Neuronal

Communication
 What do you
know about the
nervous system?
 Nervous system is a complete communication network
around the body

Sensory receptors detect changes in the environment

Converted into electrical impulse

CNS co-ordinates a response

Neurones communicate to each other at synapses where

the signal is transmitted as a neurotransmitter
 Sensory Receptors

Detect changes in the environment, a STIMULUS – eg.

sound, temperature, pressure, presence of chemicals

TRANSDUCERS – Sensory receptors convert one form of

energy into electrical energy ie. An electrical impulse
 Stimulus Receptor Energy change
Light intensity Rods and Cones in the Light – Electrical
retina
Temperature Temperature receptors Heat – Electrical
in the skin and
hypothalamus
Pressure on the skin Pacinian Corpuscles Movement – Electrical
Sound Vibration receptors in Movement – Electrical
the cochlear of the ear
Movement Hair cells in the inner Movement – Electrical
ear
Length of muscle Muscle spindles in Movement – Electrical
skeletal muscle
Chemicals in the air Olfactory cells in the Presence of chemical -
(smell) epithelium of the nose Electrical
Chemicals in food (taste) Chemical receptors in
taste buds on tongue
 Stimulus Receptor Energy change
Light intensity Rods and Cones in the Light – Electrical
retina
Temperature Temperature receptors Heat – Electrical
in the skin and
hypothalamus
Pressure on the skin Pacinian Corpuscles Movement – Electrical
Sound Vibration receptors in Movement – Electrical
the cochlear of the ear
Movement Hair cells in the inner Movement – Electrical
ear
Length of muscle Muscle spindles in Movement – Electrical
skeletal muscle
Chemicals in the air Olfactory cells in the Presence of chemical -
(smell) epithelium of the nose Electrical
Chemicals in food (taste) Chemical receptors in
taste buds on tongue
Pacinian Corpuscles
Pressure sensor in the skin

Connective tissue in rings

- Wrapped around a nerve cell

Rings deform

* Only detects changes in

pressure that cause the rings to
deform

- Therefore if the pressure is

constant they will stop
responding
 Ions cannot
pass through Membrane Permeability
the
phospholipid
bilayer

Some proteins are channels that allow the movement of ions via
facilitated diffusion

Other proteins are transport proteins that can actively move ions
across the membrane against their concentration gradient. This
requires ATP
 ATP re-cap

ATP ADP + Pi

ATP is synthesised from ADP and

inorganic phosphate using Energy
energy from the breakdown of
glucose in respiration
 Neurones at rest
- Actively pumping ions across its cell surface 3 Na+ ions out for every 2 K+ ions in
(plasma) membrane
Cell cytoplasm has negatively charged
- Sodium / Potassium ion pumps ions

Interior = maintained at a more

- Gated sodium channels stay closed
negative potential

- Some potassium channels are open Therefore cell membrane = polarised

- Therefore potassium ions tend to diffuse out of Potential difference across membrane
the cell is -60mV
 Neurones at rest
Sodium – potassium pump
 Neurones at rest

OUT

IN

Voltage gated Na+ channels Voltage gated K+ channels Na+/K+ transporter

CLOSED SOME OPEN PUMPS K+ in and Na+ out

 Generating Nerve Impulses –
Sodium Channels
Cells associated with the nervous system have specialised channel proteins that have a gate
which can open or close the channel

For example – sodium channels

These can be opened to alter the permeability of the nerve membrane to sodium ions

Sodium ions move down their concentration gradient into the cell

Cell becomes less negative than usual = DEPOLARISATION known as a ‘generator potential’
 Answers
1. Ions are charged particles and cannot diffuse through the
phospholipid bilayer.
2. Sensory receptors respond to changes in the environment.
A constant sound is no longer a change. The receptor
or the sensory neurone will become habituated to the sound
and an impulse no longer reaches the brain.
3. Particles must be moved against their concentration
gradient. This requires active transport – which requires
energy in the form of ATP.
4. Sodium ions will diffuse rapidly down a concentration
gradient even without the immediate availability of ATP.
5. Diffusion that is helped in some way by a protein. This is
usually by supplying a pore through which the ions can
diffuse easily.
 Action Potentials
When a few gated channels open only a few sodium ions
enter the cell – small depolarisation

