Physiology of

Nerve Tissue
 Nerve tissue

 Principal cell types that make up the nervous tissue:

 Neurons
 Functional, signal conducting cells
 Neuroglia
 Supporting cells
 Neurons are specialized for: Sensory function,
generation of thought, storage of memory, integration
of idea, coordination of muscular activities

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 Neuroglia

 Non neural cells found in association with neurons.

 Non-excitable

 They are 5 to 50 times more numerous.

 Can multiply after maturation

 Potential causes of glioma (brain tumour)

 Are smaller in size than neurons

 Provide support, nourish, and protect the neurons and

maintain homeostasis in the interstitial fluid that bathes
them. 3
 Neuroglia cont’d

They include:
1. Microglia
- Specialized immune cells that act as the macrophages of
the CNS.
2. Astrocytes
- Star-shaped, abundant
- Provide nourishment to the Neurons and involved in
the formation of the blood brain barrier.
- Interconnect nerve fibers(axons) and blood vessels
3. Oligodendrocytes
- Produce the myelin sheath which provides the electrical
insulation for certain neurons in the CNS

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4. Ependymal cells
 line the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal
cord.
 Secrete cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and assist in its circulation.
5. Schwann cells (Neurolemnocyte)
- Form myelin sheaths around the larger nerve fibers in the PNS.

- Vital to neuronal regeneration (participate in regeneration of

PNS axons. )
6. Satellite cells
- Small cells that line the exterior surface of the PNS ganglia and
regulate the external chemical environment.
 Why is it important for the CNS to have its own army of immune
cells?
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 Neurons
• Neurons are the functional &
structural units of the nervous system.
• A neuron has two highly developed
physiologic properties:
– Excitability is the capacity to
generate nerve impulses in response
to various stimuli.
– Conductivity: is the ability to
transmit the impulses along the
processes of the neuron.
• A neuron has 3 distinct parts.
These are:
Cell body , Dendrites and Axon
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 Soma
 Contains nucleus plus most
normal organelles.
 Biosynthetic center of the neuron.
 Contains a very active &
developed rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER) which is
responsible for the synthesis of
NTs.
 The neuronal RER is referred to
as the Nissl body.
 Contains many bundles of protein
filaments (neurofibrils) which
help maintain the shape, structure,
and integrity of the cell.
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 Soma…cont’d

 Contain multiple mitochondria.

 Acts as a receptive service for
interaction with other neurons.
 Clusters of somata in the CNS
are known as nuclei.
 Clusters of somata in the PNS
are known as ganglia.

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 Neuronal Processes
• 2 types of processes that differ in structure and function:
 Dendrites and Axons
• Arm like extensions emanating from every neuron.
• The CNS consists of both somata and processes whereas
the bulk of the PNS consists of processes.
– Tracts = Bundles of processes in the CNS
– Nerves = Bundles of processes in the PNS

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 Neuronal Processes…cont’d
 Dendrites
 Are thin, branched processes whose
main function is to receive incoming
signals.
 They effectively increase the surface
area of a neuron to increase its
ability to communicate with other
neurons.
 Convey info towards the soma
through the use of graded potentials –
which are some what similar to action
potentials.
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 Neuronal Processes…cont’d
• Axons:
• Can be Myelinated /unmylinated
• Originates from a special region of
the cell body called the axon
hillock.
• Transmit APs from the soma toward
the end of the axon where they
cause NT release.

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
The site where two neurons or a neuron and an effector
cell can communicate is termed a synapse.

The tips of most axon terminals swell into synaptic end
bulbs.

These bulb-shaped structures contain synaptic vesicles,
tiny sacs that store chemicals called NTs .

The neurotransmitter molecules released from synaptic
vesicles are the means of communication at a synapse.

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 Neuronal Processes…cont’d
Axolemma = axon plasma membrane.
Surrounded by a myelin sheath, a
wrapping of lipid which:
 Protects the axon & electrically
isolates it
 Increases the rate of AP
transmission
• This wrapping is never complete.
Interspersed along the axon are gaps
where there is no myelin – these are
nodes of Ranvier.
• In the PNS, the exterior of the
Schwann cell surrounding an axon is
the neurolemma
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 Types of neurons
Structurally (Based on the number of processes that extend
from cell body) neurons are classified into three:
1. Unipolar neurons (Pseudounipolar ): which have single
process, then divides into axon and dendrite. They are present
in dorsal root ganglion (also called spinal ganglion or sensory
ganglion).
2. Bipolar neurons: they are spindle-shaped with two processes;
one axon and one dendrite.
• They are present in areas of special sensations as: retina,
olfactory mucosa and inner ear.
3. Multipolar neurons: they have several processes.
They are the most common types of neurons
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present in the grey matter of CNS and autonomic ganglia
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 Functional classification of neurons
There are three classes of neurons:
1. Sensory (afferent)

Conduct impulses from periphery to the center

Once an appropriate stimulus activates a sensory
receptor, the sensory neuron forms an action potential in its
axon and the action potential is conveyed into the CNS
through cranial or spinal nerves.

Most sensory neurons are unipolar in structure.

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–
2. Motor (efferent) neurons –

convey action potentials away from the CNS to effectors
(muscles and glands) in the periphery (PNS) through
cranial and spinal nerves.

Most motor neurons are multipolar in structure

Conduct impulses from CNS to the periphery
–
3. Interneuron (association neurons) –

Are mainly located within the CNS between sensory and
motor neurons.

Inter neurons integrate (process) incoming sensory
information from sensory neurons and then elicit a
motor response by activating the appropriate motor
neurons.

