WELCOME

Advantages of Power Electronics :

The Power Electronic circuits have many significant advantages such as

compact systems, low space required, low losses, high speed of response;
elimination of conventional controls e.g., Saturable reactors, Magnetic
amplifiers, Rotary converters, Ward Leonard Control and smooth as well as step
less variation of output voltage as well as frequency.
The backbone of Power Electronics revolution is the advent of thyristor in early 60’s,
followed by the evolution of the entire family of Power Semiconductor Devices (PSDs);
both current gated as well as voltage gated.

In view of the above, the range of Power Electronics application and its control can be
divided into the following four major classifications:

1.Low power circuits including consumer electronics

2.Medium power circuits and applications
3.High power circuits and applications
4.Very high power circuits and applications
1. Low power circuits including consumer electronics :

Significant among low power circuits are Electronic Ballast, Light dimmers, Switched
Mode Power Supply (SMPS), Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS), Voltage
Stabilizers, Inverters, Converters and a wide variety of consumer electronics etc.
A fairly large number of users of such systems have come up during the past
three decade, which has brought in many manufacturers with highly competitive
prices and also good product specifications
2. Medium Power Circuits and Applications

In this category of applications electrical systems up to about a few hundred kilowatts

are covered. These are variable speed AC and DC drive, Static Excitation of
alternators, Electro welding and electroplating, Aircraft power supplies, Rolling Mill and
Lathe drives, Textile Mills and Process Control Industries. The main contribution of
Power Electronics in medium power circuit has been its compactness, low losses, fast
speed of response and low overall maintenance. As such, the present day industry
has made best use of these qualities.

3. High Power Circuits and Applications

This includes large power Variable Speed Drives (VSD) in MW range, Static VAR Control
in transmission networks and Electric Arc Furnaces etc. These applications too are very
widely acclaimed in industry and many such applications have since been accomplished.

4. Very High Power Circuits and Applications

Applications like High Voltage DC (HVDC) transmission, Active Power Filters (APF),
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS), Electric Traction and ; where several mega
watts of power is transmitted, compensated and distributed, fall under this category.
Several projects and new installations in this category of applications have been
successfully commissioned and completed
Electronic Components
 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
a)Analog Electronic components
b)Digital Electronic Components
Analog Electronic components
1. PASSIVE COMPONENTS :-
RESISTOR, CAPACITOR,
INDUCTOR
2. ACTIVE COMPONENTS :- which rectify / amplify / can
work as switches
SEMICONDUCTOR
RESISTOR
 RESISTOR

1. DEFINITION - Resistor is an element, which resists the flow of

current, by developing a voltage across its terminals.

2. SYMBOL - R

3. FORMULA & UNIT - R = V / I in Ohms “Ω”, (Ohm’s Law)

whereas V = Voltage across terminals in Volts,

& I = Current through “R” in Amp.

 PARAMETERS OF A RESISTOR

1. Resistance - R = ρ . L / A , where ρ = Resistivity in Ωcm.

L = Length of Resistance
A = Area of cross-section of Resistance
2. Resistivity :- It is the property of resistance-material.
Table of Resistivity

Material ρ in Ωcm

Silver 1.5x10-6

Glass 10³
 PARAMETER OF A RESISTOR

3. Temperature Coefficient of Resistance :-

Normally R α T, and the Temperature Coefficient of

Resistance (TCR) is expressed as %change in its nominal value at 25ºC, for
each degree ºC change

4. Power Rating :-
P = I ². R in Watts.
Power Rating of a Resistor is the maximum continuous
power in watts

5. Power Dissipation Factor :-

It is the ratio of Power necessary to increase the

temperature of Resistor by 10 ºC.

6. Drift or Time-Stability :-

It refers to change in value of resistance over time-interval

of use, e.g. after 1000 hrs. of use.
 RESISTANCES IN SERIES & PARALLEL

1. RESISTANCES IN SERIES

R = R1 + R2 + R3
(solve V=V1+V2+V3)

2. RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL

1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

(solve I=I1+I2+I3)
 CLASSIFICATION OF RESISTOR
1. TYPE OF USE :- FIXED OR VARIABLE
2. TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION :- Practical resistors can be
made of various compounds and films, as well as
resistance wire .
a) CARBON COMPOSITION
b) METAL FILM
c) CARBON FILM
d) WIRE WOUND
3. TYPE OF TOLERANCE :-
GENL. PURPOSE > 5 %, 1%<SEMI-PRECISION< 5%
0.5%<PRECISION<1%, ULTRA PRECISION < 0.5%
4. THERMISTORS
TYPES OF RESISTORS
TYPES OF RESISTORS
CARBON COMPOSITION RESISTOR
RESISTOR COLOUR CODES
 Resistor Color Code

0 Black B
1 Brown B
2 Red R
Resistance value,
first three bands. 3 Orange O
1st band - 1st digit 4 Yellow Y of
2nd band - 2nd digit 5 Green Great
3rd band - number
of zeros. 6 Blue Britain has a
7 Violet Very
8 Gray Good
9 White Wife

5% Gold
4th band, 10% Silver
tolerance
20% No band
RESISTOR COLOUR CODE
BANDS OF 4.7 K RESISTOR
 TEMPERATURE SENSITIVE RESISTOR OR THERMISTOR

Applications of thermistors are in – thermometers, liquid-level detectors, temperature-

compensation in coils of Measuring Instruments, fire-alarms, Motor thermal
protection, etc.
Resistor AC Response

Contribution to
Phasor diagram
complex impedance

Power loss is positive in both half cycles.

. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require
heat sinks.

. Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog

devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits

. resistor is commonly specified by its resistance , manufacturing tolerance, the

temperature coefficient of the resistance and its power rating .

. Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance;

these specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. In a
low-noise amplifier or pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an
issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are
mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are
not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors
manufactured using a particular technology.[1] A family of discrete resistors is
also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and
the position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical
manufacturing of circuits using them.
• Since poor air circulation, high altitude, or high operating temperatures may
occur, resistors may be specified with higher rated dissipation than will be
experienced in service.
• Some types and ratings of resistors may also have a maximum voltage rating;
this may limit available power dissipation for higher resistance values.
• A single in line (SIL) resistor package with 8 individual, 47 ohm resistors. One
end of each resistor is connected to a separate pin and the other ends are all
connected together to the remaining (common) pin – pin 1, at the end identified
by the white dot.

• Resistors with wire leads for through-hole mounting

Through-hole components typically have leads leaving the body axially. Others
have leads coming off their body radially instead of parallel to the resistor axis.
Other components may be SMT (surface mount technology) while high power
resistors may have one of their leads designed into the heat sink.
 Carbon Composition Resistors
• Carbon composition resistors consist of a solid cylindrical resistive element
with embedded wire leads or metal end caps to which the lead wires are
attached. The body of the resistor is protected with paint or plastic.
• The resistive element is made from a mixture of finely ground (powdered)
carbon and an insulating material (usually ceramic). A resin holds the mixture
together. The resistance is determined by the ratio of the fill material (the
powdered ceramic) to the carbon. Higher concentrations of carbon, a good
conductor, result in lower resistance.
• Carbon composition resistors were commonly used in the 1960s and earlier,
but are not so popular for general use now as other types have better
specifications, such as tolerance, voltage dependence, and stress (carbon
composition resistors will change value when stressed with over-voltages).
Moreover, if internal moisture content (from exposure for some length of time
to a humid environment) is significant, soldering heat will create a non-
reversible change in resistance value. Carbon composition resistors have poor
stability with time.
• Carbon composition resistors are still available, but comparatively quite costly.
Values ranged from fractions of an ohm to 22 megohms. Due to their high
price, these resistors are no longer used in most applications. However, they
are used in power supplies and welding controls.
 Carbon Pile Resistor

