Department of Geology
University of Dhaka
GMT- 509PG Environmental Geophysics
Lecture 4: Geophysical methods
Instructor: Md. Mostafizur Rahman, PhD
Electrical Resistivity
Electrical resistivity measurements are made by placing four electrodes in contact with the
soil or rock.
A current is caused to flow in the earth between one pair of electrodes while the voltage
across the other pair of electrodes is measured (several electrode configurations are used).
The depth of measurements is related to the electrode spacing. The resistivity
measurement represents the apparent resistivity averaged over a volume of the earth
determined by the soil, rock, and pore fluid resistivity, along with the electrode geometry
and spacing.
Resistivity measurements include profiling (with fixed electrode spacing, sounding (1D) by
increasing electrode spacing at a fixed location and 2D and 3D imaging using multi-
electrode arrays.
Electrical Resistivity
Figure: Electrode
configurations used in
electrical surveys.
Electrical Resistivity
Figure: Expanded arrays (with
successive positions displaced for
clarity) for: (A) Wenner, (B) offset
Wenner, (C) Schlumberger, (D)
dipole–dipole and (B) square
arrays.
Electrical Resistivity
Electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) is a technique in
which many individual resistivity measurements are
combined to produce a 2D or 3D resistivity cross-section of
the subsurface.
A linear array of electrodes is set into the ground and a
computer system controls which two electrodes act as the
potential electrodes and which two electrodes act as the
current electrodes.
Measurements are acquired at various electrode
separations and positions along the line to provide
information at various lateral and vertical locations beneath
the array.
Electrical Resistivity
Electrical Resistivity
Applications in environmental issues:
Measure soil resistivity for estimating metal corrosion rates and designing grounding grids;
Map saltwater intrusion and contaminant plumes;
Locate buried wastes (e.g. locate landfill boundaries);
Create a detailed 3D resistivity model using data obtained with a grid of electrodes.
Advantages:
Good vertical resolution;
Depth range of up to 200 feet;
Various electrode configurations are available for different applications.
Limitations:
Susceptible to interference from nearby metal fences, buried pipes, cables, etc.;
Effectiveness decreases at very low resistivity values.
Electrical Resistivity
Traditional resistivity measurements use electrodes that
are in direct contact with the ground to inject a DC
current and to measure the resulting voltage difference.
This method is effectively used in a wide variety of
environments to provide resistivity soundings, profiles,
and cross-sections of the subsurface.
However, in areas where the surface resistivity is high
and in areas where driving electrode stakes into the
ground is not feasible (e.g. concrete, exposed rock,
etc.), traditional resistivity measurements are not easily
obtained. In these conditions, electromagnetic methods
or capacitively-coupled resistivity measurements could
be a better choice.
Electrical Resistivity
Capacitively-coupled resistivity measurements use the capacitance of an
antenna to noninvasively couple an AC signal into the ground.
Ohm-Mapper, manufactured by Geometrics, Inc., is a capacitively- coupled
resistivity system that is configured with coaxial cable in a dipole-dipole array.
The conductors in the cable act as one plate of the capacitor and the earth acts
as the other plate, with the insulating sheath as the capacitor’s insulator. Since an
AC signal can pass between the plates of a capacitor, the transmitter on the
OhmMapper system sends an AC signal (16.5 kHz) into the ground using the
coaxial cable.
The receiver measures the AC voltage at the transmitter frequency. This provides
an AC equivalent to traditional DC resistivity measurements.
Capacitively-coupled
Advantages: Used without electrodes; Data acquired continuously by pulling the resistivity measurements
array along a survey line. (OhmMapper) used in highly-
resistive conditions
Limitations: Works in areas of high resistivity only; Typical maximum depth of 30
feet.
Electrical Resistivity
https://www.geomatrix.co.uk/land-products/electrical-resistivity/ohmmapper/
https://slideplayer.com/slide/4766446/
Electrical Resistivity: Induced Polarization IP
Induced Polarization IP measurements are made by momentarily injecting a DC current into the
ground and measuring the resulting voltage decay at the surface between electrodes. The depth of
measurement is related to electrode spacing. Time domain IP measures the “chargeability” of the
subsurface material, which is primarily a function of the presence of clay minerals and certain
disseminated metals.
