Review on Criminological

Research
 What is Research?

Is defined as a highly intellectual human activity

used in the investigation of nature and matter and
deals specifically with the manner in which data is
collected, analyzed and interpreted (Deryck D.
Pattron, Ph.D).
 Research refers to a search for knowledge. A
scientific and systematic search for pertinent
information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an
art of scientific investigation. “A careful investigation
or inquiry especially through search for new facts in
any branch of knowledge.” The Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary of Current English “Systematized effort to
gain new knowledge” (Redman and Mory);
 Research is a process of manipulation of things,
concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to
extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that
knowledge aids in the construction of theory or in the
practice of an art” (Slesinger and Stephenson in
Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences). The
search for knowledge through objective and
systematic method of finding solution to a problem is
“research”.
 Objectives of Research:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new
insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed
as exploratory or formulative research studies).
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in
view are known as descriptive research studies).
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs
or with which it is associated with something else (studies
with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies).
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
variables (such studies are known as hypothesis testing
research studies).
 Criteria of Good Research:
1. Purpose should be clearly defined.
2. Research Process (source of data etc.) should be described in sufficient
detail (except when secrecy is required).
3. There is a clear statement of research aims, which defines the research
question.
4. Design (Sampling, questionnaire, observation etc) should be thoroughly
planned so as to yield objective results.
5. High ethical standards.
6. Limitations should be frankly revealed (e.g. flaws in design) so that the
decision maker is made aware.
7. Analysis of data should be adequate and methods of analysis
appropriate. Should check for reliability and validity, and probability of
error.
8. Unambiguous presentation.
9. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the
research.
 Research Design and Research Methodology
Research Design refers to:
• the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components of the
study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address
the research problem;
• it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data. 
• Note that your research problem determines the type of design you should use,
not the other way around!
Research Methodology:
• describe the materials and equipment used in the research.
• explain how the samples were gathered, any randomization techniques and how
the samples were prepared.
• explain how the measurements were made and what calculations were
performed upon the raw data.
• describe the statistical techniques used on the data.
• the methodology section of a research paper answers two main questions: How
was the data collected or generated? And, how was it analyzed?
• the writing should be direct and precise and always written in the past tense.
Research Design
1. Action Research Method
The essentials of action research design follow a
characteristic cycle whereby initially an exploratory stance is
adopted, where an understanding of a problem is developed
and plans are made for some form of interventionary
strategy. Then the intervention is carried out (the "action" in
Action Research) during which time, pertinent observations
are collected in various forms. The new interventional
strategies are carried out, and this cyclic process repeats,
continuing until a sufficient understanding of (or a valid
implementation solution for) the problem is achieved. 
Design focuses on pragmatic and solution-driven research
outcomes rather than testing theories.
2. Case Study Method
A case study is an in-depth study of a particular
research problem rather than a sweeping statistical
survey or comprehensive comparative inquiry. It is
often used to narrow down a very broad field of
research into one or a few easily researchable
examples. The case study research design is also
useful for testing whether a specific theory and model
actually applies to phenomena in the real world. It is a
useful design when not much is known about an issue
or phenomenon.
3. Causal Method
Causality studies may be thought of as
understanding a phenomenon in terms of conditional
statements in the form, “If X, then Y.” This type of
research is used to measure what impact a specific
change will have on existing norms and assumptions.
Most social scientists seek causal explanations that
reflect tests of hypotheses. Causal effect (nomothetic
perspective) occurs when variation in one
phenomenon, an independent variable, leads to or
results, on average, in variation in another
phenomenon, the dependent variable.
4. Cross-Sectional Method
Cross-sectional research designs have three
distinctive features: no time dimension; a reliance on
existing differences rather than change following
intervention; and, groups are selected based on
existing differences rather than random allocation.
The cross-sectional design can only measure
differences between or from among a variety of
people, subjects, or phenomena rather than a process
of change. As such, researchers using this design can
only employ a relatively passive approach to making
causal inferences based on findings.
5. Descriptive Method
Descriptive research designs help provide answers
to the questions of who, what, when, where, and how
associated with a particular research problem; a
descriptive study cannot conclusively ascertain
answers to why. Descriptive research is used to obtain
information concerning the current status of the
phenomena and to describe "what exists" with
respect to variables or conditions in a situation.
6. Experimental Method
A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to
maintain control over all factors that may affect the result of an
experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to
determine or predict what may occur. Experimental research is
often used where there is time priority in a causal relationship
(cause precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal
relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect), and
the magnitude of the correlation is great. The classic
experimental design specifies an experimental group and a
control group. The independent variable is administered to the
experimental group and not to the control group, and both
groups are measured on the same dependent variable.
Subsequent experimental designs have used more groups and
more measurements over longer periods. True experiments
must have control, randomization, and manipulation.
7. Exploratory Design
An exploratory design is conducted about a research
problem when there are few or no earlier studies to refer
to or rely upon to predict an outcome. The focus is on
gaining insights and familiarity for later investigation or
undertaken when research problems are in a preliminary
stage of investigation. Exploratory designs are often used
to establish an understanding of how best to proceed in
studying an issue or what methodology would effectively
apply to gathering information about the issue.
• Generation of new ideas and assumptions.
• Development of tentative theories or hypotheses.
• Determination about whether a study is feasible in the
future.
8. Historical Method
The purpose of a historical research design is to
collect, verify, and synthesize evidence from the past to
establish facts that defend or refute a hypothesis. It
uses secondary sources and a variety of primary
documentary evidence, such as, diaries, official
records, reports, archives, and non-textual information
[maps, pictures, audio and visual recordings]. The
limitation is that the sources must be both authentic
and valid.
9. Observational Method
This type of research design draws a conclusion by
comparing subjects against a control group, in cases where
the researcher has no control over the experiment. There
are two general types of observational designs. In direct
observations, people know that you are watching them.
Unobtrusive measures involve any method for studying
behavior where individuals do not know they are being
observed. An observational study allows a useful insight into
a phenomenon and avoids the ethical and practical
difficulties of setting up a large and cumbersome research
project.
 What is Research Methodology?

