HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 4
Progressive?

Orderly ?

Predictable ?
 1. The pattern of progressive, orderly and
predictable changes that begin at conception
and continue throughout life.

2. It mostly involves changes – both growth and

decline, as observed in old age.
MEANING OF
DEVELOPMENT 3. It is influenced by an interplay of biological,
cognitive and socio-emotional processes
It is influenced by an interplay of Biological, Cognitive and
Socio-emotional processes.
These three are interwoven. They influence development
throughout lifespan

• Biological Processes
Development due to genes inherited from parents point towards the role of
biological processes.
Example- height, weight, brain, heart and lungs development.

• Cognitive Processes
The role of cognitive processes in development relate to mental activities
associated with the process of knowing and experiencing.
Example- thought, perception, attention, problem solving etc.
• Socio-emotional Processes
Changes in an individuals interactions with other people,
changes in emotion, and in personality.

• A child’s hug to her mother

• An adolescents sorrow at losing a match.

• A young girls affection towards her sibling
 LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE ON
DEVELOPMENT

• The study of development according to the

LSP includes the following assumptions

1. Development is lifelong.Takes place across all age

groups from conception to old age. Includes both
gains and losses

2. The variouses processes (bio, cognitive, socio-

emotional) of human development are interwoven
in the development of person throughout lifespan.
3. Development is multidirectional.

Some dimensions of development may

increase while others decrease.

• Experience of adults may make them

wiser and guide their decisions
• With increase in age, decrease in
performance in task requiring speed, like
running

4. Development is highly plastic.

• This means skills and abilities can be

improved or developed throughout
the life-span.
5. Development is influenced by historical
conditions.
• Experience of 20 year olds during India’s freedom struggle and now are
different
• Career orientation of students now is different than what it was 50 years
ago

6. Development is the concern of a many

disciplines including psychology, anthropology,
sociology and neurosciences

7. An individual responds and acts on contexts

which includes what is inherited, the physical
environment, social, historical and cultural
contexts.
 GROWTH

DEVELOPMENT

EVOLUTION

MATURATION
 GROWTH

• It refers to an increase in the

size of body parts or of the
organism as a whole.
• It can be measured or quantified.
For example, growth in height,
weight.
• It applies to changes that DEVELOPMENT
have a direction
• It holds a definite
relationship with what
precedes it, and in turn
will determine what will
come after.
• Development includes
growth as one of its
aspects.
• A temporary change
caused by illness is not
considered development.
• All developments are not
the same. They vary in
their pace and scope
 EVOLUTION

• It refers to species specific changes.

• Natural selection is an evolutionary
process that favours individuals or a
species that are best adapted to survive
and reproduce.
• The evolutionary changes are passed
from one generation to the next.
• Evolution proceeds at a very slow
pace
 MATURATION

• It refers to the changes that follow an orderly

sequence and are largely dictated by the
genetic blueprint which produces commonalities
in our growth and development.
• Example, most children sit by 7 months of age,
stand with support by 8 monthss and walk by 1
year.
• Once the underlying physical structure is
sufficiently developed, with adequate environment
and little practice the behaviour occurs
• If infant is maturationally not ready, even special
FACTORS INFLUENCING
DEVELOPMENT

Developm
ent

Environme
Heredity
nt
• What causes us to be different from each other but at the
same time more like each other?
• Interaction of heredity and environment

• Heredity
• Transmission of characteristics by every species from one generation to the next.
• We inherit genetic codes from our parents which are present in every cell of our body.
• Gentic codes are alike in one way – they contain the human genetic code
• Most characteristics we observe in humans are a combination of large number of genes.
• Genotype
• Phenotype
X
Genotype
1. The actual genetic material or a person’s genetic heritage.
• Not all genetic material is distinctly identifiable in our
observable characteristics.
2. Predisposes a child to develop in a particular way.
3. Genes do not exist in isolation and development occurs within
the context of individual’s environment

Phenotype
2. The way an individual’s genotype is expressed in observable
and measurable characteristics
• Includes physical traits such as height, weight, eye and skin
color.
• Includes psychological characteristics such as intelligence,
creativity and personality.
3. These observable characteristics are the result of the interaction
between person’s inherited traits and the environment.
 HOW DOES ENVIRONMENT
AFFECT DEVELOPMENT?

Example 1: A child
• Genotype predisposes him to be introverted
• Environment promotes social interaction and extroversion
• The influence of such a child may make the child a little
extroverted.