• A carbon pile resistor is made of a stack of carbon disks

compressed between two metal contact plates. Adjusting
the clamping pressure changes the resistance between
the plates. These resistors are used when an adjustable
load is required, for example in testing automotive
batteries or radio transmitters. A carbon pile resistor can
also be used as a speed control for small motors in
household appliances (sewing machines, hand-held
mixers) with ratings up to a few hundred watts
 Carbon Film Resistor
• A carbon film is deposited on an insulating substrate, and a helix is
cut in it to create a long, narrow resistive path. Varying shapes,
coupled with the resistivity of amorphous carbon (ranging from 500
to 800 μΩ m), can provide a variety of resistances. Compared to
carbon composition they feature low noise, because of the precise
distribution of the pure graphite without binding.[9] Carbon film
resistors feature a power rating range of 0.125 W to 5 W at 70 °C.
Resistances available range from 1 ohm to 10 megohm. The carbon
film resistor has an operating temperature range of −55 °C to
155 °C. It has 200 to 600 volts maximum working voltage range.
Special carbon film resistors are used in applications requiring high
pulse stability.[6]
 Ohm Values : Preferred Number
• Early resistors were made in more or less arbitrary round numbers; a series might have 100,
125, 150, 200, 300, etc. Resistors as manufactured are subject to a certain percentage
tolerance, and it makes sense to manufacture values that correlate with the tolerance, so that
the actual value of a resistor overlaps slightly with its neighbors. Wider spacing leaves gaps;
narrower spacing increases manufacturing and inventory costs to provide resistors that are
more or less interchangeable.
• A logical scheme is to produce resistors in a range of values which increase in a
geometrical progression, so that each value is greater than its predecessor by a fixed multiplier
or percentage, chosen to match the tolerance of the range. For example, for a tolerance of
±20% it makes sense to have each resistor about 1.5 times its predecessor, covering a decade
in 6 values. In practice the factor used is 1.4678, giving values of 1.47, 2.15, 3.16, 4.64, 6.81,
10 for the 1–10 decade (a decade is a range increasing by a factor of 10; 0.1–1 and 10–100 are
other examples); these are rounded in practice to 1.5, 2.2, 3.3, 4.7, 6.8, 10; followed, by 15, 22,
33, … and preceded by … 0.47, 0.68, 1. This scheme has been adopted as the E6 series of the
IEC 60063 preferred number values. There are also E12, E24, E48, E96 and E192 series for
components of ever tighter tolerance, with 12, 24, 96, and 192 different values within each
decade. The actual values used are in the IEC 60063 lists of preferred numbers.
• A resistor of 100 ohms ±20% would be expected to have a value between 80 and 120 ohms; its
E6 neighbors are 68 (54–82) and 150 (120–180) ohms. A sensible spacing, E6 is used for
±20% components; E12 for ±10%; E24 for ±5%; E48 for ±2%, E96 for ±1%; E192 for ±0.5% or
better. Resistors are manufactured in values from a few milliohms to about a gigaohm in
IEC60063 ranges appropriate for their tolerance.
INDUCTOR
 INDUCTOR

Inductance is the property of a coil of wire in resisting any change of electric

current passing through the coil, by storing electrical energy in it.

Arising from Faraday's law, the inductance L may be defined in terms of the
emf generated to oppose a given change in current:
Effect of N ; (L α N2) Effect of D, L α r2

Factors
Affecting
Effect of coil length (L) Inductance (L)
 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

K = Coefficient of coupling
= ratio of flux cutting one coil to the
flux originated in other
coil
DEVELOPMENT OF CURRENT IN RL CIRCUIT
 Inductor AC Response

Contribution to Phasor diagram

complex imped
ance

jωL
= 2 π f L =Inductive Reactance
Why “current lags” or “voltage leads” by
900 or π/2 in a pure inductive circuit
since, i = Im.Sin ωt dt

v = Vm. Sin ( ωt + π/2)

 INDUCTORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
(with no mutual inductance)

The Quality Factor or Q factor of an inductor

can be found through the following formula,
where R is its internal electrical resistance:
Higher Q coil means, less loss – ideal.
CAPACITOR
 CAPACITOR
DEFINITION - Capacitor is a device having capacity to store
electrical energy, between its two conducting
plates, separated by an insulating
dielectric medium. It resists change in
voltage by allowing charging/discharging
current.

2. SYMBOL - C
+

3. FORMULA & UNIT - C=Q/V in Farads

where, Q = Charge in Coulomb
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A CAPACITOR
 PARAMETERS OF A CAPACITOR

1. Capacitance :- C = K.ε0. A / d in farads,

where K = Dielectric Constant of insulating
medium
ε0 = Permittivity of free space = 8.854 x 10-12 f/m
A = Area of electrode plates in sq.m.
d = Distance between plates in m.
2. Dielectric Constant :-
Insulating Table of Dielectric
Medium Constant
Dielectric Const.
K
Air 1.0006
Paper, Mica 5

