LEARNING

MISS MISBAH HUSSAIN

 LEARNING
Learning refers to the process of acquiring knowledge, behaviors, skills, or attitudes
through experience, study, instruction, or conditioning. It's a relatively permanent
change in behavior or mental processes resulting from practice or experience.
1. John Dewey: "Learning is the process of adjusting our behavior to the
environment, which is shaped by our experiences.
2. B.F. Skinner: "Learning is a change in behavior due to experience. It is shaped
by reinforcement and punishment.
3. Ivan Pavlov: "Learning is the process of creating associations between stimuli,
as demonstrated in classical conditioning.
4. Jean Piaget: "Learning is a process of adaptation where individuals construct
knowledge through experiences and interactions with their environment.“
5. Albert Bandura: "Learning is a cognitive process that occurs in a social context
and can happen through observation and imitation, not just direct
experience."These definitions reflect different perspectives on learning,
highlighting its complexity and multifaceted nature.
 Habituation
 Habituation is a form of learning where repeated exposure to a
stimulus reduces the response to it. This allows us to filter out
non-essential stimuli.
 Example: If you live near a busy road, you might initially be
disturbed by traffic noise. Over time, you become less aware of it
as your brain habituates to the sound, allowing you to focus on
other things
Learning and Conditioning

 Conditioning, in psychology, refers to a type of learning that involves

associations between stimuli or behaviors and their consequences. There are
two main types of conditioning:
1. Classical conditioning
2. Operant conditioning
 Classical conditioning

• Classical conditioning is a type of learning where we associate

two different stimuli together.
• Classical conditioning, also called Pavlovian conditioning or
respondent conditioning, is learning through association. This
behavioral learning method was first studied in the late 19th
century by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov.
Stages of Classical conditioning
 Classical conditioning involves forming an association between two
stimuli, resulting in a learned response. There are three basic phases of
this process.
Phase 1: Before Conditioning
 The first part of the classical conditioning process requires a naturally
occurring stimulus that will automatically cause a response. Salivating
in response to the smell of food is a good example of a naturally
occurring stimulus.
 During this phase of the process, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
results in an unconditioned response (UCR). Presenting food (the UCS)
naturally and automatically triggers a salivation response (the UCR).
 At this point, there is also a neutral stimulus that produces no effect—
yet. It isn't until the neutral stimulus is paired with the UCS that it will
come to evoke a response.
Stages of Classical conditioning
Phase 2: During Conditioning
 In the second part of classical conditioning, a neutral thing is often paired many times
with something that naturally causes a reaction.
 When this happens, the neutral thing starts making the same response happen.
 This neutral thing is now called the "conditioned" stimulus (CS). It's something that
wasn't special before but now makes the reaction happen. So, when this conditioned
thing is shown, the response happens.
Phase 3: After Conditioning
 After the neutral stimulus (now the "conditioned" Stimulus or CS) has been linked
with the thing that naturally causes a reaction (UCS), showing just the CS by itself will
start making the same reaction happen.
 This reaction caused by the CS alone is called the "conditioned" response (CR). So,
even without the original thing that caused the reaction (UCS), the CS can now
trigger the same response.
Stages of Classical conditioning
Phase 1: Before Conditioning
UCS (Food) UCR (Salivation)
Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response
Phase 2: During Conditioning
NS (Bell) No-Response
Neutral Stimulus
NS (Bell) + UCS (Food) UCR (Salivation)
Repeated
Many times Unconditioned Response
Phase 3: After Conditioning
CS (Bell) CR (Salivation)
Condition Stimulus Conditioned Response
 TYPES OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
Unconditioned stimulus Neutral stimulus Conditioned Stimulus

An unconditioned stimulus is a A neutral stimulus is a stimulus A conditioned stimulus is a

stimulus or trigger that leads to that doesn't initially trigger a stimulus that was once neutral
an automatic response. If a cold response on its own. If you hear (didn't trigger a response) but
breeze makes you shiver, for the sound of a fan but don't feel now leads to a response. If you
instance, the cold breeze is an the breeze, for example, it previously didn't pay attention
unconditioned stimulus; it wouldn't necessarily trigger a to dogs, but then got bit by one,
produces an involuntary response response. That would make it a and now you feel fear every
(the shivering). neutral stimulus. time you see a dog, the dog has
become a conditioned stimulus.
 TYPES OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
Unconditioned response Conditioned response
For Example :

An unconditioned response is an A conditioned response is a

automatic response or a response learned response or a response
that occurs without thought when an that is created where no response
unconditioned stimulus is present. If existed before. Going back to the
you smell your favorite food and example of being bit by a dog, the
your mouth starts watering, the fear you experience after the bite
watering is an unconditioned is a conditioned response.
response.
 Operant / instrumental
conditioning
Definition
instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that
OPERANT CONDITIONING
uses rewards and punishment to modify behavior.