Example 2: An individual
• with short height genes
• Even if she is in a very good nutritional environment, will never
be taller than average.
• This shows that genes set the limit and within that limit
the environment influences development.
 A. PARENTS AND
DEVELOPMENT

• Parent provide the genes for the child’s

development.

• Play an important role in determining the

type of environment of the child
• According to Sandra Scarr (1922)
• Environment parents provide their children
depends on their own genetic predisposition.
• For example, If parents are intelligent and
good readers they would provide their children
with books to read. Chilren may then become
good readers who enjoy reading.
 B. CHILD AND DEVELOPMENT

1.Children’s genotype influences

their environment.
A child’s own genotype such as being
cooperative and attentive is like to result in
teachers and parents giving more pleasant
response as comparent to children who are
not cooperative and attentive.
2. Children themselves choose certain
environments based on their
genotype.

Because of genotype a child may perform well

in sports and spend time in environments that
enable them to engage in that.
 YOUTUBE

• Still Face Experiment Dr Edward Tronick

• 1965. Effect of emotional deprivation and neglect on
babies.
 CONTEXT OF
DEVELOPMENT

• Development is always
embedded in a socio-cultural
context.
• The environment can change
during any time of the
individual’s life.
 URIE
BRONFENBRENNER’S
CONTEXTUAL VIEW
O F D E V E LO P M E N T
(REFER TO
TEXTBOOK)

Emphasises the role of

environmental factors in
development of an
individual.
In a nutshell, a child’s
development is
significantly affected by
the complex world that
envelops him/her
 C H IL D R E N I N
IM P OVE R I S H E D
E N VIR ON M E N T

1. Unstimulating environments devoid of

books, magazines, toys etc.
2. Lacks experiences such as visit to the
zoo, library, museum etc.
3. Have parents who are ineffective as
role models.
4. Live in overcrowded and noisy
surroundings

As a results of these children are at a

disadvantage and have difficulties in
learning.
 • Ecology of a child can be viewed in
terms of two concentric layers.
• Both layers interact with one another
DURGANAND SINHA – and may have different consequences
E C O LO G I C A L M O D E L F O R for development in different people.
U N D E R S TA N D I N G
D E V E LO P M E N T O F • The ecological environment can change
CHILDREN IN INDIAN
CONTEXT anytime during any time of the
individual’s life span.
• To understand differences in the
functioning of an individual, it is
important to see the individual in the
context of her/ his experiences.
 A. UPPER AND MORE VISIBLE
LAYER

• Consist of home, school, peers etc. These are called ecological factors.
• These factors do not operate independently but interact with one
another.

1. Home: its conditions in terms of overcrowding, space available to each person,

toys, technological devices etc

2. School: Nature and quality of schooling, facilities to which the child is exposed.

3. Peers: Nature of interactions and activities undertaken with peer groups from
childhood onwards.
 B. “SURROUNDING LAYER” OF
CHILD’S ECOLOGY

• It influences the Upper layer

• Their influences are not always clearly visible.
• It constitutes
1. General geographical environment
• It includes space and facilities for play and other activities available
outside the home including general congestion of the locality and density
of population
2. Institutional setting provided by caste, class etc
3. General amenities available to the child like drinking water,
electricity, means of entertainment etc.
 OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENTAL
STAGES

1. Development is described in terms of periods or stages.

2. Difference in behaviour is partly because everyone is in different stages of
life.
3. Developmental stages are assumed to be temporary
4. Developmental stages are characterised by a dominant feature which gives
each period its uniqueness.
5. During a particular stage, individual progresses towards an assumed goal
6. Individuals do vary with respect to the time or rate of development from one
stage to another.
7. Certain patterns of behavior and certain skills are learned more easily and
successfully during certain stages. These accomplishments of a person
become the social expectations of that stage of development. They are known
as developmental tasks.
 1. PRENATAL STAGE

• Period from conception to birth (40 weeks)

• Both genetic and environmental factors affect
development during this stage.

Prenatal development is affected by

1. Maternal characteristics
• Mother’s age, nutrition and emotional state
• Disease or infection carried by mother can adversely
affect prenatal development eg rubella, genital herpes,
HIV - cause genetic problems in the newborn
 1. PRENATAL STAGE
(CONT..)

