BLOOD

Blood is a body fluid in humans and other

animals that delivers necessary substances
such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and
transports metabolic waste products away
from those same cells
• Is specialized fluid of connective tissue
• Contains cells suspended in a fluid matrix
 Functions of Blood
1. Transport of dissolved substances
2. Regulation of pH and ions
3. Restriction of fluid losses at injury sites
4. Defense against toxins and pathogens
5. Stabilization of body temperature
 Physical Characteristics of Blood
· Color range
· Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
· Oxygen-poor blood is dull red
· pH must remain between 7.35–7.45
· Slightly alkaline
· Blood temperature is slightly higher than body
temperature
· 5-6 Liters or about 6 quarts /body
 Blood Plasma
• Composed of approximately 90 percent
water
• Includes many dissolved substances
– Nutrients, Salts (metal ions)
– Respiratory gases
– Hormones
– Proteins, Waste products
 Plasma Proteins
· Albumin – regulates osmotic pressure
· Clotting proteins – help to stem blood loss
when a blood vessel is injured
· Antibodies – help protect the body from
antigens
 Formed Elements
· Erythrocytes = red blood cells
· Leukocytes = white blood cells
· Platelets = cell fragments
Characteristics of formed elements of Blood
Characteristics of formed elements of Blood
Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)
· The main function is to carry oxygen
· Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes
· Biconcave disks
· Essentially bags of hemoglobin
· Anucleate (no nucleus)
· Contain very few organelles
· Outnumber white blood cells 1000:1
 Hemoglobin
· Iron-containing protein
· Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen
· Each hemoglobin molecule has four oxygen
binding sites
· Each erythrocyte has 250 million
hemoglobin molecules
Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)
· Crucial in the body’s defense against disease
· These are complete cells, with a nucleus and
organelles
· Able to move into and out of blood vessels
(diapedesis)
· Can respond to chemicals released by
damaged tissues.
 Leukocyte Levels in the Blood
· Normal levels =4,000 to 11,000 cells/ml
· Abnormal leukocyte levels
· Leukocytosis
· Above 11,000 leukocytes/ml
· Generally indicates an infection
· Leukopenia
· Abnormally low leukocyte level
· Commonly caused by certain drugs
 Types of Leukocytes
· Granulocytes
· Granules in their
cytoplasm can be
stained
· Include
neutrophils,
eosinophils, and
basophils
 Granulocytes
· Neutrophils
· Multilobed nucleus with fine granules
· Act as phagocytes at active sites of infection
· Eosinophils
· Large brick-red cytoplasmic granules
· Found in repsonse to allergies and parasitic worms

· Basophils
· Have histamine-containing granules
· Initiate inflammation
 Agranulocytes
· Lymphocytes
· Nucleus fills most of the cell
· Play an important role in the immune
response
· Monocytes
· Largest of the white blood cells
· Function as macrophages
· Important in fighting chronic infection
 Platelets
· Derived from ruptured multinucleate cells
(megakaryocytes)
· Needed for the clotting process
· Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm3
 Hematopoiesis – Blood Cell
Formation
· Occurs in red bone marrow
· All blood cells are derived from a common
stem cell (hemocytoblast)
 Fate of Erythrocytes
· Unable to divide, grow, or synthesize
proteins
· Wear out in 100 to 120 days
· When worn out, are eliminated by
phagocytes in the spleen or liver
· Lost cells are replaced by division of stem
cells
 Hemostasis
· Stoppage of blood flow
· Result of a break in a blood vessel
· Hemostasis involves three phases
· Platelet plug formation
· Vascular spasms
· Coagulation
Vessel damage, blood loss Vascular spasm
 Platelet Plug Formation
· Collagen fibers are exposed by a break in a
blood vessel
· Platelets become “sticky” and cling to fibers
· Anchored platelets release chemicals to
attract more platelets
· Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug
Platelet plug forms Coagulation
 Vascular Spasms
· Anchored platelets release serotonin
· Serotonin causes blood vessel muscles to
spasm
· Spasms narrow the blood vessel, decreasing
blood loss
 Coagulation
· Injured tissues release thromboplastin

· PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts with thromboplastin, blood

protein clotting factors, and calcium ions to trigger a clotting

cascade
· Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin (an

enzyme)
· Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into hair-like fibrin
· Fibrin forms a meshwork

(the basis for a clot)

 Blood Clotting
· Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes
· The clot remains as endothelium
regenerates
· The clot is broken down after tissue repair
 Undesirable Clotting
· Thrombus
· A clot in an unbroken blood vessel
· Can be deadly in areas like the heart
· Embolus
· A thrombus that breaks away and floats freely
in the bloodstream
· Can later clog vessels in critical areas such as
the brain
 Bleeding Disorders
· Thrombocytopenia (caused by viruses, medications or

post-bone CA trtment)
· Platelet deficiency

· Even normal movements can cause bleeding from small blood

vessels that require platelets for clotting

· Hemophilia
· Hereditary bleeding disorder

· Normal clotting factors are missing

Blood Groups and Transfusions

· Large losses of blood have serious consequences

· Loss of 15 to 30 percent causes weakness

· Loss of over 30 percent causes shock, which can be

fatal
· Transfusions are the only way to replace blood quickly

· Transfused blood must be of the same blood group

 Human Blood Groups
· Blood contains genetically determined proteins

· A foreign protein (antigen) may be attacked by the immune

system
· Blood is “typed” by using antibodies that will cause blood

with certain proteins to clump (agglutination)

· There are over 30 common red blood cell antigens

· The most vigorous transfusion reactions are caused by

ABO and Rh blood group antigens

 ABO Blood Groups
· Based on the presence or absence of two
antigens
· Type A
· Type B
· The lack of these antigens is called
type O
Blood Types
 ABO Blood Groups
· The presence of both A and B is called type
AB
· The presence of either A or B is called types
A and B, respectively
 Rh Blood Groups
· Named because of the presence or absence
of one of eight Rh antigens (agglutinogen D)
· Most Americans are Rh+
· Problems can occur in mixing Rh+ blood into
a body with Rh– blood
 Rh Dangers During Pregnancy
• Danger is only when the mother is Rh– and the father is Rh+, and

the child inherits the Rh+ factor

· The mismatch of an Rh– mother carrying an Rh+ baby can

cause problems for the unborn child

· The first pregnancy usually proceeds without problems

· The immune system is sensitized after the first pregnancy

· In a second pregnancy, the mother’s immune system produces

antibodies to attack the Rh+ blood (hemolytic disease of the newborn)

Rh Sensitivity
 Blood Typing
· Blood samples are mixed with anti-A and anti-B
serum
· Coagulation or no coagulation leads to
determining blood type
· Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done in the same
manner
· Cross matching – testing for agglutination of donor
RBCs by the recipient’s serum, and vice versa
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