Most interneurons are multipolar in structure. 19
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 Excitable Tissues
 Excitability: The ability of the cell to generate the
action potential.
 Excitable cells: Cells that generate action
potential during excitation.
 Excitable Tissues:
– Tissues which are capable of generation and
transmission of electrochemical impulses
along the membrane.
• Electrically excitable cells are:
 Neurons and Muscle cells
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 Membrane potential
• Membrane potential (also transmembrane potential or
membrane voltage) is the difference in electrical energy
between the interior and the exterior of a biological cell.

• Em = Vin – Vout, where

Vin = Potential on the inside of the cell

Vout = Potential on the outside of the cell

Em = Membrane potential (mV).

 The range of Em is about - 40 to - 90 mV; it may varied
depending on the type of organism and cell type).
• Nerve signals are transmitted by action potentials. 22
 Resting membrane potential
 All cells have a voltage difference across their plasma
membrane. This is called membrane potential.
 The membrane potential (VM) at rest is called resting
membrane potential (RMP).
 At rest, there are electropositivity out and
electronegativity inside in cell membrane of the neuron.

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• What are the causes of the RMP?
1. An outward diffusion of K+ through K+ leak channels. The
ECF is very high in Na+ while the ICF is very high in K+. As a
result, K+ is constantly leaking out of the cell.
2. The Na+/K+ pump is constantly pumping 3 Na+ ions out and 2
K+ ions in for every ATP used. Thus more positive charge is
leaving than entering.
3. There are protein anions (i.e., negatively charged proteins)
within the ICF that cannot travel through the PM.
•  What this adds up to is the fact that the inside of the cell is
negative with respect to the outside.

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 Basic Electrophysiological Terms
 Polarization
- A state in which membrane is polarized at rest, negative inside and
positive outside.
 Depolarization:
- The membrane potential becomes less negative than the resting potential (-
70 mV).(the reverse of polarization due to the rapid opening of Na +
channel )
 Repolarization:
- When the membrane recover (returns) to the resting potential after
depolarization.(due to the slower opening of K+channels and the closing of
Na+ channels )
 Hyperpolarization:
- Membrane potential become more negative than the resting potential (-70
mV).(due to the out flow of K+ may be so great)
 Threshold stimulus: any stimulus strong enough to initiate an action
potential (nerve impulse). 25
 Role of Ion Channels
 Changes in membrane potential are due to changes in ion
movement across the membrane.
 Movement is through ion channels.
I. Leak channels: non-gated, always open
II. Gated channels: opened and closed in response to specific
triggering events. Of three types:
1. Voltage-gated channels:
- respond to changes in membrane potential
2. Chemically gated channels (ligand gated):
- respond to binding of a specific chemical messenger
3. Mechanically gated channels:
- respond to stretching or other mechanical deformation.

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 Action Potentials
 AP is rapid, transient, reversible, self-
propagating electrical excitation in the
plasma membrane of excitable cells.
 An immediate change of the RMP in to
depolarization that is followed by re-establishment
of the RMP (re polarization) is called action
potential (nerve impulse).
 Action potential is a rapid, conductive, and
reversible change of the membrane potential after
the cell is stimulated.
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 The movement of ions during action potential

 Phases of action potential:

1. Resting phase
2. Depolarization
3. Repolarization

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 All or none law
• The principle that the strength by which a nerve or muscle fiber responds to
a stimulus is not dependent on the strength of the stimulus.
• If the stimulus is any strength above threshold, the nerve or muscle fiber
will give a complete response or otherwise no response at all.
• Until the threshold level the potential is graded.
• Once the threshold level is reached:
– AP is set off and no one can stop it Like a gun

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 Refractory Periods
 An interval during which it is

more difficult to elicit a second

AP.
Types:
 Absolute refractory period:

 Axon membrane is incapable of

producing another AP.

 Relative refractory period:

 VG ion channel shape alters at the

molecular level.
 VG K+ channels are open.

 Axon membrane can produce

another action potential, but

requires stronger stimulus. 30
 Conduction of Action Potential
• If an AP is generated at the axon hillock, it will travel all the way down to the synaptic
knob.
• The manner in which it travels depends on whether the neuron is myelinated or
unmyelinated.
 Unmyelinated neurons undergo the Sweeping /continuous conduction/ of an AP whereas
 Myelinated neurons undergo jumping /saltatory conduction/ of an AP.

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 Factors that affect the speed of propagation

• Amount of myelination => Action potentials propagate more rapidly

along myelinated axons than along unmyelinated axons.
• Axon diameter => Larger-diameter axons propagate action potentials
faster than smaller ones due to their larger surface areas.
• Temperature => Axons propagate action potentials at lower
speeds when cooled.

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 Synaptic transmission

• Synapses are specialized cell-to-cell contacts that allow the

information encoded by action potentials to pass to another cell.

• Synapses occur at the junction between the processes of two

neurons or between a neuron and an effector cell (e.g., a muscle
or gland).

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 There are two types of synapses:
Electrical synapses Chemical synapses
• Occur where two cells are joined by gap • Involve the release and reception of
junctions, which conduct current from neurotransmitters
cell-to-cell via nonselective pores. • Action potentials in a presynaptic cell
• Rapid electrical signaling and
cause the release of the chemical
information.
transmitter, which crosses a narrow
• Cardiac muscle is an example.
cleft to interact with specific receptors
on a postsynaptic cell.

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• Excitatory neurotransmitters depolarize the postsynaptic
membrane, producing an excitatory postsynaptic potential.
• Inhibitory neurotransmitters hyperpolarize the postsynaptic
membrane, producing an inhibitory postsynaptic potential.

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Chemical synaptic transmission
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