2. Teratogens
• Environmental agents that cause deviation in normal
developemnt. Can cause serious abnormalities or even
death.
• Drugs, radiations, pollution
1. Intake of drugs, alcohol may cause congenital
abnormalities
2. Radiations (X-ray) and certain chemicals in industrial
area can cause permanent changes in genes
3. Environmental pollutants and toxic waste like carbon
monoxide, mercury and lead are also sources of danger
 INFANCY

• Brain develops at a rapid rate before

and after birth – important for
functions like language, perception
and intelligence.
• Activities needed to sustain life are
present in newborns – breathes, sucks,
swallows, discharges bodily wastes.
• In the first week of life able to
distinguish
• Where a sound is coming from
• Mother’s voices from that of other women
 Refer
Textbook

BABINSK
I
MORO

ROOTING

GRASP
 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

• Newborn’s movement are governed by reflexes-

1. Automatic, built-in responses to stimuli
2. They are genetically carried survival mechanisms
3. They are building blocks of subsequent motor development
4. Some are present throughout life ( coughing, yawning, blinking)
5. Others disappear as brain function matures and voluntary control over
behaviour starts developing
• As infant grows, the muscles and nervous system mature which lead to
the development of finer skills
• Basic motor skills include grasping and reaching for objects, sitting,
crawling, walking and running.
 SENSORY ABILITIES

• VISION
1. Their vision is estimated to be lower than adult vision – by 1 year its almost the
same
2. Newborn prefer to look at some stimuli over others – example faces
3. In general they are color deficent. Full color vision develops by 3 months.

• HEAR
1. Infants can hear immediately after birth – proficiency at localising sound
improves with development
2. They can recognize their mother’s voice just a few hours after birth.

• TASTE and SMELL capacities are also present

 • Jean Piaget
• Children actively construct their understanding
of the world
• Information does not simply enter their minds
from the environment
• As children grow, addition information is
COGNITIVE acquired
DEVELOPMENT • They adapt their thinking to include new ideas
• Piaget believed that a child’s mind passes
through a series of stages of thought from
infancy to adolescence.
• Each stage is characterised by
1. Distinct way of thinking (this makes one stage more
advanced than the other)
2. Age related
1 11 – 15
1 years
 SENSORIMOTOR STAGE

1. First two years of life, infant experiences the

world through senses and interactions with
objects – looking, hearing, grasping, touching
2. Lack object permanence
• The awareness that the objects continue to exist
when not perceived
• If you hide a toy, infant will not search for it. They
assume it does not exist.
• They do not go beyond their sensory experience
• By 8 months they improve
• Vocalisation begins with the infant’s babbling
(between 3-6 months)
 SOCIO-EMOTIONAL
DEVELOPMENT

• Babies from birth are social creatures

• Infant prefers familiar faces and
responds to parents presence by cooing
and gurgling.
• When they become mobile they show
preference for mother’s company
• When frightened by new face or
separated from mother they show
distress. When reunited they
reciprocate with smile or hugs.
• Attachment – The close emotional
bond of affection that develop between
infants and their parents (caregivers).
 HARLOW AND HARLOW
(1962)

• Baby monkeys separated from mother 8 hours after birth

• Placed in experimental chambers abd reared for 6
months by surrogate mothers – one made of wire and
one of cloth
• They were fed by substitute mothers
• Regardless of who fed them, monkeys showed
preference for cloth mother
• Demonstrates that providing nourishment was not
crucial for attachment and contact comfort is
important.
• Young children may be attached to toy or blanket as it
provides comfort.
 SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

• Human babies form attachment with parents or caregivers who consistently

and appropriately reciprocate to their signals of love and affection.

• First year of life is the key time for the development of attachment – according
to Eric Erikson (1968)
• It represents the stage of building trust or mistrust.
• A sense of trust is built on a sense of physical comfort which build an expectation of the
world as a secure and good place.
1. Sense of trust is built of responsive and sensitive parenting. This provides the infant a strong
base to explore the environment. Such infants are likely to develop secure attachment.
• They respond positively when picked up, move freely and play
2. If parents are unresponsive and show disatisfaction and find fault with the child, it can lead to
creating feelings of self-doubt in the child.
• They feel anxious when separated and cry due to fear and get upset.
• A close interactive relationship with warm and affectionate adults is a child’s
first step towards healthy development
CHILDHOOD
Growth slows down compared to infancy

