COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

MS. ADILA MAJEED

 OUTLINE

• Introduction
• Cognition in the brain: the anatomy and mechanisms of the brain
• Cognitive neuropsychological methods for studying brain functioning
 INTRODUCTION

• Cognitive neuroscience is the field of study linking the brain and other
aspects of the nervous system to cognitive processing and, ultimately, to
behavior. The brain is the organ in our bodies that most directly controls our
thoughts, emotions, and motivations.
• Cognitive neuroscience is an interdisciplinary area of research that
combines measurement of brain activity (mostly by means of neuroimaging)
with a simultaneous performance of cognitive tasks by human subjects.
• A major goal of present research on the brain is to study localization of
function. Localization of function refers to the specific areas of the brain
that control specific skills or behaviors.
• In recent decades, researchers have examined which structures in the brain are activated when
people perform a variety of cognitive tasks (gazzaniga et al., 2009). Furthermore, psychologists
now use neuroscience techniques to explore the kind of cognitive processes that we use in our
interactions with other people; this new discipline is called social cognitive neuroscience.
• However, neurological explanation for some cognitive processes are elusive. For example, take
several seconds to stand up and walk around the room in which you are reading. As you walk,
notice what you see in your environment. This visual activity is actually extremely complicated,
requiring billions of neurons and more than fifty regions of the surface of your brain (emery &
easton, 2005).
 COGNITION IN THE BRAIN: THE ANATOMY AND
MECHANISMS OF THE BRAIN
• The nervous system is the basis for our ability to perceive, adapt to, and interact with the
world around us. Through this system we receive, process, and then respond to information from
the environment.
What are Neurons?
• Neurons are the information processing units of the brain responsible for sending, receiving, and
transmitting electrochemical signals throughout the body.
• A neuron is a nerve cell that processes and transmits information through electrical and chemical
signals in the nervous system. Neurons consist of a cell body, dendrites (which receive signals),
and an axon (which sends signals). Synaptic connections allow communication between
neurons, facilitating the relay of information throughout the body.
GROSS ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN: FOREBRAIN, MIDBRAIN,
HINDBRAIN
• The brain has three major regions: forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
• The forebrain is generally the farthest forward, toward what becomes the
face.
• The midbrain is next in line.
• And the hindbrain is generally farthest from the forebrain, near the back of
the neck.
 FORE BRAIN
• Cerebral cortex (outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres)
Involved in receiving and processing sensory information, thinking, other
cognitive processing, and planning and sending motor information.
• Basal ganglia (collections of nuclei and neural fibers)
Crucial to the function of the motor system
• Limbic systems (hippocampus, amygdala, and septum)
Involved in learning, emotions, and motivation (in particular, the hippocampus
influences learning and memory, the amygdala influences anger and
aggression, and the septum influences anger and fear)
• THALAMUS

Primary relay station for sensory information coming into the brain; transmits
information to the correct regions of the cerebral cortex through projection fibers that
extend from the thalamus to specific regions of the cortex; comprises several nuclei
(groups of neurons) that receive specific kinds of sensory information and project that
information to specific regions of the cerebral cortex, including four key nuclei for
sensory information:
(1) from the visual receptors, via optic nerves, to the visual cortex, permitting us to
see;
(2) from the auditory receptors, via auditory nerves, to the auditory cortex,
permitting us to hear; (3) from sensory receptors in the somatic nervous system, to the
primary somatosensory cortex, permitting us to sense pressure and pain; and
(4) from the cerebellum (in the hindbrain) to the primary motor cortex, permitting us
to sense physical balance and equilibrium
• HYPOTHALAMUS
Controls the endocrine system; controls the autonomic nervous system, such
as internal temperature regulation, appetite and thirst regulation, and other
key functions; involved in regulation of behavior related to species survival (in
particular, fighting, feeding, fleeing, and mating); plays a role in controlling
consciousness (see reticular activating system); involved in emotions,
pleasure, pain, and stress reactions
 MIDBRAIN

• Superior colliculi (on top)

