SECOND TERM E-LEARNING NOTE

S U B J E C T: C H E M I S T R Y CLASS: SS2

SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK TOPIC
R ates of Chemical Reaction
Meaning of R ate of Chemical Reaction.
Rate Curve.
T h e C o l l i s i o n T h e o r y.
Fa c t o r s A ff e c t i n g R a t e o f C h e m i c a l R e a c t i o n s .
2. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
Heat Content (Enthalpy) of a Substance.
Thermodynamics: First and Second Laws.
E n t r o p y a n d F r e e E n e r g y.
Chemical Equilibrium
Reversible Reactions
Le Chatelier’s Principle.
Fa c t o r s A ff e c t i n g C h e m i c a l E q u i l i b r i u m .
Equilibrium Constant.
Oxygen and its Compounds
G e n e r a l P r o p e r t i e s o f O x y g e n Fa m i l y.
Electronic Structure and Bonding in Oxygen.
Preparation, Properties and Uses of Oxygen.
O x i d e s : C l a s s i fi c a t i o n .
Chlorine and other Halogens
E l e c t r o n i c C o n fi g u r a t i o n o f H a l o g e n s
Physical and Chemical Properties of Halogens.
Laboratory and Industrial Preparation of Chlorine.
Compound of Chlorine: Hydrogen Chloride.
Te s t f o r C h l o r i d e s .
Nitrogen
G e n e r a l P r o p e r t i e s o f N i t r o g e n Fa m i l y.
Laboratory Preparation and Industrial Preparation of Nitrogen.
Properties and Uses of Nitrogen.
Nitrogen Cycle.
Compounds of Nitrogen
Oxides of Nitrogen
Ammonia: Preparation, Properties and Uses.
Trioxonitrate (V) acid: Preparation, Properties and Uses.
Sulphur
General Properties of Sulphur Group.
Electronic Structure of Members of Sulphur Group.
A l l o t r o p e s o f S u l p h u r.
U s e s o f S u l p h u r.
Compounds of Sulphur
H 2 S, SO 2 and S O3 : Prepar at io n, Pro perties and Uses
 TOPIC: RATE OF REACTION
 CONTENT
 Meaning of Rate of Chemical Reaction.
 Rate Curve.
 The Collision Theory.
 Factors Affecting Rate of Chemical Reactions
 MEANING OF RATE OF REACTION
 The rate of a chemical reaction is the number of moles of reactants converted or products formed
per unit time.

 Usually, rate of reaction is determined experimentally by measuring change in concentration of
one of the components in the reaction with time.

 Thus,
 Rate of reaction = change in concentration of reactant or product (mol/dm 3)
 Time taken for the change (seconds)
 The unit of the rate of reaction is mol/dm -3s-1 or g dm-3s –1.
 Rate of reaction can also be expressed as:
 Rate of reaction = change in number of mole or mass of reactant or product
 Time taken for the change
 Then the unit of rate is mols-1 or gs-1

 EXAMPLE: When 0.5g of calcium trioxocarbonate (IV) was added to excess dilute hydrochloric
acid, carbon (IV) oxide was evolved. The complete reaction took 5 minutes. What was the rate of
reaction?
 SOLUTION:
 Rate of reaction = change in mass of reactant
 Time taken for the change
 = (0.5 – 0)g = 0.5
 5x60 300
 = 1.67 x 10 gs-1
-3
 FEATURES OF RATE CURVE
 It passes through the origin. This is because there is no change in
concentration or mass at the start of reaction.
 It steeps at first, this because the rate is fast at the beginning.
 It becomes less steep later. This is because the rate slows down.
 It finally becomes horizontally. This is because the reaction has
reached the end points.

 The following can be determined from the rate curve
 Average rate of reaction
 Average rate = total number of mole / mass involved
 Time taken
 Rate at a particular instant during the reaction
 Rate at instant = Gradient at a point on the curve
 When the rate of reaction has direct variation with concentration, then
 Rate of reaction α[Concentration of A]
 R α [A]
 R = k[A]
 Where k is called Rate constant
 WAYS OF MEASURING REACTION RATE
 Concentration is one of the properties of a reaction
that can change with time.
 The following properties can also change with time
and can thus be used to measure rate of reaction.
 Decrease in mass of reaction system
 Volume of gaseous product
 Amount of precipitate formed
 Change in colour intensity
 Change in pH
 Change in total gas pressure

 RATE CURVE
 The rate curve is a graphical illustration of the rate
of a reaction.
 COLLISION THEORY
 The collision theory states that for a chemical reaction to occur the
reactant particles must collide and they must collide with a certain
minimum amount of energy known as activation
 energy.

