UNIT THREE
Politics, Economy & Society In Ethiopia & Horn
To End Of 13th C
3.1 Emergence of States
What is state? State:- autonomous political unit. State is the
highest political organization.
State have four key elements:- population, defined territory,
sovereignty & government with power to decree and enforce law.
State was the outcome of sedentary agriculture & cultural
process.
Factors for the emergence of state (Agriculture, trade, Religion)..
The beginning of agriculture & irrigation.
Trade : facilitated the development of state
Religion: played prominent role
Ethiopia& Horn is one of regions in Africa where early state
formation took place.
3.2 Ancient States in Ethiopia & Horn
1. Punt
1st historically known state)
the earliest state in Ethiopia and the Horn. Evidence on Punt comes from
Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. There was cultural & commercial relation
with Egypt.
Pharaoh Sahure- sent expedition to collect myrrh, ebony
Pharaoh Asosi- took dancing dwarf “dink" to Egypt from Punt
Queen Hatshepsut – sent ships under Nubian Captain Nehasi via Wadi-
Tumilat. She took incense, cinnamon, sweet smelling woods (sandal),
spices, ivory, rhinoceros horn, leopard and leopard skins, ostrich feathers
and egg, live monkeys, giraffes, people etc.
Export items from Punt to Egypt
Iron, bronze, asses, foxes, cattle, animals fur, dying and medicinal
plants
- Import items from Egypt to Punt: axes, swords, knives, clothes, bracelets,
necklaces, beads ,trinkets.
- Hatshepsut presented the ritual importance of Amun (god) & Khebis of the
Netjeru-- divine or ghosts land
Location of Punt: exact location of punt is not known/clear
but it is it probably stretched from Swakim or Massawa to
Babel Mandeb (Gate of Tears) and Cape Guardafui.
2. Da’amat
the south of Aksum. It dated to the 5th C BC.
Had contact with south Arabia
Mukarib.- politico- religious title.
Almouqah -principal god -Astarr - Venus god,
Na’uran- light god, -Shamsi- sun god Sin - moon god
3. Small Archaeological centers
(Yeha, Hawulti, Melazo, Addi-Seglwmwni, Kaskase, Coloe, Methara)
1. Yeha: NE of Axum. The oldest center from others emerged in 1, 000 BC
Remains of walls , Eg. The Great Temple of Yeha –indicate the glory of
yeha
2. Hawulti Melazo: southeast of Aksum, stone tablets are inscribed in
rectangular temple
3. Addi-Seglemeni: southwest of Aksum.
4. other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi
Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda etc
Aksumite State
formed around 200-100 B.C.
Territory:- extended East: Red Sea coast Western:Nile Valley
North- Eritrea and South: northern parts of Shewa.
1. According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea:
◦ Adulis was the major and oldest port of Aksum.
◦ It mentioned ports of Aden, Zayla , Berbera, and Indian Ocean Benadir
Coasts like Moqadishu, Brava & Merca.
Export Items:- ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and spices, gold,
rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells , curiosity
animals like apes.
◦ Zoscales - king of Aksum, used to speak the Greek language,
Lingua Franca of Greco-Roman world.
◦ Aksum also had relations with Ceylon & Asia Minor).
2. Christian Topography
Written by Cosmas Indicopleustes
Mentions long distance trade between Aksum & a distant region called Sasu,
in benishangul .
kings of Aksum would take to Sasu cattle, lumps of salt (probably salt
blocks) and iron to exchange for gold.
Practice silent trade.
Aksumite kings like Gadarat, Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana,
Ousanas II had extensive contacts with the outside world notably
with South Arabia.
Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e. Roman
Empire, Persia, China & Aksum) at the time as recorded by, Mani.
Aksum was sufficient sources of timber for ship building technology.
Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond
Himyar and Saba
but the local prince Dhu-Nuwas was converted to
Judaism, marched to Zafar and Nagran killed many
christians. Byzantinian Justinian provided kaleb with many
armies
Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha as
governor of Arabia until 570 A. D.
Gabra Masqal:- son & successor of Kaleb who built a
church at Zur Amba in Gayint.