1. Physically – gains height, weight, learns to walk,

run, jump, plays with ball.
2. Socially – child’s world expands to adults and
family near home and at school
3. Morally - develops a sense of good and bad
4. Cognitive development is due to
• Maturation of brain
• Opportunities to experience the world
1. Development proceeds A. PHYSICAL
cephalocaudally DEVELOPMENT
• From cephalic (head) region to the
caudal (tail) region.
• Children gain control over the upper part
Early
of the body over the lower part development
• Example 1: Infants head is follows two
proportionately larger than his/her body
principles
• Example 11: When crawling, infants
use arms first then legs 2. Proximodistal
Development

• Growth proceeds from the

center of the body and moves
towards the extremeties
• Example I : To reach an object,
initially a child turns entire body.
Later, only arms.
• As children grow older,
1. They look slimmer as their bodies
lengthen and body fat decreases
2. The brain and head grow rapidly than
any other part
• Important as they help in the
maturation of children’s abilities
• Example eye- hand coordination,
holding a pencil

During middle and

late childhood,
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT increase in
CONT. 1. Size
2. Weight
3. Strength
 B . M O T O R D E V E LO P M E N T ( R E F E R TA B L E 4 . 3 )

• Gross motor skills – use of arms and legs – jumping, running

• Fine motor skills – finger dexterity, eye-hand coordination – build
blocks, pick objects with forefinger and thumb.
• Preference for right or left hand develops
 C. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

• Cognitive development in early childhood focuses on Piaget’s stage

of Preoperational thought and later on Concrete Operational
Thought
 5 FEATURES OF PREOPERATIONAL
THOUGHT

1)EGOCENTRISM (self-focus) – Salient feature

• Children see the world only in terms of their
own selves
• They are not able to appreciate others’ point of
view.
2) OBJECT PERMANENCE

• Object permance is established.

• The awareness that the objects continue to
exist when not perceived
• As a result, the child gains the ability to
mentally represent an object that is not
present physically.
Example- child draws designs/figures to
represent people, house, trees etc
3)ANIMISM
• Due to egocentrism, children engage in ANIMISM
• Thinking that all things are living like oneself
• They attribute life-like qualities to inanimate objects.
• Example- if a child slips on the road, they say “the
road hurt me”

4)Stage of INTUITIVE THOUGHT (4-7 years)

• Children want answers to all their questions.
• Example- Why is the sky blue? How do trees grow?

5)CENTRATION
• Focusing on a single characteristic or feauture for
understanding an event.
• Example- child prefers drinking a “big glass” of juice
preferring a tall narrow glass to a short broad glass.
 CONCRETE OPERATIONAL THOUGHT (7-11
years)
Made up of operations- Mental actions that allow the child to do
mentally what was done physically before.

1. Children develop reversibility 4. Thinking becomes flexible -

(example in textbook, pg 74) Children can think about
alternatives when solving problems
2. Decline in egocentrism - Allows child and mentally retrace their steps
to focus on different characteristics and
not focus on one aspect of the object. 5. Abstract thinking is absent-
cannot manipulate ideas in the
3. Intuitive thought is replaced by logical absence of objects
thought
 Once children enter school their
social world expands beyond
familiy and includes age mates
or peers
D. SOCIO-
EMOTIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
Three important dimensions of
children’s socio-emotional
development
Moral
Self Gender developm
ent
 1. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE SELF

A. During Early Childhood

• Due to socialisation, child develops a sense of

• who he/she is
• whom he/she wants to identify with.

• Developing sense of independence makes children do

things in their own way.

• Self-understanding is limited to defining oneself

through physical characteristics.
• Example- I am tall, she has black hair
• Initiative vs Guilt
According to Erikson, the way parents respond to their self-initiated activities
leads to developing a sense of initiative or sense of guilt.

1. Child develops a sense of support for initiative taken, if child is

given freedom and opportunity for play and their questions are
answered.

2. Child develops guilt over self-initiated activities, if they are made to

feel their questions are useless and games played by them are
stupid.

A. During Early
Childhood (cont)
B. During Middle & Late Childhood

CHILD LIKELY TO DEFINE SELF THROUGH EXAMPLE

I am smart and I am
Internal characteristics, psychological characteristics
popular,

Being a member of
Social aspects of self such as reference to social groups environment club

I got more marks than

Social comparison (what they can or cannot do in
Atul
comparison to others)
 MORAL DEVELOPMENT

• An important aspect of child’s development is learning to

differentiate between right and wrong

• Components of moral development

• Distinguish right from wrong
• To feel guilty
• To put themselves in other people’s position
• To help others when they are in trouble
 WHAT IS YOUR VIEW ON
EUTHANASIA OR “MERCY KILLING”?
Lawrence Kohlberg- Stages of Moral
Development
• Children pass through various stages of moral development, which are
age related.