 Reacting particles are in continuous motion, thus they possess energy and
they also collide with one another. Not all collisions result into chemical
reaction. Collisions, which result into chemical reaction, are called
EFFECTIVE COLLISIONS. Minimum amount of energy required by
reacting particles for chemical reaction to occur is called ACTIVATION
ENERGY. Activation energy is the ENERGY BARRIER the reactants must
overcome for reaction to occur. It is the minimum energy required for bond
breaking for chemical reaction to occur.

 Chemical reaction occur only when the energy of the colliding reactant
particles is equal to or more than the activation energy. Activation energy
must be equal to energy barriers also for chemical reaction to occur.

 Every reaction has its own energy of activation. Reactions with low
activation energy have high rate of reaction and occur spontaneously.
Reaction with high activation energy have low rate of reaction and are not
spontaneous.
 1. Both exothermic and endothermic reactions generally require an initial input of energy
to overcome the activation energy barriers.
 2. Exothermic reaction once started proceed without any further external energy supply
e.g burning of kerosene
 3.Endothermic reaction proceeds with continuous supply of external energy e.g cooking of
rice.

 EVALUATION
 State collision theory.
 Graphically differentiate exothermic reaction from endothermic reaction.

 FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF REACTION
 From the collision theory, it can be seen that rates of reaction depends on the following
features.
 The energy of the particle.
 The frequency of collision of the reaction.
 The activation energy of the reaction.

 These features of a chemical reaction are in turn affected by some factors, which can make
them to change and consequently affect the rate of reaction. These are factors that affect the
rate of reactions. Some important ones are:
 Nature of reactants.
 Concentration / pressure (for gases) of reactants.
 Surface area of reactants
 Temperature of reaction mixture
 Presence of light
 Presence of catalysts
 To study the effect of any one of these factors on rate of reaction all other factors must be
 EFFECT OF NATURE OF REACTANTS
 If all other factors are kept constant, different substances will have different rate of reaction
with dilute HCl, for example. When dilute HCl reacts with zinc, iron and gold under the same
condition, hydrogen gas is evolved fast with zinc, slow with iron and no gas evolved with gold.

 The difference in rate of reaction is due to the chemical nature of the elements as they naturally
posses different amount of energy content.

 EFFECT OF CONCENTRATION OF REACTANTS
 The frequency of collision among particles is high when the particles are crowded in a small
space, i.e high concentration. This leads to high effective collision and thus high rate of reaction.
An increase or decrease in the concentration of the reactants will result in corresponding
increase or decrease in effective collisions of the reactants and hence the reaction rate.

 .

 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
 Increasing the temperature of a system can lead to an increase in reaction rate in two ways.
When heat is raised, energy in form of heat is supplied to the reactant particles, so that
 The number of particles with energy equal to or greater than the activation energy increases.
 The velocity of all the reactant particles increases due to the greater kinetic energy, leading to a
higher frequency of collision.
 As a result, the number of effective collisions increases and the reaction proceeds at a faster
rate. Decreases in temperature leads to decrease rate of reactions
 EFFECT OF LIGHT
 Some reactions are influenced by light. The rate of reaction is high when the lights intensity is
high, low when the intensity is low and does not proceed at all in the absence of light. Such
reactions are known as photochemical reaction. Examples of photochemical reactions include:
 Reaction between hydrogen and chlorine and
 Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
 Reactions between methane and chlorine
 Photosynthesis in plant
 Conversion of silver halides to grey metallic silver.
 . EFFECT OF SURFACE AREA OF REACTANTS
 This is a very important factor to be considered when a solid is
involved in a chemical reaction. Lumped solids offer small
surface area of contact for reaction while powdered solids offer
large surface area for reaction. Rate of reaction is slow with
lumped solid but high with powdered solids

 EFFECT OF CATALYST
 A Catalyst is a substance, which alters the rate of a reaction, but
itself does not undergo any change at the end of the reaction.
 A positive catalyst increases the rate of reaction by lowering the
activation energy of the reaction whereas, the one which
increases the activation energy is known as a negative catalyst
or an inhibitor.
 ENERGY
 Energy is defined as the ability to do work. It exists in different forms like: heat, light, sound,
electrical, potentials (stored), kinetic etc.