Is defined as a highly intellectual human activity

used in the investigation of nature and matter and
deals specifically with the manner in which data is
collected, analyzed and interpreted (Deryck D.
Pattron, Ph.D).

It is a way to systematically solve the research

problem. It may be understood as a science of
studying how research is done scientifically.
 Research Process:
The research process comprises of
1. Formulating the research problem
2. Extensive literature survey
3. Developing the hypothesis
4. Preparing the research design
5. Determining sample design
6. Collecting the data
7. Execution of the project
8. Analysis of data
9. Hypothesis testing
10. Generalizations and interpretation
11. Preparation of the report or presentation of the
results, i.e. formal write-up of conclusions reached.
 What is a Research Problem?
The term ‘problem’ means a question or issue to
be examined.
Research Problem refers to some difficulty /need
which a researcher experiences in the context of
either theoretical or practical situation and wants to
obtain a solution for the same.
The first step in the research process – definition
of the problem involves two activities:
1. Identification / Selection of the Problem
2. Formulation of the Problem
 A research problem is the main organizing principle
guiding the analysis of your paper. The problem under
investigation offers us an occasion for writing and a
focus that governs what we want to say. It represents
the core subject matter of scholarly communication,
and the means by which we arrive at other topics of
conversations and the discovery of new knowledge
and understanding.
 Sources of problems:

• Reading
• Academic Experience
• Daily Experience
• Exposure to Field Situations
• Consultations
• Brainstorming
• Research
• Intuition
 What constitutes a research topic?

• Unanswered question
• Unsolved question
• Concern
• Query
• Statement of inquiry
 How to select a research topic?