Tantalum Oxide 25

Ceramic 10³
 PROPERTIES & APPLICATIONS OF CAPACITOR

1. It stores energy.

2. It blocks DC.

3. It passes AC.

4. It is used as Filter.

5. It is used as Tuner.

6. It takes time to charge, therefore is used as timer.

7. It is used as non-sinusoidal waveform generator.

8. Used in voltage – multiplier circuits, along with diodes.

 TYPES OF CAPACITORS

POLYSTER CERAMIC ELECTROLYTIC

 1. Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors

Axial Leads Radial Leads Snap Mount Surface Mount

2. Tantalum Capacitors

Solid (radial) Foil Dipped Wet (axial)

3. Ceramic Capacitors

Monolithic – axial & radial Disc

 4. Plastic Film Capacitors

Polyester - axial & radial Polypropylene - axial & radial Polysterene

5. Mica – Dipped & Metal Clad 6. Oil - Hermetically sealed – axial & radial
 TYPES OF CAPACITORS

Paper Capacitor Mica Capacitor

 TYPES OF CAPACITORS

Electrolytic Capacitor Variable Capacitor

 CAPACITORS IN SERIES & PARALLEL

1. CAPACITORS IN SERIES :- 1/CT = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 + .....

2. CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL :- C = C1 + C2 + C3+ .....

CHARGING OF CAPACITOR IN RC SERIES CIRCUIT
CHARGING OF CAPACITOR IN RC SERIES CIRCUIT
 Capacitor AC Response

Contribution to
Phasor diagram
complex impedance

= (1/2πfC) = Capacitive Reactance

Instantaneous Energy = Estored = ½ C. V2
Why “current leads” or “voltage lags”
by 900 or π/2 in a pure capacitive circuit

since, i = Im.Sin ωt dt

v = Vm. Sin ( ωt – π/2)

 Capacitor vs Inductor
Capacitor Inductor
The voltage in a capacitor doesn’t The current in an inductor doesn’t
change instantaneously. change instantaneously.
It resists changes in voltage It resists changes in current

The capacitor functions as an The inductor functions as an

instantaneous short circuit on instantaneous open circuit on
sudden application of power supply sudden application of power supply
across its terminals. across its terminals

The unit of capacitance is Farad The unit of inductance is Henry

Voltage lags current by π/2 Current lags voltage by π/2

Energy is stored in the electric field Energy is stored in the magnetic field
E=½CV2 E=½LI2
Resistance/Reactance vs Frequency
FILTER CIRCUIT
 Transfer Function
Input Output
 Decibels
The voltage transfer function of a two-port network (and/or the
ratio of output to input powers) is usually expressed in Bel:

Bel is a large unit and decibel (dB) is usually used:

In case there is no voltage gain, i.e. Vo= Vi, dB=0

For 10 times voltage gain, i.e. Vo= 10Vi, dB=20
For reduction of output voltage by 10 times, i.e. Vo= 1/10Vi, dB = -20
Filter Configurations
Ideal Response

Practical Response
 RC CIRCUIT – LOW PASS FILTER or
HIGH FREQUENCY INTEGRATOR

Xc=1/ωC=1/(2πf)C

, for high f ;
 RC CIRCUIT – HIGH PASS FILTER or
LOW FREQUENCY DIFFERENTIATOR

, for low f ;
RC FILTER - CHARACTERISTICS
Frequency response of RC Low Pass Filter

Normalized frequency (ω/ωc)

 Low Pass LC filter
L

 Second Order filter allows steeper roll-off slope for the frequency
response, i.e. -40dB/decade slope against -20dB/decade slope for
First Order Low Pass RC filter
 Exhibits resonance near the natural frequency, ωn = 1/√LC
 Response is governed by damping coefficient, ζ = (1/R)√(L/C)
ζ > 1 : Overdamped system (no resonance)
ζ = 1 : Critically damped system (no resonance)
ζ < 1 : Underdamped system (extent of resonance controlled
by ζ)
Low Pass LC Filter frequency response

Normalized frequency (ω/ωc)

RESONANCE CIRCUITS
 SERIES RESONANCE – RLC CIRCUIT
The resonance of a series RLC circuit occurs when the inductive and capacitive
reactances are equal in magnitude but cancel each other because they are 180
degrees apart in phase. The sharp minimum in impedance which occurs is useful
in tuning applications. The sharpness of the minimum depends on the value of R
and is characterized by the "Q" of the circuit.