 LAWS OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
 Energy can be changed from one form to another. The total amount of energy before and after
the change remains the same. This observation is stated in the law of conservation of energy
which states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be changed from one
form to another.

 There are types of energy such as chemical energy, heat energy, and light energy.

 HEAT CONTENT (ENTHALPY) OF A SUBSTANCE
 Heat content or Enthalpy of a substance is the characteristic internal energy possess by the
substance, which is due to the structure and physical state of a substance. The potential
energy is due to the structure while the kinetic energy is due to the physical state. Enthalpy of
one substance is different from another. Total enthalpy cannot be measured but only enthalpy
change. Generally, an enthalpy change (∆H) is the heat that would be exchanged with the
surrounding, that is, it is the amount of energy involved in a reaction.

 Thus,
 Enthalpy change = Heat of products – Heat of reactants
 That is, ∆H = Hproducts - Hreactants

 The enthalpy change of a given reaction is always written side by side with the given equation
and it may be either a positive or negative value.
 Example:

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ∆H = -57.3kJ

 Unit of enthalpy change(∆H) is Joules(J) or kilojoules(kJ)

 EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS
 EXOTHERMIC REACTION
 A chemical reaction in which heat is given off to the surrounding is known as exothermic reaction.
When an exothermic reaction occurs, heat is liberated and transferred from the chemicals to the
surroundings and the temperature of the reaction mixture rises. The reaction vessel will feel hot.

 Examples of exothermic reactions include:
 Reaction between calcium oxide and water
 Reaction between an acid and a base.
 Combustion of fuel
 Corrosion of metals
 Respiration
 In exothermic reaction, enthalpy change is negative since the heat content of the products is less than
the heat content of the reactants.

 ENDOTHERMIC REACTION
 An Endothermic reaction is a type of reaction in which heat is absorbed from the surroundings. When
an endothermic reaction occurs, heat energy is absorbed and transferred from the surrounding to the
reactants and the temperature of the reaction mixture falls. The reaction vessel will feel cold.
 Examples of endothermic reactions are:
 Thermal decomposition of calcium trioxocarbonate (IV)
 Thermal dissociation of ammonium chloride
 Action of light on silver bromide in photographic film
 Photosynthesis in plants
 In endothermic reaction, the heat content of the product is more than the heat content of the reactant;
hence the enthalpy change is positive.

 ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAMS
 Energy changes can be presented by diagrams, which shows at once whether reactions are
exothermic or endothermic. HEAT OF REACTION AND CHEMICAL BONDS
 During chemical reactions, chemical bonds are broken, atoms are regrouped and new bonds are
formed. Bond breaking requires energy and bond forming evolves energy. The minimum amount of
energy required for bond breaking is called activation energy. While bond breaking is endothermic,
 TYPES OF HEAT CHANGES IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
 HEAT OF FORMATION
 The amount of heat evolved or absorbed when one mole of a substance is formed from its elements is known as
heat of formation [or enthalpy of formation].
 The standard heat of formation of a substance(∆H fθ) is the heat evolved or absorbed, when one mole of that
substance is formed from its elements under standard conditions.
 For the formation of 1 mole of liquid water, the equation is
 H2(g) + 1/2O2(g) H2O(1) ∆Hfθ = - 285kJmol-1
 Thus, ∆Hfθ of water = - 285kJmol-1

 HEAT OF NEUTRALIZATION
 Neutralization is an exothermic reaction. The amount of heat evolved during a neutralization reaction in which one
mole of water is formed is known as the heat of neutralization (or enthalpy of neutralization).The standard heat of
neutralization ∆Hnθ is the amount of heat evolved when 1 mole of hydrogen ions, H +, from an acid reacts with 1
mole of hydroxide ions, OH-, from an alkali to form 1 mole of water under standard conditions. Heat of
neutralization is also known as heat of formation of one mole of water from its ionic components.
 H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l) ∆Hnθ = – 57.4kJmol-1