• Personal interest
• Social problem
• Testing theory
• Prior research
• Program evaluation
• Human service practice
• Minorities in research
 Four types of Research Methods:

• Qualitative (Survey, Experimental, Ex-post

facto Research, etc.)
• Quantitative (Case Study, etc.)
• Mixed (qualitative and quantitative)
• Critical and action oriented
 Where do you find sources of
information for Literature Review?
• Books
• Journals
• Internet
• Data bases
•  Archives
• Interviews
• Observations
• Reports
• Records
 How to collect data?

• Observations
• Interviews
• Reports
• Records
 Sampling Techniques:
1. Non-probability sampling. A sampling technique
where the samples are gathered in a process that does
not give all the individuals in the population equal
chances of being selected.
2. Reliance On Available Subjects. Relying on available
subjects, such as stopping people on a street corner as
they pass by, is one method of sampling, although it is
extremely risky and comes with many cautions.
3. Purposive or Judgmental Sample. A purposive, or
judgmental, sample is one that is selected based on the
knowledge of a population and the purpose of the
study.
4. Snowball Sample. A snowball sample is appropriate to use in
research when the members of a population are difficult to locate. A
snowball sample is one in which the researcher collects data on the
few members of the target population he or she can locate, then asks
those individuals to provide information needed to locate other
members of that population whom they know.
5. Quota Sample. A quota sample is one in which units are selected
into a sample on the basis of pre-specified characteristics so that the
total sample has the same distribution of characteristics assumed to
exist in the population being studied.
6. Simple Random Sample. The simple random sample is the basic
sampling method assumed in statistical methods and computations.
To collect a simple random sample, each unit of the target population
is assigned a number. A set of random numbers is then generated and
the units having those numbers are included in the sample (Babbie, E.
(2001). The Practice of Social Research: 9th Edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Thomson).
7. Others
 What is a Hypothesis?
A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between
variables.
Hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured
relationship between two or more variables expressed in the
form of a testable statement. Relationships are conjectured
on the basis of the network of associations established in the
theoretical framework formulated for the research study.

Example:

Ho: There is no relationship between a family’s income and

expenditure on recreation.
1. Null Hypothesis
It is a general statement or default position that
there is no relationship between two measured
phenomena, or no association among groups. Testing
(accepting, approving, rejecting, or disproving) the null 
hypothesis—and thus concluding that there are or are
not grounds for believing that there is a relationship
between two phenomena (e.g. that a potential
treatment has a measurable effect)—is a central task in
the modern practice of science; the field of statistics
gives precise criteria for rejecting a null hypothesis.
NH = H0 (read “H-nought”, "H-null", "H-oh", or "H-
zero").
2. Alternative Hypothesis
The alternative hypothesis is the hypothesis used
in hypothesis testing that is contrary to the 
null hypothesis. It is usually taken to be that the
observations are the result of a real effect (with some
amount of chance variation superposed). It is simply a
hypothesis.

AH = Ha
TITLE PAGE
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES & FIGURES
CHAPTER 1 :THE PROBLEM AND REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE
CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER 3: PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF
DATA
CHAPTER 4: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS

Bibliography
Appendices
Curriculum Vitae
What is an Abstract?

An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph

of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the entire
paper in a prescribed sequence that includes: 1) the
overall purpose of the study and the research
problem(s) you investigated; 2) the basic design of the
study; 3) major findings or trends found as a result of
your analysis; and, 4) a brief summary of your
interpretations and conclusions.
The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:
• Lengthy background information,
• References to other literature [say something like,
"current research shows that..." or "studies have
indicated..."],
• Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or
incomplete sentences,
• Abbreviations, jargon, or terms that may be
confusing to the reader, and
• Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or
references to them.
CHAPTER 1: THE PROBLEM AND REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