• Kohlberg interviewed children where they were presented with stories in

which characters face moral dilemmas. Children were asked what the
characters should do and why.
Before 9 years
• Young child thinks in terms of external authority
• According to the child, actions are wrong because he is punished, and right
because he is rewarded.
Early Adolescence
• Child accepts the rules of others such as parents or laws of the society as
their own
• These are internalised to win approval of others (not to avoid punishment)
• Children view rules as absolute guidelines, which should be followed.
• Moral thinking is relatively inflexible
As they grow old, they develop a personal moral code
ADOLESCENCE
 ADOLESCENCE

The term adolescence derives from latin word adolescere meaning ”to
grow into maturity”.
Transition period between childhood and adulthood.

Defined as the stage of life that begins at the onset of puberty, when
sexual maturity or the ability to reproduce is attained.
It is a period of rapid change both biologically and psychologically.

Physical changes – universal

Social and psychological dimensions of adolescent’s experience – depend

on the cultural context.
 A. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

I. Puberty/ Sexual maturity –

1. end of childhood – beginning of adolescence

2. Dramatic physical changes – growth rate – sexual
characteristics
3. Not sudden but gradual process

4. Hormones realeased during puberty result in development

of primary and secondary sexual characteristics
• Primary sex characteristics- those directly related to
reproduction
• Secondory sex characteristics- include feautures or
signs of achieving sexual maturity
5. Puberty in Boys vs Girls
PHYSICAL
• In boys
DEVELOPMEN
• acceleration in growth, facial hair, changes in voice.
T
• Growth spurt begins at age 12 or 13
• In girls
• rapid growth in height begins two years before
menarche (onset of menstruation)
• Growth spurt begins at age 10 or 11

6. Normal to have variations in pubertal sequence as genetics

and environment play a role.
• Genetics- Identical twins reach menarche closer in time
than fraternal twins
• Environment- On avg, girls from affluent families go
through menarche earlier than girls from poor families
II. Physical development in adolescence is accompanied by several
psychological changes (and cognitive and social changes)
1. New awareness of sexual feelings develops
2. Increased interest in members of the opposite sex, sexual
matters
This is caused by
1) awareness of biological changes and
2) emphasis placed on sexuality by peers, parents and
society

PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT
 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

III. Adolescents lack adequate knowledge/ have

misconceptions about sex and sexuality
1. Difficult topic for parents to discuss-
adolescents become secretive – exchange of
information difficult
2. Risk of AIDS and other sexually transmitted
diseases

IV. Development tasks for adolescents

1. Development of sexual identity- it defines
sexual orientation and guides sexual behaviour
2. Develop a realistic image of their physical
appearance that is acceptable to them.
 B . C O G N I T I V E D E V E L O P M E N TA L C H A N G E S

1. Sensorimot
Develops ability to reason - Capable of examining own thoughts, or Stage
other’s thought and other’s thoughts about them - gives cognitive and
social awareness
2.
Preoperationa
1. According to Piaget, formal operational thought develops l Thought
between ages 11 and 15. Stage

• Abstract- Thinking expands beyond actual concrete experiences to abstract

3. Concrete
thoughts Operational
Thought
• Idealistic – have ideal standards and compare themselves and others to those
standards – example, they think what an ideal parent is like and compare their
Stage
parents to it.
• Hypothetical deductive reasoning 4. Formal
 A type of logical thinking. Operational
 In contrast to trial-and-error approach used by children in earlier stages of Thought
development, adolescent thinking becomes more systematic in solving problems Stage
 They think of possible courses of action, why something is happening the way it
is, and systematically seek solutions.
 B . C O G N I T I V E D E V E LO P M E N TA L C H A N G E S

II. Moral Reasoning

1. Influenced by logical thought
2. Social rules are not considered as absolute
standards (flexiblity in moral thinking)
3. Adolescent recognised alternate moral courses,
explores options and then decides on a personal
moral code.
4. Possibility of adolescents not following society’s
norms if they conflict with personal code of ethics
Example – A boy might participate in a protest
march for a cause rather than conform to college
norm.
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL
CHANGES