Decline of Aksumite Empire
-In the late 7th c
a. Internal factor:-
Environmental degradation
Plague infestation
Rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and (Yodit) finally sealed
the collapse of the Aksumite state.
b. External factor
Destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702.
Muslims, isolating the Aksum state from its old commercial and diplomatic
partners.
Achievements of Axum
Indigenous script and calendar
Art and architecture which greatly influenced the post Aksumite periods. The
Aksumite obelisks and other church buildings (such as Debre Damo) are best
examples.
Music (the hymns of St. Yared)
Urbanization
Administrative and governance system
Agricultural system including irrigation etc.
Zagwe Dynasty(1150-1270 A.D)
Founded as the Aksumite center shifted southwards to Kubar, rural
highland of the Agaw.
Merra Teklehaimanot married Masobe Worq, daughter of the last
Aksumite king Dil Na'od.
Merra-Teklehaimanot's successors include Yimirahana Kirstos, Harbe,
Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab, Yetbarek etc.
The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District within Wag and
Lasta, more exactly at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).
Territory:- extended to northern Shewa in the south, the Lake Tana region
and the northern part of Gojjam in the west.
The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite traditions almost intact.
Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with eastern
Mediterranean region
Exported item included slaves, ivory and rare spices.
Imported items:- cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels, drags and
Zagwe period :- a golden age in Ethiopia's art, architecture,
paintings & translation works from Arabic into Ge'ez, well
developed as an extension of the Aksumite civilization
The excavation of numbers of churches from bed rock is its
best achievement. The rock-hewn churches classified in to
three types:
1. Cave: with some decoration inside, similar with natural
cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel.
2. Semi-hewn: are with detailed interior decoration and partial
decoration outside. They are not totally separated from the
surrounding rock. Their roofs or walls are still attached to
the rock, eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete
Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el-Rufa’el and Bete
Abba Libanos.
3. Monolithic: with detailed decoration in the interior and
exterior parts. They are completely separated (carved out)
from surrounding rock, eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis,
Bete Mariyam and Bete Medhanialem.
Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all and Bete Giyorgis is
said to be the most finely built in the shape of the Cross.
Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem to avoid
difficulties of Ethiopian Christians encountered in their
journey to the Holy Lands.
The Downfall of Zagwe Dynasty
a. Problems of royal succession
b. Oppositions from groups- claiming descent from the
ancient rulers of Aksum.
Based on the legend of the Queen of Sheba, Solomonic
rulers claimed the Zagwe rulers as “illegitimate”.
Yekuno-Amlak, who claimed decent from the last
Dilna’od, defeated the last king of Zagwe (Yetbarek) at a
battle in Gaynt & proclaimed the “restoration” of
“Solomonic” Dynasty.
3. East, Central, Southern, and Western States.
A. Bizamo:- on southern bend of Abay River. Founded in
18th C & had early connections with Damot.
B. Damot: oldest state. Territories :- in to south of Abay
and north of Lake Turkana as well as west of Awash and
east of Didessa.
Motalami was a prominent king of Damot 13th C
C. Enarya: A kingdom in the Gibe region in SW Ethiopia.
Royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso).
King (Hinnare- Tato)-communiacted with visitors through
an intermediary, AfeBusho
Mikretcho (council) Awa-rasha (king's spokesperson)
Atche-rasha (royal treasurer). The kings had residences in
Yadare and Gowi.
D. Gafat: Lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining
Damot on the south western periphery.
Populations: Semitic speaking population related to Harari
and the Gurage in habited gafat.
Paying tribute to the Christian Kingdom
Gambo and Shat are Gafat clan names. Rulers bearing the
title of Awalamo.
4. Muslim Sultanates
A. Shewa: the oldest sultanate. Founded by Makhzumi Khalid ibn
al-Walid, in 896 A. D , founded Makhzumite dynasty on north
eastern foothill of shewa
B. Fatagar(11th C) :- around Minjar, Shenkora & Ada’a.
C. Dawaro:- located between upper waters of Awash and Wabi-
Shebelle. Valuable information on Dawaro by an Egyptian courtier
Ibn Fad Allah el-umari. Dawaro had a currency called hakuna
D. Bali: occupying high plateau, separating basins of Shebelle and
Rift valley Lakes.