• Introduction
• Review of Related Literature and Studies
• Synthesis
• Theoretical Framework/ Conceptual Framework
• Research Paradigm
• Statement of the Problem
• Significance of the Study
• Scope and Delimitation
• Definition of Terms
Introduction
The introduction leads the reader from a general
subject area to a particular topic of inquiry. It
establishes the scope, context, and significance of the
research being conducted by summarizing current
understanding and background information about the
topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of
the research problem supported by a hypothesis or a
set of questions, explaining briefly the methodological
approach used to examine the research problem,
highlighting the potential outcomes your study can
reveal, and outlining the remaining structure and
organization of the paper.
Think of the introduction as a mental road map that
must answer for the reader these four questions:
• What was I studying?
• Why was this topic important to investigate?
• What did we know about this topic before I did this
study?
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new
ways of understanding?
Review of Related Literature
A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles,
and any other sources relevant to a particular issue,
area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a
description, summary, and critical evaluation of these
works in relation to the research problem being
investigated. Literature reviews are designed to provide
an overview of sources you have explored while
researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to
your readers how your research fits within a larger field
of study. The purpose of a literature review is to:
• Place each work in the context of its contribution to
understanding the research problem being studied.
• Describe the relationship of each work to the others
under consideration.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
• Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory
previous studies.
• Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent
duplication of effort.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional
research.
• Locate your own research within the context of
existing literature [very important].
Delimitations of the Study
Delimitations refer to those characteristics that
limit the scope and define the conceptual boundaries
of your research. This is determined by the conscious
exclusionary and inclusionary decisions you make
about how to investigate the research problem. In
other words, not only should you tell the reader what
it is you are studying and why, but you must also
acknowledge why you rejected alternative
approaches that could have been used to examine the
topic.
 CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

• Research Method
• Respondents of the Study
• Research Site
• Data Gathering Tools
• Statistical Treatment
CHAPTER 3: PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Results
The results section is where you report the findings
of your study based upon the methodology [or
methodologies] you applied to gather information.
The results section should state the findings of the
research arranged in a logical sequence without bias
or interpretation. A section describing results is
particularly necessary if your paper includes data
generated from your own research.
Discussion
The purpose of the discussion is to interpret and
describe the significance of your findings in light of what
was already known about the research problem being
investigated, and to explain any new understanding or
insights about the problem after you've taken the findings
into consideration. The discussion will always connect to
the introduction by way of the research questions or
hypotheses you posed and the literature you reviewed, but
it does not simply repeat or rearrange the introduction;
the discussion should always explain how your study has
moved the reader's understanding of the research problem
forward from where you left them at the end of the
introduction.
CHAPTER 4: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION,
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusion
The conclusion is intended to help the reader
understand why your research should matter to them
after they have finished reading the paper. A
conclusion is not merely a summary of the main topics
covered or a re-statement of your research problem,
but a synthesis of key points and, if applicable, where
you recommend new areas for future research. For
most essays, one well-developed paragraph is
sufficient for a conclusion, although in some cases, a
two or three paragraph conclusion may be required.
A well-written conclusion provides include:

Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in your

paper. Just as the introduction gives a first impression to your
reader, the conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting
impression. Do this, for example, by highlighting key findings
in your analysis or result section or by noting important or
unexpected implications applied to practice.

Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger

significance of your study. The conclusion is an opportunity
to succinctly answer [or in some cases, to re-emphasize]  the
"So What?" question by placing the study within the context
of how your research advances past research about the topic.
Identifying how a gap in the literature has been addressed.
The conclusion can be where you describe how a previously
identified gap in the literature [described in your literature
review section] has been filled by your research.

Demonstrating the importance of your ideas. Don't be shy.

The conclusion offers you the opportunity to elaborate on the
impact and significance of your findings.

Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about

the research problem. This does not refer to introducing new
information [which should be avoided], but to offer new
insight and creative approaches for framing or contextualizing
the research problem based on the results of your study.
Citation
A citation is a reference to a published or
unpublished source that you consulted and obtained
information from while writing your research paper.
The way in which you document your sources
depends on the writing style manual your professor
wants you to use for the class [e.g., APA (American
Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language
Association) , Chicago, Turabian, etc.].
Note that some disciplines have their own citation
method [e.g., law].
1. APA (American Psychological Association) - used in
the social sciences.
Author, A. (Year of Publication). Title of work. Publisher
City, State: Publisher.
Finney, J. (1970). Time and again. New York, NY: Simon
and Schuster.

