PERPETUATION

OF LIFE
Reproduction – refers to the process by which organisms produce offspring, ensuring the continuation of their
species. It is a fundamental characteristic of life and can occur through various mechanisms. There are two main types
of reproduction: asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction – involves the production of offspring without the involvement of gametes (sperm and egg
cells). The offspring are genetically identical to the parent plant, meaning they are clones. It is often faster and more
efficient, particularly in stable environments where genetic variation may not be as critical. It can happen naturally or
artificially with the aid of humans.
Natural Vegetative Reproduction – the type of reproduction in plants from its vegetative parts. The structures
of plants that reproduce vegetatively come mostly from modified stems, such as runners, tubers, corms, and
rhizomes.

Runners/Stolons: Horizontal stems that grow along

the soil surface and can give rise to new plants at
nodes (e.g., strawberries, spider plants).

Rhizomes: Underground horizontal stems that store

nutrients and can sprout new shoots (e.g., ginger,
bamboo).
Tubers: Swollen underground stems or roots that store
food and can grow into new plants (e.g., potatoes,
yams).

Bulbs: Short underground stems with fleshy leaves

that can develop into new plants (e.g., onions, lilies).

Corms – are observed from gladioli and crocuses that

resemble much like bulbs but with disc-like parts
primarily of stem tissue.
Artificial Propagation – practiced with a help from humans. Often faster
than growing plants from seeds.

Stem cutting is a form of vegetative propagation where a piece of stem

from a parent plant is cut and encouraged to grow into a new plant. This
method relies on the ability of many plants to regenerate roots and shoots
from a detached part of the plant.

Grafting is a method of vegetative propagation where two plant parts (a

scion and a rootstock) are joined together so that they grow as one
plant. The scion is the upper part (typically a young shoot or branch) of
one plant, while the rootstock is the root system or lower part of another
plant. The goal of grafting is to combine the best traits of both plants, such
as disease resistance from the rootstock and fruit quality or flower
characteristics from the scion.
Tissue culture – the growth of plant
tissues in an artificial liquid or solid
culture media, provides an alternative
means to grow new plants in mass
numbers.

Key Concepts of Tissue Culture

Explants: The small pieces of plant tissue that are cultured in vitro (in a lab environment). These can be taken from
almost any part of the plant, including leaves, stems, roots, buds, or even single cells. The type of explant depends on
the plant species and the purpose of the culture.

Sterile Environment: Since tissue culture requires the growth of plant material in a laboratory setting, it is essential that
the environment is sterile to prevent contamination by bacteria, fungi, or other pathogens. This is usually achieved
through the use of sterile tools, laminar flow hoods, and the sterilization of explants using agents like alcohol or bleach.
Growth Medium: Plant explants are placed on a nutrient-rich gel medium that provides the necessary nutrients
(such as sugars, vitamins, and minerals) for growth. The medium also typically contains plant hormones like auxins
(for root development) and cytokinins (for shoot development), which help guide the growth and differentiation of
the plant tissue.

Controlled Conditions: Tissue culture requires strict control of environmental factors like temperature, light,
humidity, and the composition of the growth medium. This allows for the optimal growth of the plant material.
Sexual reproduction in plants involves the combination of male and female gametes (pollen and ovules) to produce seeds
that develop into new plants. This process promotes genetic diversity and is vital for the long-term adaptability and
evolution of plant species. Happens in the sexual organs of flowering plants which are contained in their flowers.

Angiosperms – commonly known as the Gymnosperms – a group of seed-producing plants and they
flowering plants are widely distributed in the don’t produce flowers or fruit. Instead, they produce "naked"
world. seeds that are exposed on the surface of cone scales or other
structures.
The flower is the reproductive organ of angiosperms, containing both
male and female parts. Flowers can vary greatly in size, shape, and color
but all have similar basic parts.

Parts of a Flower:
 SEPALS
 Function: Protect the flower bud before it opens.
 Appearance: Typically green and leaf-like, though they can be
colorful in some plants.
 PETALS
 Function: Attract pollinators with their color, shape, and scent.
 Appearance: Often brightly colored and found inside the sepals,
arranged in a circle or whorl.
 STAMENS (Male Parts):
 Function: Produce pollen, which contains the male gametes
(sperm cells).

Parts of the Stamen:

• Anther: The top part of the stamen, where pollen is produced.
• Filament: The stalk that supports the anther and holds it up to
release pollen.
 CARPEL (Female Part):
Function: The pistil contains the ovary, which produces ovules (female
gametes/eggs) and is the site of fertilization.

Parts of the Pistil:

 Stigma: The sticky top part of the pistil where pollen lands.
 Style: The stalk that connects the stigma to the ovary.
 Ovary: The base of the pistil, where ovules (eggs) are
produced. After fertilization, the ovary will develop into a fruit.
 Ovules: The eggs inside the ovary. Each ovule can become a
seed after fertilization.
Stages of Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Formation of Male and Female Gametes:

 Male Gametes (Pollen): The male reproductive organs in flowering plants

are the stamens, which consist of the anther (where pollen is produced)

and the filament (which supports the anther). In non-flowering plants like

conifers, the male gametes are produced in cones.

 Female Gametes (Ovules): The female reproductive organs are the pistils

(or carpels), which consist of the stigma (the sticky surface where pollen

lands), the style (the stalk that connects the stigma to the ovary), and the

ovary (which contains the ovules, or egg cells).

Pollination:
 Pollination is the process by which pollen from the male gametes is
transferred to the female reproductive organs. This can occur in two ways:
• Self-pollination: Pollen from the same plant or flower fertilizes its own
ovules.
• Cross-pollination: Pollen from one plant fertilizes the ovules of
another plant. This promotes genetic diversity.
 Pollination is typically carried out by:
• Wind: Many plants, such as grasses and conifers, rely on wind to
transfer their pollen.
• Animals: Insects (like bees, butterflies, and moths), birds, and bats can
all be pollinators that carry pollen from one flower to another.
• Water: Some aquatic plants are pollinated by water currents.
Fertilization:
 Once pollen reaches the stigma, it germinates and forms a
pollen tube that grows down through the style to reach the
ovary.

 The sperm cell travels down the pollen tube and fuses with
the egg cell in the ovule, resulting in fertilization. The
fertilized egg is now called a zygote, which will develop into a
seed.

Seed and Fruit Formation:

 After fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed. The fertilized
ovule contains the embryo (the new plant) and the endosperm (a
tissue that provides nutrients for the developing embryo).

 In angiosperms (flowering plants), the ovary develops into a fruit,

which protects the developing seed(s) and aids in seed dispersal.

 In gymnosperms (non-flowering plants), the seed develops within a

cone and does not produce fruit.
Dispersal:
After the seed has matured, it needs to be dispersed to a new location
where it can germinate and grow into a new plant. Seeds are dispersed
in various ways:
 Wind (e.g., dandelions, maple trees)
 Animals (e.g., fruits eaten by animals, seeds attached to fur)
 Water (e.g., coconuts floating in the ocean)
 Mechanical (e.g., plants that eject seeds explosively, like peas)

Germination:
When a seed lands in a suitable environment, it can germinate, beginning
the process of growth into a new plant. Germination occurs when:
 The seed absorbs water (imbibition), causing it to swell.
 The embryo within the seed begins to grow, the radicle (embryonic root)
pushes out first to anchor the plant, and the shoot emerges to start
photosynthesis.