3. Delevopment of Egocentrism

Two components of egocentrism according to David Elkind

1. Imaginary
audience
2. Personal fable
1. Imaginary audience
• Adolescent’s belief that others as as preoccupied with them
as they are about themselves.
• Imagine people are always noticing them and are observing
each and every behaviour of theirs
• Makes them extremely self-conscious (eg Girl with pimple)
2. Personal fable
• Involves sense of uniqueness
• This sense of uniqueness makes them think
that no one understands them or their
feelings
• To retain their sense of personal
uniqueness they may weave stories filled
with fantasy around them to create a world
that is away from reality.
• Personal fables are often part of adolescent
diaries.
 FORMING AN IDENTITY

1.What is identity
Who you are and what your values, commitments and beliefs are.

2. Primary task of adolescents –

• establish an identity separate from the parents
• A detachment process enables this
 FORMING AN IDENTITY

3. In the process of achieving an identity adolescents

could experience conflict with their parents or within
themselves
a) If able to cope
• develop a new sense of self
b) If unable to cope –
• Results in identity crisis and/or identity confusion
• According to Erikson this can result in
adolescents isolating themselves from peers and
family or they may lose their identity in the
crowd

4. Rapid fluctuations between self- confidence and

insecurity is typical of this stage
 FORMING AN IDENTITY

4. Formation of identity is influenced by

1. Cultural background, family and societal values, ethnic background

and socio-economic status.

2. Vocational commitment. In some cultures, parent’s make the decision for

their child which the child then adopts as his own. Whereas in other cultures,
children choose their own vocation.

3. Parents and peers are dual forces having major influences on

adolescents. They fulfil different needs of the adolescent
•Family relationships become less important as the adolescent spends more time
outside the home and develops a strong need for peer support and acceptance.

•Increased interactions with peers provide them with opportunities for refining their
social skills and trying out different social behaviors.

•At times conflicting situations with parents lead to increased identification with peers
1.Delinquency
SOME MAJOR
Definition- Refers to a variety of behaviors, CONCERNS
ranging from
 socially unacceptable behaviour,
 legal offences,
 to criminal acts.

Examples
 Truancy (absenteeism)
 running away from home
 stealing or burglary or acts of vandalism.

Characteristics
 Tend to have a negative self-identity
 decreased trust
 low level of achievement.
Your views on
1. Disciplining Children
2. Family Discord
Reason-
1. It is often associated with low parental support, inappropriate discipline,
and family discord.
2. Often adolescents from communities characterised by poverty,
unemployment, and having feelings of alienation from the middle class
perform antisocial acts to gain attention and to be popular with their peers.

Solution-
Most delinquent children do not remain delinquent forever. The below help in
reduction of delinquent behaviour-
3. Change in their peer group
4. becoming more aware of their social responsibilities
5. developing feelings of self- worth
6. imitating positive behaviour of the role models
7. breaking negative attitudes
8. overcoming poor self-concept
 SOME MAJOR CONCERNS

2.Substance Abuse : Vulnerable to smoking, alcohol

and drug abuse.

Reasons
1. A way of coping with stress - Feel a need to escape the pressure of
school work or social activities.
This can interfere with the development of coping skills and
responsible decision- making.
2. Peer pressure and the adolescents’ need to be accepted by the group
3. Desire to act more like adults
4. The addictive powers of nicotine make it difficult to stop smoking.
5. Adolescents who are more vulnerable to drugs, alcohol, and nicotine
use, are impulsive, aggressive, anxious, depressive, and
unpredictable, have low self-esteem, and low expectation for
achievement.
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=BG70kTLfS7w
 SOME MAJOR CONCERNS

Result
Drug use if continued long enough can lead to physiological dependency,
i.e. addiction to drugs, alcohol or nicotine may seriously jeopardise the
rest of the adolescents’ lives.

Solution
Positive relationships with parents, peers, siblings, and adults play an
important role in preventing drug abuse.
In India, a successful anti-drug programme is the Society for Theatre in
Education Programme in New Delhi. It uses street performances to
entertain people between 13 to 25 years of age while teaching them how
to say no to drugs.
3. Eating Disorders - Obsession with self, living in
fantasy world and peer comparison leads to certain SOME MAJOR
conditions where they become obsessed with their own
bodies.
CONCERNS

• Common in Females and Urban families

1. Anorexia Nervosa
• Involves relentless pursuit of thinness through
starvation.
• Common to see adolescents elimanate certain
foods or eat slimming foods only
• Copying media’s projection of thinness as most
desirable image can lead to this

2. Bulimia
• Individual follows a binge and purge eating pattern
• Purging involves self-induced vommiting, using
ADULTHOOD
 INTRODUCTION

• The assumption of adult roles is directed by an individual’s social

context
• Within a culture there is similarity in the course of adult development.