2. Chicago Manual of Style - used in the humanities and

social sciences.
First name Last name, Title of Book (Place of publication:
Publisher, Year of publication), page number.
Jack Kerouac, The Dharma Bums (New York: Viking
Press, 1958), 128.  
3. MLA (Modern Language Association) - used in
literature and the humanities.
Last, First M. Book Title. City of Publication: Publisher,
Year Published. Print.
James, Henry. The Ambassadors. Rockville: Serenity,
2009. Print.
4. Turabian Style - a variation of the Chicago
style used in many disciplines in humanities, social
sciences and natural sciences.
 How to present your paper according to
the APA style?

•  APA stands for American Psychological Association

•  APA is the most commonly used style in the Social

Sciences
 General format should be:

• paper size-8.5 x 11
• 1´ margins on all sides
• double spaced
• written in 12 point font using Times New
Roman
• short title and page number on the upper
right hand corner of every page
What is Plagiarism (Panunulad)?

Plagiarism is presenting someone else's work or

ideas as your own, with or without their consent, by
incorporating it into your work without full
acknowledgement. All published and unpublished
material, whether in manuscript, printed or electronic
form, is covered under this definition.
What law in the country governs Plagiarism?
1. An Act Defining Cybercrime, Providing For The Prevention,
Investigation, Suppression And The Imposition Of Penalties
Therefor And For Other Purposes (RA 10175) – Sept 12, 2012

Shortly knows as:

Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012.
The country 
instituted criminal penalties for a variety of online acts, including
spamming, identity theft and, most controversially, libel.
Plagiarism that also amounts to copyright infringement is. Such
plagiarism now carries a penalty of 3-6 years imprisonment and a
fine of P50,000 - P150,000 ($1,200 - $3,600), if prosecuted under
the law. 
1. An Act Prescribing The Intellectual Property Code
And Establishing The Intellectual Property Office,
Providing For Its Powers And Functions, And For
Other Purposes (R.A. 8293) - June 6, 1997

Shortly knows as:

Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines.
Properly citing the works of others is important because:

Proper citation allows readers to locate the materials you used. Citations
to other sources helps readers expand their knowledge on a topic. In most
social sciences disciplines, one of the most effective strategies for locating
authoritative, relevant sources about a topic is to follow footnotes or
references from known sources ["citation tracking"].

Citing other people's words and ideas indicates that you have conducted
a thorough review of the literature on your topic and, therefore, you are
operating from an informed perspective. This increases your credibility as
the author of the work.

Other researcher's ideas can be used to reinforce your arguments, or, if

you disagree with them, can act as positions from which to argue an
alternative viewpoint. In many cases, another researcher's arguments can
act as the primary context from which you can emphasize a different
viewpoint or to clarify the importance of what you are proposing.
Just as other researcher's ideas can bolster your arguments
and act as evidence for your ideas, they can also detract
from your credibility if they are found to be mistaken or
fabricated. Properly citing information not unique to you
prevents your reputation from being tarnished if the facts or
ideas of others are proven to be inaccurate or off-base.

Outside academe, ideas are considered intellectual

property and there can serious repercussions if you fail to
cite where you got an idea from. In the professional world,
failure to cite other people's intellectual property ruins
careers and reputations and can result in legal action. Given
this, it is important to get into the habit of citing sources.
IMRaD Vs. SIMRaD
What are some of the limitations encountered
when doing or thinking of doing a research
project?
• Time constraints
• Financial consideration
• Anticipating and avoiding problems
• Equipment limitations
• Human resource limitations
• Out of the box´ thinking
• In the box´ thinking
Research Statistical Methods
Statistical methods involved in carrying out a study
include planning, designing, collecting data, analysing,
drawing meaningful interpretation and reporting of
the research findings. The statistical analysis gives
meaning to the meaningless numbers, thereby
breathing life into a lifeless data. The results and
inferences are precise only if proper statistical tests
are used. 
The End!