 HEAT OF COMBUSTION
 Combustion reaction is always exothermic. The amount of heat evolved when one mole of a substance is burned
completely in oxygen is known as the heat of combustion or enthalpy of combustion. The standard heat of
combustion of a substance, ∆HCθ; is the heat evolved when one mole of the substance is burned completely in
oxygen under standard conditions.
 A bomb calorimeter is usually used for accurate determination of heat of combustion.
 Heat of combustion can be determined from the relation below:
 Heat of combustion = Heat energy produced x molar mass
 Mass burnt 1
 When the heat evolved by the burning substance is used to raise the temperature of a known mass of water, then
the expression for heat of combustion can be given as:
 Heat of combustion = mC∆θ x molar mass
 Mass burnt 1
 Where m = mass of water
 C = Specific heat capacity of water
 ∆θ = change in temperature, that is, θ2 – θ1
 HEAT OF SOLUTION
 Heat of solution can be exothermic or endothermic. Heat of solution is the heat evolved or absorbed when
one mole of a substance is dissolved in so much water that further dilution results in no detectable heat
change.
 Standard heat of solution, ∆Hsθ , is the amount of heat evolved or absorbed when 1 mole of substance is
dissolved in so much water that further dilution results in no detectable heat change at standard
conditions.

 THERMODYNAMICS
 Thermodynamics is the study of relationship between heat and other forms of energy.
 System in thermodynamics is any part of the universe chosen for thermodynamics consideration, i.e. the physical
and chemical phenomenon or process occurring in a given
 environment. A system can be isolated, closed or open.
 Surrounding is the environment in which a phenomenon or a process occurs.

 The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but may be
converted from one form to another.
 In thermodynamics, heat is represented by q and other forms of energy are referred to as work denoted by w.
The conditions or state of a chemical system is changed when:
 i. Heat is evolved or absorbed, and / or
 ii. Work is done on or by the system
 In any case, the internal energy, U, of the system is affected and it is changed.
 From first law, heat is changed into internal energy of the system it may be represented by
 change in internal energy = Heat absorbed by the system + Work done by the system
 i.e. U = q + w
 Work done by the system is negative since this lead to decrease in internal energy, therefore:
 U = q - w
 For a gaseous system, w = P V
 U = q - P V
 U = H - P V
 H = U - P V
 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMIC
 The second law of thermodynamic states that a spontaneous process occurs only if there is an
increase in the entropy of a system and its surroundings
 Factors which determines the spontaneously of a process are:
 enthalpy, H: The heat content of the substances involved
 entropy, S: The measure of degree of disorderliness or randomness of a substance
 free energy G: The energy which is available for doing work.

 ENTROPY (S)
 Entropy is the measure of degree of disorderliness or randomness of a system. The standard
entropy change (∆Sθ) is a state function because it depends on the initial and final state of the
system. That is:
 ∆Sθ = Sθproducts - Sθreactants
 The S.Iunit of is JK-1mol-1

 Entropy increases from solid to liquid to gaseous state because as you go from solid to liquid to
gaseous state, randomness increases, that is; ∆S θ tends to positive.
 For a reversible process at constant temperature,
 S = H/T
 When ∆S is positive, there is increase in entropy. When ∆S is negative there is decrease in the
entropy of a system.

 GIBB’S FREE ENERGY
 The free energy of a system is the energy which is available for doing work in the system; that is, the driving force that
brings about a chemical change.
 The standard free energy change (∆G θ) is a state function because it depends on the initial and final state of the system.
That is:
 ∆Gθ = Gθproducts - Gθreactants
 Free energy takes into account the effect of the enthalpy and entropy factors as represented in the equation below:
 G = H-TS
 For a change at constant temperature,
 G= H-T S
 NOTE:
 1. When G is negative, the reaction is spontaneous or feasible.
 2. When G is positive, the reaction is not spontaneous, unless the resultant effect of both H and S leads to a
net decrease in G
 3. When G is zero, the system is in equilibrium

