GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY AND
TOXICOLOGY (AGSC 55)
Evelyn O. Singson, PhD
Professor, CAFENR
1st Semester, 2023-2024
Module 3.
Insect Physiology
Metabolic Systems,
Coordination and
Integration in Insects
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
In this module, we are going
to discuss the following:
•Digestive System
•Excretory System
•Circulatory System
•Respiratory System
•Endocrine System
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Digestive System
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Digestive System
•An insect uses its digestive system to extract
nutrients and other substances from the food
it consumes.
•Most of this food is ingested in the form of
macromolecules and other complex
substances (such as proteins, polysaccharides,
fats, nucleic acids, etc.) which must be broken
down by catabolic reactions into smaller
molecules (i.e. amino acids, simple sugars,
etc.) before being used by cells of the body for
energy, growth, or reproduction.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Digestive System
•This break-down process is known as
digestion
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC/55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Digestive System
• All insects have a complete digestive system,
that is, food processing occurs within a tube-like
enclosure, the alimentary canal, running length-
wise through the body from mouth to anus.
• Ingested food usually travels in only one
direction. This arrangement differs from
incomplete digestive system (found in lower
invertebrates like hydra and starfish) where a
single opening to a pouch-like cavity serves as
both mouth and anus.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Digestive System
•Most biologists regard a complete digestive
system as an evolutionary improvement
over an incomplete digestive system.
•It permits functional specialization -
different parts of the system may be
specially adapted for various functions of
food digestion, nutrient absorption, and
waste excretion.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Digestive System
•In most insects, the alimentary canal is
subdivided into three functional regions:
foregut (stomodeum), midgut (
mesenteron), and hindgut (proctodeum).
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Stomodeum
These structures usually reside in the thorax
(adjacent to the foregut). Salivary ducts lead
from the glands to the reservoirs and then
forward, through the head, to an opening (the
salivarium) behind the hypopharynx.Movement
of the mouthparts help mix saliva with food in
the buccal cavity.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Stomodeum
•Insects also have paired salivary glands and
salivary reservoirs.
•An insect's mouth, located centrally at the
base of the mouth- parts, is a muscular valve
(sphincter) that marks the "front" of the
foregut.
•Food in the buccal cavity is sucked through
the mouth opening and into the pharynx by
contractile action of cibarial muscles.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Stomodeum
These muscles, located between the head
capsule and the anterior wall of the pharynx,
create suction by enlarging the volume of the
pharynx (like opening a bellows). This “suction
pump” mechanism is called the cibarial pump.
It is especially well-developed in insects with
piercing/sucking mouthparts.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Stomodeum
o From the pharynx, food passes into the
esophagus by means of peristalsis (rhythmic
muscular contractions of the gut wall).
o The esophagus is a simple tube that connects the
pharynx to the crop, a food-storage organ.
o Food remains in the crop until it can be
processed through the remaining sections of the
alimentary canal .
o
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Stomodeum
o In some insects, the crop opens posteriorly
into a muscular proventriculus.
o This organ contains tooth-like denticles that
grind and pulverize food particles.
o The proventriculus serves much the same
function as a gizzard in birds.
o The stomodeal valve, a sphincter muscle
located behind the proventriculus, regulates
the flow of food from the stomodeum to the
mesenteron.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Stomodeum
o
In a developing embryo, the foregut arises
as a simple invagination of the anterior
body wall : this means that all of its tissues
and organs are derived from embryonic
ectoderm.
oIn effect, the inside of the stomodeum is
continuous with the outside of the insect's
body.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Stomodeum
oSince exoskeleton is secreted to protect the
insect externally, it is not surprising to find
that cells lining the foregut produce a similar
structure (known as the intima) to protect
themselves from abrasion by food particles.
oThe hard denticles inside the proventriculus
are made from this same material.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Mesenteron
The midgut begins just past the stomodeal
valve. Near its anterior end, finger-like
projections (2 to 10) diverge from the walls of
the midgut.
These structures, the gastric caecae, provide
extra surface area for secretion of enzymes
or absorption of water (and other
substances) from the alimentary canal.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Mesenteron
•The rest of the midgut is called the ventriculus
-- it is the primary site for enzymatic digestion
of food and absorption of nutrients.
