Practical Research: Planning and Design
Twelfth Edition, Global Edition
Chapter 8
Qualitative Research
Methods
Potential Advantages of Qualitative Research
• Exploration
• Multifaceted description
• Verification
• Theory development
• Problem identification
• Evaluation
Research Problems
• Qualitative studies do not allow the researcher to identify
cause–and–effect relationships
• May be general and open-ended
– “What is the nature of…”
– “What is it like to…”
Research Methodology
• May not be determined in advance
• May continue to evolve over the course of the study
• Requires considerable preparation and planning
Qualitative Research Designs
• Case study
• Ethnography
• Phenomenological study
• Grounded theory study
• Narrative Inquiry
• Content analysis
Case Study (1 of 2)
• A particular individual, program or event is studied in depth
• Used for
– Learning more about a little known or poorly understood
situation
– Investigating how an individual or program changes over
time
– Generating or providing preliminary support for one or
more hypotheses
Case Study (2 of 2)
• Limitation: findings may not be generalizable to other
situations
Ethnography (1 of 2)
• In-depth investigation of an entire group that shares a common
culture
– Site-based field work
– Performed in natural setting
– Performed over long period of time
– Key informants
– Often involves participant observation
Ethnography (2 of 2)
• Used to study
– Explicit cultural patterns
– Implicit beliefs and assumptions
– Below-the-surface, taken-for-granted patterns that even
group members aren’t always consciously aware of
Narrative Inquiry
• Used for studying complex, multifaceted phenomena
– Focuses on the recollections and stories of individuals who
have had experiences related to these phenomena
– Central notion: Three-dimensional narrative space
comprised of interaction, continuity, and situation
Phenomenological Study
• Study that attempts to understand people’s perceptions and
perspectives of a particular experience
– Small sample
– Lengthy unstructured interviews
Grounded Theory Study
• Goal is to collect and interpret data to develop a theory
– Data analysis begins right away
– Data are organized into categories until saturation
– Theory emerges from interrelations among categories
• Typically focused on a process
– eating, class discussions, stress during work
Content Analysis
• Detailed, systematic examination of the contents of a body of
material
– Books, newspapers, legal documents, transcripts of
conversations, blogs
• Often included along with another study design
• Often has a quantitative component
– Identify categories & count frequency in each
Collecting Qualitative Data (1 of 2)
• Multiple methods are used
– Example: interview + observation + artifacts
• Many qualitative researchers engage in the production of
memos
• Data collection follows an emerging design
• Analysis of early data influences additional data collection
• Researchers write memos during data collection
Collecting Qualitative Data (2 of 2)
• All data must be collected in an ethical way
– Informed consent
– Right to privacy
– Low risk
Credibility and Transferability
• Equivalent to validity and reliability in quantitative research.
• Whereas quantitative researcher judge assessment strategies as
reliable, qualitative researchers prefer to speak of
dependability.
Strategies to Enhance Credibility and
Reliability
• Identifying biases (reflexivity)
• Collecting multiple forms of data (triangulation)
• Separating observations (data) from interpretations (memos)
• Seeking exceptions and contradictory evidence
• Spending considerable time on site
• Member checking and audit trails
Selecting an Appropriate Sample (1 of 3)
• Depends on your research question and goal
– Random samples best for generalizing to a larger
population
– Purposive samples best when specific
information/perspective is needed
– Grounded theorists tend to engage in:
▪ Theoretical sampling
▪ Discriminant sampling
Selecting an Appropriate Sample (2 of 3)
• Case study researchers may engage in extreme case sampling:
A researcher selects individuals who have unique or deviant
characteristics within a case, then focuses observations on
those individuals
• When researchers have little control over certain situations they
may employ:
– convenience sampling
– snowball sampling
Selecting an Appropriate Sample (3 of 3)
• Ideally, the sample should provide information not only about
how things are on average but also about how much
variability exists in the phenomenon under investigation.
Observations
• Typically unstructured, free-flowing
• Can be very time-consuming
• Can be biased
– Researcher’s attention
– Researcher’s interpretations
– Researcher’s influence on participant
Interviews (1 of 3)
1. Identify general questions and follow-up questions in advance
2. Consider participants’ cultural backgrounds
3. Make sure sample includes people who can give the
information you want
4. Find a suitable location
Interviews (2 of 3)
5. Get written permission
6. Establish and maintain rapport
7. Focus on the actual rather than on the abstract or hypothetical
8. Don’t put words in people’s mouths
Interviews (3 of 3)
9. Record responses verbatim
10. Keep your reactions to yourself
11. Remember that you may not be getting the “facts”
12. When conducting a focus group, take group dynamics into
account
Criteria for Evaluating Qualitative
Research (1 of 4)
1. Purposefulness
– The research question drives the methods used to collect and analyze data.
2. Explicitness of assumptions and biases
– The researcher identifies and communicates anything that may influence data
collection and interpretation.
3. Rigor
– The researcher uses rigorous, precise, and thorough methods and takes steps to
remain as objective as possible.
Criteria for Evaluating Qualitative Research (2 of 4)
4. Open-mindedness
– The researcher shows a willingness to modify hypotheses and interpretations
when necessary.
5. Completeness
– The researcher develops an in-depth, multifaceted picture of the phenomenon
(i.e., thick description).
6. Coherence
– The researcher uses converging data to develop a portrait that “hangs
together”.
Criteria for Evaluating Qualitative
Research (3 of 4)
7. Persuasiveness
– The researcher presents logical arguments, and the weight
of the evidence supports them.
8. Consensus
– Other individuals agree with the researcher’s
interpretations and explanations.
Criteria for Evaluating Qualitative
Research (4 of 4)
9. Usefulness
– The project leads to
▪ A better understanding of the phenomenon
▪ More accurate predictions about future events
▪ Interventions that enhance the quality of life