When more open, the generator potential is large enough to

generate an action potential
- The potential difference across the cell membrane has
been changed significantly

Action potentials are formed when a stimulus causes the cell

membrane to depolarize past the threshold of excitation,
causing all Na+ channels to open
 Research task on structure and
function of neurones
Use pages 48 and 49 to research your area

- Function of neurones

- Structure of neurones

- Different types of neurones

- Myelinated and non-myelinated neurones

- Advantages of myelination
How are nerve
cells specialised
for their job?
Dendrites receive messages from other
neurones

Extending from here is the Axon which

carries impulses

The neuron ends in pre-synaptic bulbs

 [2] If the depolarisation reaches the threshold of excitation, a
transmission of the signal will occur down the neuron (dendrite to
axon).

This is caused by the opening and closing of voltage – gated ion

channels and a brief reversal of the resting membrane potential.
 [3] At peak action potential, K+ channels are
open and K+ begins to leave the cell. At the same
time, Na+ channels are closed.

This helps to repolarise the cell

 [4] The membrane is hyperpolarised as K+ ions
continue to leave the cell. The Na+ channels are
still closed and the cell is in a refractory period
and cannot fire.
[5] The K+ channels close and the Na+/K+
transporters restore the resting potential
A – the potassium ions diffuse out of the cell bringing the potential difference back to negative
inside compared to the outside

B – the membrane is polarised with the inside of the cell being -60mV compared to the
outside. There are more Na+ ions outside than inside the cell and more K+ ions inside the cell
than outside

C – the potential difference across the plasma membrane is +40mV. The inside is positive
compared to the outside of the cell.

D – sodium ion channels open and some sodium ions diffuse into the cell

E – positive feedback causes nearby voltage-gated sodium ion channels to open and more Na+
ions flood in. The inside of the cell is now positively charged in comparison to the outside

F – the sodium ion channels close and potassium channels open

G – The original potential difference is restored

H – the inside of the cell is now less negative with respect to the outside and reaches the
threshold value of -50mV

I – The potential difference overshoots slightly, making the cell hyperpolarised

B, D, H, E, C, F, A, I, G
Check your learning
 Answers
1. The neurone is using ATP to pump ions. Sodium ions are pumped out as
potassium ions are pumped into the cell. This creates and maintains the resting
potential across the plasma membrane.
2. The concentration gradient will enable rapid movement of ions across the
membrane when the ion channels open. Sodium ions can move in quickly and
potassium ions can move out.
3. To ensure that the inside of the cell remains negative compared with
outside.
4. In the generator region the sodium ion channels are open by the action of a
acetylcholine; elsewhere they are charge-gated – opened by changes in
potential across the membrane.
5. After an action potential the neurone membrane becomes hyperpolarised –
more negative inside than at rest. The sodium ions and potassium ions need to
be moved back to their original positions in order to reverse this
hyperpolarisation.
6. When the membrane begins to depolarise this causes more sodium ion
channels to open allowing more sodium ions to flow into the neurone,
increasing the depolarisation.
Recap
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OZG8M_l
dA1M
 How does an
action potential
spread along a
neurone?
Waves if Depolarisation:

- The opening of Na+ channels at one point upsets the balance of

Na+ and K+ ions set up by the sodium/potassium pumps
- This depolarisation creates local currents in the cytoplasm of the
neurone
- Sodium ions begin to move along into regions where the
concentration is still low by diffusion.
- This causes sodium channels further along to open (positive
feedback)
- Action potential will continue to move in the same direction until
it reaches the end of the neurone because the concentration of
sodium ions behind the action potential is still high.

