
tissues can grow together. 
• Root Stock
• Scion Stock
 Budding
• Budding is a type of asexual
reproduction in which a new organism
develops from an outgrowth or bud
due to cell division at one particular
site.
• The small bulb-like projection is called
a bud.
• Since the reproduction is asexual, the
newly created organism is a clone and
excepting mutations is genetically
identical to the parent organism.
 Pollarding
• Pollarding is a pruning
system involving the
removal of the upper
branches of a tree,
which promotes the
growth of a dense head
of foliage and
branches. 
 Seed Structure
• Seed is a mature ovule
which contains embryo.
• Embryo is a miniature
plant consisting of seed
leaves (cotyledons)
attached a rudimentary
stem (hypocotyl) with a
growing tip (plumule)
and a root tip (radicle).
 Seed Germinations
• Germination is the resumption of growth of a seed.
• The process starts with swelling of seed.
• Then splitting of seed coat
• Emergence of hypocotyl and radicle.
Physiological Processes:
• Absorption of water
• Cell enlargement and cell division.
• Increase in enzyme activity.
• Utilization of stored food and its transfer to growing regions.
• Increase in respiration
 Conditions for Germination
• Moisture
• Most seeds have 5-7% moisture whereas a
young seedling has 90% moisture.
• Moisture is also needed for rupture of seed
coat.
• Enzymes in seeds are activated by water.
 Conditions for Germination
Temperature
• Optimum temperature range for different species.
Oxygen
• As the seed coat is ruptured, the respiring seed need more oxygen.
• Some species can germinate in limited oxygen e.g. rice.
• Many herbaceous species lie dormant in the soil and do not germinate
until they are brought to the surface to get plenty of oxygen.
Light
• Some species require more light e.g. Albizzia, Cassia fistula
• Some species require moderate light e.g. conifers
• Majority of seeds are indifferent to light e.g. Shisham, Acacias.
 Types of Germination
• Epigeal Germination: In
this type of germination, the
hypocotyl elongates rapidly
and arches upwards pulling the
cotyledons which move above
the soil. E.g chirpine, deodar
• Hypogeal Germination: In
this type of germination, the
epicotyl elongates and the
cotyledons remain below the
soil.
• E.g. oak
 Seed Dormancy
• Seed dormancy can be defined as the state or a condition
in which seeds are prevented from germinating even
under the favourable environmental conditions for
germination including, temperature, water, light, gas, seed
coats, and other mechanical restrictions.
• The main reason behind these conditions is that they
require a period of rest before being capable of
germination. These conditions may vary from days to
months and even years. These conditions are the
combination of light, water, heat, gases, seed coats and
hormone structures.
 Causes of Dormancy
• Light
• Temperature
• Hard Seed Coat
• Period after ripening
• Germination inhibitors
• Immaturity of the seed embryo
• Impermeability of seed coat to water
• Impermeability of  seed coat to oxygen
• Presence of high concentrate solutes
 Types of Seed Dormancy
• Innate dormancy
• It is the condition of seeds which is incapable of germination even if conditions
suitable for seedling growth are supplied. This inability to germinate may be due
to the embryo being immature at the time of dispersal.
• Enforced dormancy
• It is the condition of seeds which is incapable of germination due to an
environmental restraint which includes, an adequate amount of moisture,
oxygen, light and a suitable temperature.
• Induced dormancy
• This type of seed dormancy occurs when the seed has imbibed water, but has
been placed under extremely unfavourable conditions for germination. Finally,
seed fails to germinate even under more favourable conditions.
 Breaking of dormancy
• Seed coat treatment
• These treatments make a hard seed coat permeable to water or gases either by
softening or cracking. This process is called scarification. The treatment can be
either chemical or physical in nature.
• Embryo treatments
• Stratification: The incubation of seeds at an appropriate low temperature over a
moist layer before transferring to a temperature suitable for germination.
• High-temperature treatment: Incubation at 40-50 °C for a few hours to a few
days may have an effect in overcoming dormancy in some species. For instance,
rice seeds treated with hot water at 40°C for at least 4 hours.
• Chemical treatments
 Methods of Breaking Seed Dormancy
• The natural breaking of Seed Dormancy
• Nature of dormancy stops when the embryo gets appropriate
environment such as adaptive moisture and temperature. The seed coat
that exists in many species becomes permeable due to the rupturing of
smoothing action of natural agents like microorganism, temperature, and
abrasion by the digestive tract of birds and animals that feed on these
seeds. Other natural methods include:
• Completion of the over-ripening period.
• Leaching of inhibitors present in the seed coat.
• Inactivation of inhibitors by the supply of cold, heat, and light.
• Leaching of the excess and highly concentrated solutes from the seeds.
• Production of growth hormones which can neutralize the effect of
inhibitors.
 Methods of Breaking Seed Dormancy
• Artificial Overcoming of Seed Dormancy
• Some of the artificial methods used for breaking seed dormancy are
listed below:
• Action with hot water for termination of waxes, surface inhibitors, etc.
• Rupturing of seed coats by filing, chipping, or threshing through
machines.
• Exposure to heat, cold or light, depending upon the type of seed
dormancy.
• By applying Hydraulic pressure for 5 to 20 minutes in order to weaken
the tough seed coats.
• Seed coats are treated with concentrated sulphuric acid for removing
all traces of the mineral acid.
 Advantages of Dormancy
• Dormancy of seeds is for a long time, which acts as a survival mechanism.
Seed can adapt to adverse situations and resist inappropriate germination.
• It follows the storage of seeds for later use by animals and man.
• It helps in the dispersal of the seeds through the unfavourable
environment.
• Dormancy induced by the inhibitors present in the seed coats is highly
useful to desert plants.
• Allows the seeds to continue to be in suspended animation without any
harm during cold or high summer temperature and even under drought
conditions.
• Dormancy helps seeds to remain alive in the soil for several years and
provides a continuous source of new plants, even when all the mature
plants of the area have died down due to natural disasters.
 Disadvantages of Dormancy
• Failure of germination
• No uniform germination.
• Dormancy makes it difficult to maintain the
plant population.