• Digestive cells lining the walls of the
ventriculus have microscopic projections
(microvilli) that increase surface area for
nutrient absorption.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Mesenteron
•The midgut is derived from embryonic
endoderm so it is not protected by an
intima.
•Instead, the midgut is lined with a semi-
permeable membrane secreted by a cluster
of cells (cardial epithelium) that lie just
behind the stomodeal valve.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Mesenteron
•It protects the delicate digestive cells
without inhibiting absorption of nutrient
molecules.
•The posterior end of the midgut is marked
by another sphincter muscle, the
pyloric valve.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Mesenteron
•This peritrophic membrane consists of chitin
fibrils embedded in a protein-carbohydrate
matrix.
•It regulates the flow of material from the
mesenteron to the proctodeum.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 20213-24
Proctodeum
The pyloric valve serves as a point of origin
for dozens to hundreds of
Malpighian tubules. These long, thread-
like structures extend throughout most of
the abdominal cavity where they serve as
excretory organs, removing nitrogenous
wastes (principally ammonium ions, NH4+)
from the hemolymph.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Proctodeum
•Toxic NH is quickly converted to urea and
+
4
then to uric acid by a series of chemical
reactions within the Malpighian tubules.
•Semi-solid uric acid, accumulates inside
each tubule and is eventually emptied into
the hindgut for elimination as part of the
fecal pellet.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Proctodeum
• The rest of the hindgut plays a major role in
homeostasis by regulating the absorption of
water and salts from waste products in the
alimentary canal.
• In some insects, the hindgut is visibly
subdivided into ileum, colon, and rectum.
• Efficient recovery of water is facilitated by six
rectal pads that are embedded in the walls of
the rectum.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Proctodeum
•plays a major role in homeostasis by
regulating the absorption of water and
salts from waste products in the
alimentary canal.
•remove more than 90% of the water
from a fecal pellet before it passes out
of the body through the anus.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Proctodeum
• Embryonically, the hindgut develops as an
invagination of the body wall (from
ectodermal tissue).
• like the foregut, it is lined with a thin,
protective layer of cuticle (intima) secreted
by the endothelial cells of the gut wall
• When an insect molts, it sheds and replaces
the intima in both the foregut and the
hindgut.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Circulatory System
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Circulatory System
Insects, like all other arthropods, have
an open circulatory system
it differs in both structure and function
from the closed circulatory system
found in humans and other vertebrates.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson , PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Circulatory System
In a closed system, blood is always contained
within vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries, or
the heart itself).
In an open system, blood (usually called
hemolymph) spends much of its time flowing
freely within body cavities where it makes
direct contact with all internal tissues and
organs.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Functions of Circulatory System
1. responsible for movement of nutrients,
salts, hormones, and metabolic wastes
throughout the insect's body
2. plays several critical roles in defense:
a. seals off wounds through a
clotting reaction
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Functions of Circulatory System
b. encapsulates and destroys internal
parasites or other invaders
c. in some species, it produces (or
sequesters) distasteful compounds that
provide a degree of protection against
predators
3. hydraulic (liquid) properties of blood
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Functions of the Circulatory System
4. Hydrostatic pressure generated internally
by muscle contraction is used to facilitate
hatching, molting, expansion of body and
wings after molting, physical movements
(especially in soft-bodied larvae),
reproduction (e.g. insemination and
oviposition), and evagination of certain types
of exocrine glands.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Functions of Circulatory System
5. In some insects, the blood aids in
thermoregulation:
a.help cool the body by conducting excess
heat away from active flight muscles
b.warm the body by collecting and circulating
heat absorbed while basking in the sun.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Circulatory System
Dorsal vessel is the major structural
component of an insect's circulatory system.
•This tube runs longitudinally through the
thorax and abdomen, along the inside of the
dorsal body wall.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Circulatory System
• In most insects, it is a fragile, membranous
structure that collects hemolymph in the
abdomen and conducts it forward to the
head.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
In the abdomen, the dorsal vessel is
called the heart. It is divided
segmentally into chambers that are
separated by valves (ostia) to ensure
one-way flow of hemolymph.
A pair of alary muscles are attached
laterally to the walls of each chamber.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-2024
Circulatory System
•Peristaltic contractions of the these
muscles force the hemolymph forward
from chamber to chamber.