Applications:
• IP is used most commonly for mineral exploration, but there is a growing number of applications
for engineering and environmental problems;
• Produce 2-D cross-sections to detect lateral subsurface changes;
• Locate buried wastes (e.g. locate landfill boundaries).
Advantages: Measurements can be made to depths of 200 feet or more; Responds to certain
types of non-metallic debris.
Limitations: Highly sensitive to external electrical noise; Susceptible to interference from nearby
metal fences, buried pipes, cables, etc.
Electrical Resistivity: Spontaneous potential (SP)
Spontaneous potential (SP), also known as self-potential, measures the natural voltage at the
ground surface between two electrodes. Natural voltage differences are caused by geochemical
effects or by the motion of ions (e.g. water flow).
Applications:
• Assessing seepage from dams;
• Locating fracture flow;
• Locating caves and recharge zones (i.e. sinkholes, etc.).
Advantages:
• Measurements are relatively easy to make;
• Time series measurements can be made to monitor any changes in seepage.
Limitations:
• Requires intrusive contact with the ground;
• Nonpolarizing electrodes must be used;
• Susceptible to interference from cathodic protection, natural Earth currents, and cultural
features.
Magnetic exploration
Survey measures
Magnetic field at surface (B)
Ground based and airborne surveys
Property computed by data analysis
Magnetic susceptibility (k)
magnetization (M)
Applications
•Locating 55 gallon drums, UXO etc.
•Mapping ore deposits
•Archaeology
Limitations
Need to understand if magnetization is induced or
remnant
Electromagnetic methods
Survey measures
Amplitude and phase of low frequency radio waves
Property computed by data analysis
Electrical conductivity (resistivity)
Electromagnetic methods provide a means to measure subsurface
electrical conductivity and to identify subsurface metal objects.
Electrical conductivity is a function of soil and rock type, porosity and
permeability, as well as the composition of fluids that fill the pore
Spaces. Three principle methods are: (1) Frequency domain
electromagnetic methods; (2) Time domain electromagnetic (TDEM)
methods, and (3) Very Low Frequency (VLF) measurements
Applications
Hydrogeology
Environmental studies
Geotechnical studies
Shallow geological studies
Mineral exploration
Electromagnetic: Frequency domain electromagnetic methods
Frequency domain electromagnetic methods measure the electrical conductivity of soil and
rock by measuring the magnitude and phase of an induced electromagnetic current.
Time domain electromagnetic (TDEM) methods measure the electrical
conductivity of soil and rock by inducing pulsating currents in the ground
with a transmitter coil and monitoring the decay of the induced current over
time with a separate receiver coil.
Very Low Frequency (VLF) measurements are
made by measuring the distortions of a VLF
wave from a distant transmitter. Distortions of the
VLF wave occur due to a local increase in
electrical conductivity usually found within
fractures. The increase in electrical conductivity
is a function of the conductive material, such as
water, clay or minerals within the fracture.
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR)
Survey measures
Travel time and amplitude of high frequency radio waves.
Property computed by data analysis
Velocity of radio waves in Earth; Dielectric permittivity
Reflections of the radar wave occur where there is a change in the dielectric constant
or electrical conductivity between two materials.
Applications
• Contaminant plumes, buried wastes and drums.
• Snow and ice mapping
• Hydrogeological & Geotechnical (utilities) studies
• Shallow geological studies
• Mineral exploration
Limitations
Signals attenuated in low resistivity soils
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR)
Ground penetrating radar used to map variable clay layer controlling DNAPL flow
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR)
Radar used to map the lateral and vertical extent of fill at a construction site.
Shallow seismic exploration
Survey measures
Travel time and amplitude of seismic waves
Reflection and refraction
Property computed by data analysis
Velocity of seismic waves in Earth
Applications
•Geotechnical studies
•Shallow geological studies
•Mineral exploration