Involved in vision (especially visual reflexes)
• Inferior colliculi (below)
Involved in hearing
 HINDBRAIN
• Reticular activating system (also extends into the hindbrain)
Important in controlling consciousness (sleep arousal), attention,
cardiorespiratory function, and movement
• Gray matter, red nucleus, substantia nigra, ventral region
Important in controlling movement
• Cerebellum
Essential to balance, coordination, and muscle tone
• Pons (also contains part of the RAS)
Involved in consciousness (sleep and arousal); bridges neural transmissions
from one part of the brain to another; involved with facial nerves
• Medulla oblongata
Serves as juncture at which nerves cross from one side of the body to opposite
side of the brain; involved in cardiorespiratory function, digestion, and
swallowing
 CEREBRAL CORTEX AND LOCALIZATION OF FUNCTION
• The cerebral cortex forms the outer layer of
the two halves of the brain the left and right
cerebral hemispheres. The left cerebral
hemisphere is specialized for some kinds of
activity whereas the right cerebral
hemisphere is specialized for other kinds. For
example, receptors in the skin on the right
side of the body generally send information
through the medulla to areas in the left
hemisphere in the brain. The receptors on the
left side generally transmit information to the
right hemisphere. Similarly, the left
hemisphere of the brain directs the motor
responses on the right side of the body. The
right hemisphere directs responses on the
left side of the body.
• The corpus callosum is a dense aggregate of neural fibers connecting the two
cerebral hemispheres. It allows transmission of information back and forth.
Once information has reached one hemisphere, the corpus callosum transfers
it to the other hemisphere. If the corpus callosum is cut, the two cerebral
hemispheres—the two halves of the brain—cannot communicate with each
other.
• In 1861, French scientist Paul broca claimed that an autopsy revealed that an
aphasic stroke patient had a lesion in the left cerebral hemisphere of the
brain. By 1864, broca was convinced that the left hemisphere of the brain is
critical in speech, a view that has held up over time. The specific part of the
brain that broca identified, now called broca’s area, contributes to speech.
LOBES OF THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
COGNITIVE NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS FOR STUDYING BRAIN FUNCTIONING

Single-cell recording
Procedure: Very thin electrode is
inserted next to a single neuron.
Changes in electrical activity
occurring in the cell are then
recorded.
Advantages: Rather precise
recording of electrical activity
Disadvantages: Cannot be used
with humans
EEG
(Electroencephalogram)
Procedure: Changes in
electrical potentials are
recorded via electrodes
attached to scalp.
Advantages: Relatively
noninvasive
Disadvantages: Imprecise
ERP (Event-related potential)
Procedure: Changes in electrical potentials are
recorded via electrodes attached to scalp.
Advantages: Relatively noninvasive
Disadvantages: Does not show actual brain
images
PET (Positron emission
tomography)
• Participants ingest a mildly
radioactive form of oxygen
that emits positrons as it is
metabolized. Changes in
concentration of positrons in
targeted areas of the brain
are then measured.
• Shows images of the brain
in action
• Less useful for fast
processes
FMRI (functional magnetic resonance
imaging)
• Creates magnetic field that induces
changes in the particles of oxygen atoms.
More active areas draw more oxygenated
blood than do less active areas in the
brain. The differences in the amounts of
oxygen consumed form the basis for
FMRI measurements.
• Shows images of the brain in action;
more precise than pet
• Requires individual to be placed in
uncomfortable scanner for some time
TMS (Transcranial magnetic
stimulation)
• Involves placing a coil on a person’s head
and then allowing an electrical current to
pass through it. The current generates a
magnetic field. This field disrupts the
small area (usually no more than a cubic
centimeter) beneath it. The researcher
can then look at cognitive functioning
when the particular area is disrupted.
• Enables researcher to pinpoint how
disruption of a particular area of brain
affects cognitive functioning
• Potentially dangerous if misused
MEG (Magnetoencephalography)
• Involves measuring brain activity through
detection of magnetic fields by placing a
device over the head.
• Extremely precise spatial and temporal
resolution
• Requires expensive machine not readily
available to researchers