SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

PSY 211- LECTURE 4

PA R E N T- A D O L E S C E N T
R E L AT I O N S H I P
• Presently, a balanced view is maintained by focusing on the
attachment bonds between parents and adolescents and the
support system that parents provide as adolescents enter a
wider and more complex social environment
• There are 3 aspects regarding parent-adolescent relationships
• Parent-adolescent conflict
• Autonomy and attachment
• Parenting styles
P A R E N T- A D O L E S C E N T
CONFLICT …
• Many people invariably picture conflict-ridden interactions between parent and child: a typical
storm-and-stress relationship
• Parent- adolescent relationship does undergo significant changes and reorganisation during early
adolescence
• These changes are characterised primarily by the questioning of parental values, rules and
regulations set by parents, distancing and argumentativeness
• With age, family interactions become more intimate
• Conflicts occur more between mothers and adolescents because they are more involved with
daily activities and are more involved
• Due to societal norms, girls are more restricted causing parent- daughter conflicts to ne more
intense
• Lack of flexibility gives rise to conflict, e.g. an overcontrolling parent
REASONS FOR CHANGES IN INTERACTIONAL
P A T T E R N S D U R I N G E A R LY A D O L E S C E N C E A R E
REL ATED TO:

• Biological changes during puberty when hormonal secretion may cause mood swings.
• Cognitive changes, which cause increasing questioning, idealism, and
argumentativeness.
• Adolescent egocentrism, which is associated with their perception of their parents'
attitudes towards them.
• Identity development, which often is associated with experimentation.
• Social development, which implies an increase in independence.
• The onset of adolescence, which often overlaps with the parents' own development in
midlife which also may imply hormonal changes and a re-evaluation of their life
situation, leading possibly to emotionality and less availability for the adolescent's
struggles
… P A R E N T- A D O L E S C E N T
CONFLICT…
• The rapid physical and psychological changes of adolescence trigger conflicting expectations
in parent-child relationships — a major reason why many parents experience rearing
teenagers as stressful
• Adolescents and their parents share a common social, regional, and cultural background,
and these are the factors that shape their central beliefs.
• Generational gap
• The gap between the generations when it comes to basic values is usually not
significant, a gap often exists between teenagers and adults in matters of personal taste
• Music, movies, curfews, chores, fashion styles
• Only a minority of adolescents have a high degree of conflict with their parents most
adolescents get along well with their parents and respect them
… P A R E N T- A D O L E S C E N T
CONFLICT
• Conflict does not necessarily undermine the bonds of love
between parents and adolescents
• A certain degree of conflict is unavoidable and even
necessary for personality growth
• Conflicts help adolescents learn to make choices that, in turn,
help them in developing mature decision-making, their
understanding of values grows and they develop insight into
themselves and the world around them
AUTONOMY AND
AT TA C H M E N T …
• Becoming an autonomous person — a self-governing person — is one of the
fundamental developmental tasks of adolescence
• Positive development of autonomy during adolescence has been associated with
good mental health, high self-esteem, self-motivation, good self-concepts, and
self- initiating and regulating behaviours
• Adolescents' pursuit of autonomy is so intense, however, that they often rebel
against the stricter control of their parents
• Without autonomy, adolescents would barely be able to establish adult
relationships, make realistic career choices, develop personal value systems and
identities, or become aware of themselves as unique, autonomous individuals
IN THE PROCESS OF BECOMING
I N D E P E N D E N T, A D O L E S C E N T S S T R I V E
TO ACHIEVE THESE GOALS:
• Cognitive autonomy refers to the capacity of adolescents to make their own decisions and
to take responsibility for their choices
• Behavioural autonomy implies the ability to regulate their own behaviour and act
independently; in other words, to self-govern. It refers to the capacity for making
independent choices, for example about friendships, leisure time, and finances
• Emotional autonomy concerns being self-reliant and independent of their parents and
being able to exert self-control. For example, they now begin to express disagreement with
parents' views
• Moral or value autonomy refers to forming an own value system that may serve as a
guideline for their own behaviour, and not merely based on a system of values passed on
by parents or other authority figures. This especially applies to moral, political, and
religious issues
…AUTONOMY AND
AT TA C H M E N T
• Both parents and adolescents experience ambivalence (mixed feelings
• Adolescents really want independence and most parents realise that it is important for their
children’s development
• This causes inconsistent behaviour
• Often adolescents feel uncertain when they are confronted with new experiences and decisions,
they want the carefree childhood but also independence
• Parents are concerned for their children and want to keep them safe from harm and
disappointment
• Adolescents may experience separation anxiety (anxiety about separation from the home or from
major attachment figures)
• However, adolescents who experience secure attachment with their parents are likely to cope with
this separation more successfully than those who do not have secure attachment bonds
PA R E N T I N G S T Y L E S …
• The social competence of adolescents and the
development of social maturity during adolescence
depend largely on the parenting styles of their parents
• Parents who lay down certain rules for behaviour rather
than use punitive measures, and show affection rather
than being indifferent or aloof, influence the social
behaviour of adolescents positively
PA R E N T I N G S T Y L E S
I D E N T I F I E D BY B AU M R I N D ,
M A C C O BY A N D M A RT I N
PARENTING STYLE