 Example: The reaction: C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
 is carried out at a temperature of 57 C. If the enthalpy change is -500J and the entropy change is +15J.Calculate the
o

free energy change

 Solution:
 G= H -T S
 = -5000 - (57 + 273) x (+15)
 = -5000 - 330 x 15
 = -5000 - (+4950)
 = -5000 - 4950
 = -9950J or -9.950kJ
 EQUILIBRIUM
 Equilibrium can be defined as the state of a system where there is no observable or detectable change in the properties of the
system with respect to time. Examples of system in equilibrium
 a balanced see – saw
 a saturated solution of NaCl

 STATIC AND DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
 Static equilibrium is attained when a system in equilibrium is in a state of rest or stationary state.
 Example of this is balanced see – saw

 Dynamic equilibrium can occur during a physical change or a chemical change that is reversible. Dynamic equilibrium involving a
physical change is referred to as physical equilibrium while that involving a chemical change is a chemical equilibrium.

 A system is said to be in a state of dynamic equilibrium when both the forward and backward reactions take place at the same rate.
Example
 N2O4(g) 2NO2(g)

 EQUILIBRIUM IN REVERSIBLE REACTION
 A reversible reaction is one which proceeds in both forward and backward directions under suitable conditions.

 For example: NH 4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl(g)
 A reversible reaction is said to be in dynamic equilibrium when both the forward and backward reaction are occurring at the same
rate, thereby producing no net change in concentrations of the reactants or products.

 Properties of system in equilibrium
 1. A chemical reaction at equilibrium is in dynamic state with the rates of the forward and backward reactions are equal.
 2. The equilibrium position can be reached from reactants alone or form product alone
 3. For equilibrium to be established, the system must be closed

 FACTORS AFFECTING THE POSITION OF EQUILIBRIUM
 The position of equilibrium depends on the following set of condition
 Temperature
 Concentration
 Pressure (for gases)
 Variation in any of these factors will upset the balance of the system and results
in a shift in the position of the equilibrium. These factors and their effect on
chemical systems in equilibrium were studied by Le Chatelier’s who formed the
Le Chatelier’s principle.

 Le Chatelier’s principle states that if a chemical system is in equilibrium and
one of the factors involved in the equilibrium is altered, the equilibrium position
will shift so as to neutralize the effect of the change.
 Importance of Le Chatelier’s principle in chemical industry: It helps to
 Define optimum conditions for chemical process
 Reduce undesirable reversibility
 Predict the effect of an altered factors on the equilibrium

 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
 For an endothermic reaction, increase in temperature shifts the position
of equilibrium to the right. That is, the forward reaction is favoured while
a decrease in temperature favours the backward reaction. The reverse is
the case for exothermic reactions.

 EFFECT OF CONCENTRATION
 In a system of equilibrium, if the concentration of reactants is increased
or product decreased, the forward reaction will be favoured, that is;
equilibrium position shifts to the right. Also, if the concentration of the
products is increased or reactant decreased, the backward reaction will
be favoured, equilibrium position shifts to the left.

 EFFECT OF PRESSURE
 Pressure of gas is proportional to the number of moles. Increase in
number of moles implies increase in pressure and vice visa. If the
forward reaction proceeds by decreases in number of moles (pressure),
an imposed increase pressure will favour forward reaction. Reverse is
the case if it proceeds by increase in number of moles (pressure). In
other words, when high pressure is applied, equilibrium will shift to the
side with less number of moles while when low pressure is applied,
equilibrium will shift to the side with greater number of moles.
 N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
 1 mole 3 moles 2 moles
 Increase in pressure favours forward reaction while
decrease in pressure favours backward reaction

 EFFECT OF CATALYST
 A catalyst does not change (affect) the position of
equilibrium. Addition of catalyst, however increase the
rate of both forward and backward reaction by lowering
the activation of energy of the reaction.
 Equilibrium position is attained at faster rate when a
catalyst is present.


 HABER PROCESS
 Haber process is an industrial process for the manufacture of ammonia.
 Ammonia, NH3, is an important chemical for the manufacture of fertilizers. During the process, the
following equilibrium is established
 N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) H= -96KJmol-1
 1 mole 3 moles 2 moles

 CHOICE OF TEMPERATURE
 Since forward reaction is exothermic, Le Chatelier’s principle shows that the greatest yield of ammonia,
NH3, would be obtained at low temperature. However, if the temperature is too low, time taken to reach
equilibrium would be much. A temperature of 5000C gives reasonable yield of ammonia.