•During each diastolic phase (relaxation),
the ostia open to allow inflow of
hemolymph from the body cavity.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Circulatory System
• The heart's contraction rate varies
considerably from species to species --
typically in the range of 30 to 200 beats per
minute.
• The rate tends to fall as ambient
temperature drops and rise as
temperature (or the insect's level of
activity) increases.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Circulatory System
•To facilitate circulation of hemolymph, the
body cavity is divided into three
compartments (called blood sinuses) by two
thin sheets of muscle and/or membrane
known as the dorsal and ventral
diaphragms.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Circulatory System
•The dorsal diaphragm is formed by alary
muscles of the heart and related structures;
it separates the pericardial sinus from the
perivisceral sinus. The ventral diaphragm
usually covers the nerve cord; it separates
the perivisceral sinus from the perineural
sinus.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Circulatory System
• In front of the heart, the dorsal vessel lacks
valves or musculature. It is a simple tube
(called the aorta) which continues forward
to the head and empties near the brains.
Hemolymph bathes the organs and muscles
of the head as it emerges from the aorta,
and then haphazardly percolates back over
the alimentary canal and through the body
until it reaches the abdomen and re-enters
the heart.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Circulatory System
•
In some insects, pulsatile organs are located
near the base of the wings or legs. These
muscular "pumps" do not usually contract
on a regular basis, but they act in
conjunction with certain body movements
to force hemolymph out into the
extremities.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Circulatory System
•About 90% of insect hemolymph is plasma:
a watery fluid -- usually clear, but
sometimes greenish or yellowish in color.
•Compared to vertebrate blood, it contains
relatively high concentrations of amino
acids, proteins, sugars, and inorganic ions.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Circulatory System
•Overwintering insects often sequester
•enough ribulose, trehalose, or glycerol in
the plasma to prevent it from freezing
during the coldest winters. The remaining
10% of hemolymph volume is made up of
various cell types (collectively known as
hemocytes); they are involved in the
clotting reaction, phagocytosis, and/or
encapsulation of foreign bodies
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Circulatory System
•
The density of insect hemocytes can
fluctuate from less than 25,000 to more
than 100,000 per cubic millimeter, but this is
significantly fewer than the 5 million red
blood cells, 300,000 platelets, and 7000
white blood cells found in the same volume
of human blood.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Circulatory System
•With the exception of a few aquatic
midges, insect hemolymph does NOT
contain hemoglobin (or red blood
cells).
•Oxygen is delivered by the tracheal
system, not the circulatory system.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Respiratory System
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Respiratory System
The respiratory system is responsible
for delivering sufficient oxygen to all
cells of the body and for removing
carbon dioxide (CO2) that is produced
as a waste product of cellular
respiration.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Respiratory System
• It is a complex network of tubes (called a
tracheal system) that delivers oxygen-
containing air to every cell of the body
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Respiratory System
• Air enters the insect's body through valve-like
openings in the exoskeleton.
• These openings (called spiracles) are located
laterally along the thorax and abdomen of
most insects -- usually one pair of spiracles per
body segment.
• Air flow is regulated by small muscles that
operate one or two flap-like valves within
each spiracle -- contracting to close the
spiracle, or relaxing to open it.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Respiratory System
• After passing through a spiracle, air enters a
longitudinal tracheal trunk, eventually diffusing
throughout a complex, branching network of
tracheal tubes that subdivides into smaller and
smaller diameters and reaches every part of the
body.
• At the end of each tracheal branch, a special cell
(the tracheole) provides a thin, moist interface
for the exchange of gasses between
atmospheric air and a living cell.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Respiratory System
• Oxygen in the tracheal tube first dissolves in
the liquid of the tracheole and then diffuses
into the cytoplasm of an adjacent cell.
• At the same time, carbon dioxide, produced
as a waste product of cellular respiration,
diffuses out of the cell and, eventually, out
of the body through the tracheal system.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Origin of respiratory system
Each tracheal tube develops as an
invagination of the ectoderm during
embryonic development. To prevent its
collapse under pressure, a thin, reinforcing
"wire" of cuticle (the taenidia) winds spirally
through the membranous wall.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Structural design
This design (similar in structure to a heater
hose on an automobile or an exhaust duct
on a clothes dryer) gives tracheal tubes the
ability to flex and stretch without
developing kinks that might restrict air flow.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Respiratory System
•The absence of taenidia in certain parts of
the tracheal system allows the formation of
collapsible air sacs, balloon-like structures
that may store a reserve of air.