It separated from Dawaro by Wabi-Shebelle River & extended
southwards to Gannale Dirre River.
Trade was mainly barter exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth
It had strong army composed of cavalry and infantry.
Bali was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces.
E. Ifat:-
o located adjacent to Shewan Sultanate
o ran from northeast-southwesterly in the Afar plain eastward to the Awash
o established by Umar Walasma, of Hashamite clan
The sultanate was fertile and well watered.
Inhabitants earned from wheat, sorghum, chat, millet and teff, and animal
husbandry.
Others: Arababani (between Hadiya and Dawwaro), Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro and Bali),
Fadise, Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah (West of Dawaro and North of Bali in
Arsi) and Sim
3.3 External Contacts
A. Egypt - introduction of Christianity to Aksum established a new pattern of
relation between the region
B. Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World.
C. South Arabian Kingdoms
The Legend of Prester John
The legend was developed when the balance of the crusade war fought
over Jerusalem between the Christians of Europe and the Muslims of the
Middle East was in favor of the latter
The geographical location of the country of Prester John was not known
to Europe for over a century.
Rich & powerful Christian ruler in middle of the 12 th century
The Europeans began to regard Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as the land
of Prester John since the only Christian kingdom between the Red Sea
and the Indian sub-continent was the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom.
A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System
3.4. ECONOMIC FORMATIONS
The main base of ancient states' economy in highland areas was plough
agriculture.
The most ancient system of land holding which survived in many parts of
Ethiopia and the Horn is the communal land tenure system.
Communal right to land is a group right.
Rist is a kind of communal birthright to land by members of the families
and clans whose ancestors had settled and lived in the area over long
periods.
It is inherited from generation to generation in accordance to
customary law.
The rist owners were known as bale-rist.
Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce.
The tribute collected by bale-gults,
Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult
B. Handicraft
Metal work, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry, weaving, jewelry, basketry
The artisans were mostly despised and marginalized.
C. Trade
Trade was another important economic activity of ancient states
Internal and international trade.
Trade was another important economic activity of ancient states
Generally, the above discussed states have numerous socio-cultural
Achievements
A. Architecture
Monuments and buildings of religious and secular spaces
There were totally 58 steles in and around Aksum .The longest one of these stele
measures 33meters heights (the first in the world) and represents 14 -storied
building. It also bears pre-Christian symbols, which are a disc and a crescent
(half moon) at the top.
The second longest obelisk measures 24 meters height that was successfully
erected represents 9 -storied building
The third longest stele measures 21 meters and represents a nine-storied
The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the finest
architecture of artistic achievements of the Christian world
B. Writing System
Sabean language had an alphabet with paleographical writing
from left to right and right to left alternatively.
The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia date to
the ninth century BC.
By the first century AD, "Geʽez alphabet" arose, an abjad (26
consonant letters only) written left-to-right with letters identical
to the first-order forms of modern vocalized alphabet.
Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system has immense
contribution to the development of literature, art and the writing
of history.
1. Oromo calendar:- Based on astronomical observations of moon
C. CALENDAR
in conjunction with 7 or 8 particular stars or group of stars called
Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars) & Bakkalcha (morning star).
There are 29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in 12 months.
Archaeologists Lynch, Robbins and Doyl have to develop Oromo
calendar
2. The Sidama calendar:- Rotates following movements of stars
with 13 months a year, 12 of which are divided equally into 28
days while the thirteenth month has 29 days.
The Sidama week has only 4 days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and
Qawalanka) and hence each month has 7 weeks. Fiche
Chambalala, New Year ritual, for Qetela or popular demonstration.
3. Ethiopic solar calendar :- Has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6
(is added every 4 years) Epagomenal days, which comprise a
thirteenth month.
4. The Muslim (Islamic) calendar
A lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354
or 355 days.
It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which Mohammed
and his followers made flight from Mecca to Medina and
established the first Muslim community (ummah).
5. Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta,
Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have their own dating system.
D. Numerals
Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the
beginning of fourth century AD.
Geʽez uses numeral system comparable to the Hebrew,
Arabic and Greek numerals
The End of the Unit