 CHOICE OF PRESSURE
 Since forward reaction leads to decrease in number of moles (pressure), Le Chatelier’s principle shows
that high yield of ammonia would be obtained at high pressure. The pressure of 25atm gives a satisfactory
yield.

 CHOICE OF CATALYST
 Iron is used as catalyst in Haber process. Iron is found to be effective in speeding up the rate of which
equilibrium is reached. It is used in form of small pellets which increased the surface area available for
contact.

 EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT (K) AND LAW OF MASS ACTION
 The law of mass action states that at constant temperature, the rate of reaction is proportional to the
active masses of each of the reactants;
 The active mass of the reactants is the concentration of the substance raised to the power of coefficient
(number of mole) of that substance in the equation of reaction under study.
 NOTE: Active mass = molar concentration x activity coefficient
 In most reactions, the active masses of the reactant may be taken as their molar concentrations.
 Example:
 aA + bB products
 Thus, r α [A]a and r α [B]b
 where [ ] represents concentration in moldm-3
 r α [A]a x [B]b
 r = k [A]a [B]b
 where k is called equilibrium constants
 Applying the law to the reversible reaction represented by the equation below:
 aA(aq) + bB(aq) cC(aq) + dD(aq)
 Kc= [C]c [D]d
 [A]a [B]b
 Where Kc is called equilibrium constant
 For reactions involving gases, the equilibrium constant is expressed in terms of the partial
pressures of the gases involved in the reaction.
 Therefore, for the general gaseous reaction:
 aA(g) + bB(g) cC(g) + dD(g)
 Kp = PCc x PDd
 PAa x PBb
 Where Kp is equilibrium constant for the gaseous reaction, PA, PB, PC and PD are partial
pressures of gases A, B, C and D respectively.

 NOTE: For a given reaction, concentrations of solids are ignored. A Kc or Kp value greater
than one tells you that product formation is favoured at equilibrium; while a Kc or Kp value
less than one tells you that reactants formation is favoured at equilibrium. A system in
equilibrium has Kc or Kp value equal to one.

 Oxygen is the most abundant element on earth. It constitutes 21% by volume of atmospheric air.

 Occurrence: It occurs as free elements in nature and in combined states.

 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF OXYGEN FAMILY
 Elements in group VI include: Oxygen (O), Sulphur (S), Selenium (Se), Tellurium (Te), and
Polonium (Po).their properties are as follows:
 They are non-metals and exist as solid at room temperature except for oxygen
 They are electron acceptors and oxidizing in nature.
 They do not react with water in any form. But oxygen and sulphur combine directly with hydrogen
to yield water and hydrogen sulphide respectively.

 ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE AND BONDING IN OXYGEN
 Oxygen has an atomic number of 8; hence its electronic configuration is 1s 22s22p4. This shows
that oxygen needs two electrons in order to attain an octet configuration.

 Oxygen atom has six valence electrons and can acquire a stable octet configuration by:
 Accepting two electrons from electropositive elements like metals to form negative oxide ion, O 2-.
Example
 Ca2+ + O2- → CaO
 Entering into covalent bond formation with non-metals by covalently sharing two out of its six
outer electrons. Example formation of carbon (IV) oxide molecule.
 O C O
 3. Forming covalent bond with itself.
 O O
LABORATORY PREPARATION OF
OXYGEN
By the thermal decomposition of potassium
trioxochlorate (V) in the presence of MnO 2 as
catalyst
2KClO3(s)heat 2KCl2(s) + 3O2(g)

2. By decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, H 2O2
in the presence of MnO2 as catalyst
 2H2O2(aq) heat 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Hydrogen peroxide also reacts with acidified
KMnO4 in the cold to produce oxygen
 5H2O2(aq) + 2KMnO4(aq) + 3H2SO4(aq)
K2SO4(aq) + 2MnSO4(aq) + 8H2O(l) + 502(g)
NOTE: If the gas is required dry, it is passed
through anhydrous calcium chloride or
concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid and
collected over mercury.