- Sometimes it is said that the impulse ‘propagates’ along the

neurone. This is just referring to the wave like movement.
 Frequency of transmission
All action potentials are the same intensity +40mV

The size of the action potential has nothing to do with the intensity
of the stimulus

Our brains determine the intensity of the stimulus from the

frequency of the action potentials arriving in the sensory region of
the brain

More action potentials = more intense stimulus

More sodium channels are opened in the sensory receptor which

produces more generator potentials
 Intensity of stimulus and
sensory receptor

Meissner’s
Corpuscles detect
light touch

Pacinian Corpuscles
need substantial
pressure to be
stimulated
 Myelination

Action Elongated local

potentials only currents occur
Multiple sclerosis occur in Nodes under Myelin
is caused by
demyelination of
of Ranvier sheath
the motor
neurones
 Saltatory Conduction

Action potentials appear to jump from one Node of Ranvier

to the next – this is known as saltatory conduction
 Saltatory Conduction

Speeds up the transmission of the action potential

This is because the flow of sodium ions in a local current is more

rapid than the movement of an action potential involving
exchange of ions across a membrane
 Saltatory Conduction in 2 mins
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5V7RZwDpmXE
What is a
synapse?
Key terms
Presynaptic neurone
- Releases the neurotransmitter

Postsynaptic neurone
- Responds to the neurotransmitter

Neurotransmitter
- A signalling molecule

Synaptic cleft
- Junction between two neurones
Acetylcholine

It is a neurotransmitter

Synapses that use acetylcholine are known as cholinergic

synapses

It opens Na+ channels in the post synaptic neurone

Pre synaptic Bulb
Lots of mitochondria –
metabolically active cell.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum –

To package neurotransmitter
into vesicles.

Vesicles containing
acetylcholine.

Voltage gated Ca+ channels on

the cell surface membrane.
Post synaptic Membrane

Specialised sodium ion channels

Will only open in the presence

of neurotransmitter

Receptor sites are

complimentary to shape of
neurotransmitter
• A generator potential or excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP) is created.
• If sufficient generator potentials combine and it reaches the threshold potential, a
new action potential will be created in the post synaptic neurone.

Be really clear that it is not the vesicles crossing the cleft. The vesicles fuse with the
membrane and release the molecules of acetylcholine by exocytosis.
• Sufficient EPSPs are required to reach the threshold potential –
This is called Summation.
• This could be from one presynaptic bulb (temporal summation) or
from several presynaptic bulbs (spatial summation).
Acetylcholinesterase
If acetylcholine is left in the cleft, it will continue to open the sodium
channels in the post – synaptic membrane

Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter at neuromuscular junctions so it

needs to be broken down or it may lead to muscle paralysis.

Acetylcholinesterase is an enzyme present in the synaptic cleft that

breaks down acetylcholine into Acetic acid and choline.

These are then recycled by diffusing into the presynaptic bulb and
being recombined to form acetylcholine using ATP.

This is then stored in vesicles until the next action potential arrives.
Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors

Sarin is a gaseous organophosphate compound that is

commonly used in chemical warfare, as it is a powerful
nerve agent that can cause death to those who inhale the
gas within minutes.

Sarin is an irreversible inhibitor to the enzyme

acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that catalyzes the
breakdown of the acetylcholine neurotransmitter into
acetate and choline.
 Reversing the effect of
acetylcholinesterase inhibitors
Pralidoxime
Functions by breaking the bond between the sarin
molecule and the acetylcholinesterase enzyme,
thereby ending the inhibition.

Atropine
Is an acetylcholine receptor antagonist, which
prevents the excess acetylcholine from continually
activating the acetylcholine.
Inhibitory post-synaptic potentials
Pre synaptic neurons can produce:
Inhibitory post-synaptic potentials IPSPs
OR
Excitatory post-synaptic potentials EPSPs
This enables greater control over responses to stimuli.
Inhibitory post-synaptic potentials IPSPs

Eg. GABA

Opens chloride / potassium channels which allow

chloride and potassium ions into the post
synaptic neurone

Causing temporary hyperpolarisation.

If it is in a state of hyperpolarisation, it has even

further to go to reach the threshold potential.