Q = XL/R = XC/R =ω0L/R =ω0/RC

= (1/R)√(L/C)
PARALLEL RESONANCE – RLC CIRCUIT
 RLC CIRCUIT - RESONANCE CURVE

Ifc= V/R , If1 = If2= Ifc/√2 = 0.707 Ifc

fc= ω0/2π , Band Width =Δf = f2-f1 = fc/Q = R / 2πL
High Q gives sharp curve and higher energy storage property.
Thanks
THERMISTOR CHARACTERISTICS CURVE
 PARAMETERS OF A CAPACITOR
3. Tolerance :- Expressed as %age of its nominal value at 25°C and is
given as range of Max. & Min. values, e.g.± 5% etc.
4. Temperature Coefficient :- expressed in ppm per °C
5. Working / Breakdown / Surge Voltage
6. DC Leakage Current
7. Insulation Resistance
8. Capacitive Reactance Xc = 1/ωC = 1/(2 Π f C) = 0.16/f.C
9. Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR) or Rc
10. Impedance :- Z= (Rc)²+(Xc)²
11. Dissipation Factor or Tan δ :- DF = (Rc/Xc).100% = Ir/Ic Q = 1/DF
12. Power Factor :- PF = energy wasted / energy stored = Ir / It
13. Ripple :- AC component of higher harmonics
14. Polarisation Index :- PI = (IR after 10 min.) / (IR after 1 min.)
15 Capacitive Time Constant :- TC = R.C , Time to charge 63% of voltage.
 TYPES OF CAPACITORS

1. POLARISED OR NON-POLARISED

2. AXIAL OR RADIAL

3. FIXED OR VARIABLE

4. TYPE OF DIELECTRIC

5. TYPE OF MANUFACTURING
 TYPES OF DIELECTRIC
1. Mica :- Mica layers sandwiched between tin-lead foils. Highly stable over
a wide temperature range of -55°C to 1500°C, and available in values from 1pF to
0.1F.

2. Silvered Mica :- Fine layers of silver, spread over mica, to work as conducting
electrode. Advantages are higher mech. strength & a more uniform
characteristics.

3. Paper :- Craft paper impregnated in oil, wax or resin is used as dielectric,

in a rolled form. These are low cost capacitors, can withstand 125°C and high
voltages, but value & life is temperature-sensitive. These are available in higher
values from 500pF to 50F.

4. Plastic Film :- Polysterene, Polycarbonate, or Polyster (Mylar) is used as

dielectric. These are available in values 500pF to 10uF and 120°C.

5. Ceramic :- Low K and High K 6. Glass 7. Vacuum

8. Electrolytic :- Foil may be of Aluminum or Tantalum. Large value capacitors in

small volume.
 CHARGING OF CAPACITOR IN RC SERIES CIRCUIT

Start Some Time Later at t Long Time

t=0 Later t >> 
CAPACITOR

VC,max =
Voltage 0
QC,max/C

Charge 0 QC,max

RESISTOR

VR,max = IR,max
Voltage 0
R

Current IR,max 0
 CHARGING OF RC SERIES CIRCUIT
Applying V = I R, Q = C V and I = dQ / dt in the circuit, we get :-
 Inductance of a Coil

For a fixed area and changing current,

Since the magnetic field of a solenoid is

then for a long coil the emf is approximated

by

From the definition of inductance

we obtain

Power = vi = μ = μ0 . μr
rate of change of energy μ0 = permeability of free
space = 4π × 10-7 H/m
μr = relative permeability of
core material.
 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A CAPACITOR

If two unlike charges are placed on opposite sides of an atom whose outermost
electrons cannot escape their orbits, the orbits of the electrons are distorted. When
switch S1 is opened, the battery is removed from the circuit and the charge is retained
by the capacitor. This occurs because the dielectric material is an insulator, and the
electrons in the bottom plate (-charge) have no path to reach the top plate (+charge).
The distorted orbits of the atoms of the dielectric, plus the electrostatic force of attraction
between the two plates hold the positive and negative charges in their original position.
Thus, energy received from battery is now stored in the electrostatic field of capacitor.
 AC TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF C & L

The electrical transient phenomena in capacitors and inductors are exponential

processes.

The coefficient of time in the exponential is an important rate parameter and is

typically expressed in terms of a time constant.
Resonance
Tank circuit