•In dry terrestrial environments, this
temporary air supply allows an insect to
conserve water by closing its spiracles
during periods of high evaporative stress.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Respiratory System
•Aquatic insects consume the stored air
while under water or use it to regulate
buoyancy.
•During a molt, air sacs fill and enlarge as the
insect breaks free of the old exoskeleton
and expands a new one.
• Between molts, the air sacs provide room
for new growth -- shrinking in volume as
they are compressed by expansion of
internal organs.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Respiratory System
Small insects rely almost exclusively on passive
diffusion and physical activity for movement of
gasses within the tracheal system
Larger insects may require active ventilation of
the tracheal system (when active or under heat
stress accomplished by opening some spiracles
and closing others while using abdominal
muscles to alternately expand and contract body
volume
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Respiratory System
Pulsating movements flush air from one
end of the body to the other through the
longitudinal tracheal trunks
diffusion is used for distributing oxygen to
individual cells through the network of
smaller tracheal tubes.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Trivia, Trivia, Trivia………
The rate of gas diffusion is regarded as
one of the main limiting factors (along
with weight of the exoskeleton) that
prevents real insects from growing as
large as the ones we see in horror
movies!
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Endocrine System
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Endocrine System
Hormone is a chemical signal sent from cells
in one part of an organism to cells in another
part (or parts) of the same individual
often regarded as chemical messengers
typically produced in very small quantities
may cause profound changes in their target
cells
effect may be stimulatory or inhibitory
single hormone may have multiple targets
and cause different effects in each target.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Categories of hormone-
producing cells of insect body
Endocrine glands
Neurohemal organs
Neurosecretory cells
Internal organs
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Hormone producing cells
1) Endocrine glands - secretory structures
adapted exclusively for producing hormones
and releasing them into the circulatory system.
2) Neurohemal organs - similar to glands, but
store their secretory products in a special
chamber until stimulated to release it by a
signal from the nervous system (or another
hormone).
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Hormone producing cells
• 3) Neurosecretory cells -- specialized nerve cells
(neurons) that respond to stimulation by
producing and secreting specific chemical
messengers. Functionally, they serve as a link
between the nervous system and the endocrine
system
• 4) Internal organs -- hormone-producing cells are
associated with numerous organs of the body,
including the ovaries and testes, the fat body,
and parts of the digestive system.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Hormone producing cells
•Together, these hormone-secreting
structures form an endocrine system
that helps maintain homeostasis,
coordinate behavior, and regulate
growth, development, and other
physiological activities.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Endocrine system
• In insects, the largest and most obvious
endocrine glands are found in the prothorax, just
behind the head. These prothoracic glands
manufacture ecdysteroids, a group of closely-
related steroid hormones (including ecdysone)
that stimulate synthesis of chitin and protein in
epidermal cells and trigger a cascade of
physiological events that culminates in molting.
For this reason, the ecdysteroids are often called
"molting hormones”
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Endocrine system
• Once an insect reaches the adult stage, its
prothoracic glands atrophy (wither away)
and it will never molt again.
• Prothoracic glands produce and release
ecdysteroids only after they have been
stimulated by another chemical
messenger, prothoracicotropic hormone
(PTTH) This compound is a peptide
hormone secreted by the corpora cardiaca,
a pair of neurohemal organs located on the
walls of the aorta just behind the brain.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 11/55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Endocrine system
The corpora cardiaca release their store
of PTTH only after they receive a signal
from neurosecretory cells in the brain. In
a sense, they act as signal amplifiers --
sending out a big pulse of hormone to the
body in response to a small message
from the brain.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2021-22
Endocrine system
•The corpora allata, another pair of
neurohemal organs, lie just behind the
corpora cardiaca.