• Two major tasks in early adulthood

1. Exploring the possibilities for adult living
2. Developing a stable life structure

• The twenties
Novice phase of adult development
Transition from dependence to independence should occur –
could be marked by an image of the kind of life the young person
wants especially in terms of marriage and career
 CAREER AND MARRIAGE

Career and Work

• Developing and evaluating a career – important task of
adulthood
• There are apprehensions regarding different adjustments,
proving one’s competence and coping with expectations
of both employers and self.
• Beginning of new roles and responsibilities

Marriage, Parenthood and Family

1. Marriage
• Have to adjust while entering a marriage relation
and to know their spouse
• Coping with each other’s likes, dislikes, tastes and
choices.
• If both are working, adjustments regarding
responsibilities at home
Marriage, Parenthood and Family
2. Parenthood and Family
• Stressful transition but usually accompanied by love for the baby

• Factors affecting adult’s experience of parenthood

1. The number of children in the family
2. The availability of social support
3. The happiness or unhappiness of the married couple.

• Factors affecting childcare/ Stresses associated with parenting

1. Death of a spouse or divorce – It creates a family structure in
which a single parent either the mother or the father has to take up
the responsibility of the children.
2. Women are increasingly seeking employment outside the home thus
creating another type of family in which both parents work.
Physical Changes
Gradual deterioration in some aspects of physical
functioning
1. Decline in vision
2. Sensitivity to glare
3. Hearing loss
4. Changes in physical appearance (wrinkles, grey hair,
hair thinning)

Cognitive Changes
• Some cognitive abilities decline with age - Decline in PHYSICAL AND
memory is more in tasks involving long term memory
than short term memory
COGNITIVE
• Wisdom may improve with age
CHANGES
OLD AGE
• Traditionally, the age of retirement was • The experience of old age also depends on
linked to old age. the
• Challenges, which the aged have to cope 1. socio-economic conditions,
with include 2. availability of health care,
3. attitude of people,
1. retirement, 4. expectations of society
2. widowhood, 5. available support system.

3. illness
4. death in the family.

• The image of old age is changing in certain

ways –
• The myth of old age as an
incapacitating and therefore,
frightening phase of life is changing
• Now there are people who have
crossed seventy years of age or so and
are quite active, energetic, and creative
• Retirement from active vocational life is quite significant. RETIREMENT
• Two ways of perceiving retirement
1. Negative change- They consider it as a separation from an important source of
satisfaction and self-esteem.
2. Positive change-
• Others view it as a shift in life with more time to pursue their own interests.
• It is seen that older adults who show openness to new experiences, more striving and
achievement- oriented behaviour prefer to keep busy and are better adjusted.

• Older adults also need to adjust to

• Changes in the family structure and new roles (grand parenting) that have to be learnt.
• Children usually are busy in their careers and families and may set up independent homes.
• Older adults may depend on their children for financial support and to overcome their
loneliness (after children have moved out). This might trigger -off feelings of hopelessness
and depression in some people.
• In old age 1)feeling of loss of energy, and 2)dwindling of
health and financial assets, lead to insecurity and
dependency DEPENDENCY

• The elderly tend to look towards others to lean on and

to care for them.

• Indian culture favours dependency of elderly on their

children, for old age needs caring.

• Parents in most oriental cultures rear their children with

the fond hope that they will care for them during old
age.

• It is important to give the elderly a sense of security

and belonging, a feeling that people care for them
(especially in the time of crisis )
 DEATH

Can occur anytime

• Death of children and younger adults perceived as more tragic - Likely to
occur as a result of accidents
• In older adults, likely to be a result of chronic disease

Death of spouse
• Usually seen as most difficult loss
• Partner suffer deep grief, cope with loneliness, depression, financial loss and
are also at risk of many health related problems.
• Widows by far out number widowers, because studies show that women live
longer than men and tend to marry men older than themselves.
• Support from children, grandchildren, and friends can help the individual
cope
 DEATH

Different cultures view death differently

• Gond culture (India)- death is caused by magic and
demon
• Tanala culture (Madagascar)- natural forces cause
death
THE END