 This is a type of learning in which behavior is

strengthened or weakened by the consequences that
follow it.

1. Law of Effect:
 Definition: Proposed by Edward PUNISHMENT
RIENFORCEMENT DECREASE
Thorndike, the law of effect states that
INCREASE BEHAVIOUR BEHAVIOUR
behaviors followed by favorable
consequences become more likely to
occur, while behaviors followed by
unfavorable consequences become less
Components of Operant
Conditioning
There are several key concepts in operant conditioning. The type of reinforcement or
punishment that is used can have an effect on how the individual responds and the
effect of conditioning.
Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning
 Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There
are two kinds of reinforcers.
 Positive Reinforcement: involves adding or presenting a desirable stimulus to
increase the likelihood of a behavior happening again in the future.
 Example: giving a child a piece of candy (desirable stimulus) for completing their
homework (behavior). The addition of the candy encourages the behavior of doing
homework.
 Negative Reinforcement: involves the removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus
to increase the likelihood of a behavior happening again in the future.
 Example: Imagine a person has a headache (aversive stimulus), and they take a
painkiller to alleviate it. This increases the likelihood that the person will take the
painkiller in the future when experiencing a headache to avoid or alleviate the
Components of Operant
Conditioning
Positive Punishment: Positive punishment happens when something unwanted or
unpleasant is added after a behavior to make that behavior less likely to happen again.
 Example: Spanking for misbehavior is an example of punishment by application.
 Negative punishment occurs when something enjoyable or desired is taken away
after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again.
 Example: Taking away a child's video game following misbehavior is an example of
negative punishment.
Operant Conditioning Reinforcement
Schedules
 Reinforcement is not necessarily a straightforward process, and there are a number of
factors that can influence how quickly and how well new things are learned.
 Skinner identified several different schedules of reinforcement that impact the
operant conditioning process:
 Continuous reinforcement involves delivering a reinforcement every time a
response occurs. Learning tends to occur relatively quickly, yet the response rate is
quite low. Extinction also occurs very quickly once reinforcement is halted.
 Fixed-ratio schedules are a type of partial reinforcement. Responses are reinforced
only after a specific number of responses have occurred. This typically leads to a fairly
steady response rate.
 Fixed-interval schedules are another form of partial reinforcement. Reinforcement
occurs only after a certain interval of time has elapsed. Response rates remain fairly
steady and start to increase as the reinforcement time draws near, but slow
immediately after the reinforcement has been delivered.
Operant Conditioning Reinforcement
Schedules
 Variable-ratio schedules are also a type of partial reinforcement that involve
reinforcing behavior after a varied number of responses. This leads to both a high
response rate and slow extinction rates.
 Variable-interval schedules are the final form of partial reinforcement Skinner
described. This schedule involves delivering reinforcement after a variable amount of
time has elapsed. This also tends to lead to a fast response rate and slow extinction
rate.
 OBSERVATONAL LEARNING

What is observational learning?

The learning that occur by observing the Observational learning can be highly
behavior of other ,who are called models. adaptive.
A tremendous amount of learning happens This theory is also known is social
through this process of watching and imitating learning theory.
others.
 Stages of observational learning:

Attention:
we must pay attention to the model’s behavior.
Retention:
Mentally represent and retain what has been
observed.
Reproduction:
You need to be able to convert these mental
representations into actions and reproduce them.
Motivation:
we must be motivated to display the behavior
 Albert Bandura
Psychologist Albert Bandura is best known for
research on observational learning.

Most famous experiment was Bobo Doll study. In

which he let a group of children Watch a movie where
an adult violently attacked an inflatable toy shaped like
Bobo the clown. He then let a children In to a room
with Bobo Dolls and the children exactly imitated the
adult’s behavior and attacked the doll.

Results: The conclusion is that Children observing

Adult behavior are influenced to think that this type of
behavior is acceptable which meant they were more
likely to respond in an aggressive manner in similar
situations .
 Neural Basis for Learning

Learning is supported by neural changes in the brain, primarily through the processes of
synaptic plasticity, which involves strengthening or weakening synaptic connections.-
1-Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): LTP is a process where repeated stimulation of neurons
strengthens the synapse, making it easier for them to communicate in the future. This is
particularly important in areas like the hippocampus, which is critical for forming new
memories.
2-Neurotransmitters: Chemicals like dopamine play a crucial role in learning. For example,
dopamine release is associated with rewards and reinforcement, making it a key player in
operant conditioning.
3-Neurogenesis: The creation of new neurons, especially in the hippocampus, is linked to
learning and memory. This process helps with the adaptation to new experiences and
information.