•They manufacture juvenile hormone (JH), a
compound that inhibits development of
adult characteristics during the immature
stages and promotes sexual maturity during
the adult stage.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Endocrine system
•Neurosecretory cells in the brain regulate
activity of the corpora allata - stimulating
them to produce JH during larval or
nymphal instars, inhibiting them during the
transition to adulthood, and reactivating
them once the adult is ready for
reproduction.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Endocrine system
•The chemical structure of juvenile
hormone is rather unusual: it is a
sesquiterpene compound -- more
similar to defensive chemicals found in
pine trees than to any other animal
hormone.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Endocrine system
•The neurosecretory cells are found in clusters,
both medially and laterally in the insect's
brain. Axons from these cells can be traced
along tiny nerves that run to the corpora
cardiaca and corpora allata. The cells produce
and secrete brain hormone, a low-molecular-
weight peptide that appears to be the same as
(or very similar to) prothoracicotropic
hormone (PTTH) manufactured by the corpora
cardiaca.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Endocrine system
Insect physiologists suspect that brain
hormone is bound to a larger carrier protein
while it is inside the neurosecretory cell, and
some believe that each cluster of cells may
produce as many as three different brain
hormones (or hormone-carrier combinations).
Large numbers of neurosecretory cells also
occur in the ventral ganglia of the nerve cord,
but their function is unknown.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Endocrine system
• Many other tissues and organs of the body also
produce hormones. Ovaries and testes produce
gonadal hormones that have been shown to
coordinate courtship and mating behaviors.
• Ventral ganglia in the nervous system produce one
compound (eclosion hormone) that helps an insect
shed its old exoskeleton and another compound
(bursicon) that causes hardening and tanning of the
new one.
• There are still other hormones that control the level
of sugar dissolved in the blood, adjust salt and water
balance, and regulate protein metabolism.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Endocrine system
•When an immature insect has grown
sufficiently to require a larger exoskeleton,
sensory input from the body activates
certain neurosecretory cells in the brain.
These neurons respond by secreting brain
hormone which triggers the corpora
cardiaca to release their store of
prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH) into
the circulatory system.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
This sudden "pulse" of PTTH stimulates
the prothoracic glands to secrete
molting hormone (ecdysteroids)
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Endocrine system
• Molting hormone affects many cells
throughout the body, but its principle
function is to stimulate a series of
physiological events (collectively known as
apolysis) that lead to synthesis of a new
exoskeleton. During this process, the new
exoskeleton forms as a soft, wrinkled layer
underneath the hard parts (exocuticle plus
epicuticle) of the old exoskeleton.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Endocrine system
•The duration of apolysis ranges from days to
weeks, depending on the species and its
characteristic growth rate.
•Once new exoskeleton has formed, the insect
is ready to shed what's left of its old
exoskeleton.
•At this stage, the insect is said to be pharate,
meaning that the body is covered by two
layers of exoskeleton.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Endocrine system
•As long as ecdysteroid levels remain above
a critical threshold in the hemolymph, other
endocrine structures remain inactive
(inhibited). But toward the end of apolysis,
ecdysteroid concentration falls, and
neurosecretory cells in the ventral ganglia
begin secreting eclosion hormone. This
hormone triggers ecdysis, physical process
of shedding the old exoskeleton.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Endocrine system
• In addition, a rising concentration of
eclosion hormone stimulates other
neurosecretory cells in the ventral ganglia
to secrete bursicon, a hormone that
causes hardening and darkening of the
integument (tanning) due to the
formation of quinone cross-linkages in the
exocuticle (sclerotization).
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Endocrine system
•In immature insects, juvenile hormone is
secreted by the corpora allata prior to each
molt. This hormone inhibits the genes that
promote development of adult
characteristics (e.g. wings, reproductive
organs, and external genitalia), causing the
insect to remain "immature" (nymph or
larva).
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Endocrine system
•The corpora allata become atrophied
(shrink) during the last larval or nymphal
instar and stop producing juvenile hormone
•This releases inhibition on development of
adult structures and causes the insect to
molt into an adult (hemimetabolous) or a
pupa (holometabolous).
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Endocrine system
•At the approach of sexual maturity in the
adult stage, brain neurosecretory cells
release a brain hormone that "reactivates"
the corpora allata, stimulating renewed
production of juvenile hormone.
• In adult females, juvenile hormone
stimulates production of yolk for the eggs.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
Endocrine system
• In adult males, it stimulates the accessory
glands to produce proteins needed for
seminal fluid and the case of the
spermatophore.
•In the absence of normal juvenile
hormone production, the adult remains
sexually sterile.
General Physiology & Toxicology (AGSC 55) by Evelyn O. Singson, PhD,
Cavite State University, 1st Sem 2023-24