AUTHORITATIVE INDEPENDENT WITH CERTAIN LIMITS

AUTHORITARIAN STRICT WITH SET LIMITS

PERMISSIVE INDEPENDENT WITH NO LIMITS

NEGLECTFUL UNINVOLVED
PA R E N T I N G S T Y L E S …
• Most parents combine these parenting styles
• A certain relationship exists between the parent and the adolescent, which
will influence the nature and therefore the effect of the parenting style
• For instance, when the relationship is characterised by love and
understanding, the negative effect of the authoritarian parenting style on the
development of social competence may be less severe
• Apart from the various parenting styles, two dimensions of parental
behaviour, specifically related to the parent-adolescent relationship, may be
distinguished; i.e., the love-hostility dimension and the autonomy-control
dimension
T W O D I M E N S I O N S O F PA R E N TA L
B E H AV I O U R : T H E LOV E - H O S T I L I T Y
DIMENSION
• Acceptance, understanding and approval
• Barely use corporal punishment, they prefer to exercise positive
discipline through explanations and praise
• Parental behaviour based on love and trust enables adolescents to act
autonomously and to develop their own identities with self-confidence
• Hostile manner and neglect or rejection- adolescents may experience
poor social relationships, academic and behavioural problems (e.g.,
delinquency), and be unwilling to accept responsibility for their
behaviour
T W O D I M E N S I O N S O F PA R E N TA L
B E H A V I O U R : T H E A U T O N O M Y-
CONTROL DIMENSION…
• Parents who allow their children realistic freedom and control them authoritatively (by
explaining certain rules for behaviour and expectations and therefore exercise their control
justly) have adolescents who are confident and outgoing
• Display a healthy self-esteem and responsible and autonomous behaviour
• Authoritarian parents who exert excessive control seldom experience a need to communicate
and interact with their children – lack of self- confidence, etc and inhibited independence , etc
• Depression, drug and alcohol abuse, and antisocial behaviour are outcomes that often persist
into early adulthood
• There are 2 types of control dimension
• Behavioural control (parental monitoring, demandingness, and supervision practices; that is, parents
try to modulate their children's behaviour by establishing certain rules and limits)
• Psychological control (o parents who try to control their children's behaviour through intrusive
parenting practices such as overprotection and control through guilt)
… T W O D I M E N S I O N S O F PA R E N TA L
B E H A V I O U R : T H E A U T O N O M Y-
CONTROL DIMENSION…
• Parents usually display a combination of different parental behaviour patterns
• Parenting is a two-way process: Just as parents influence their adolescents'
behaviour, adolescents also influence their parents' behaviour, this is known a
reciprocal or bi-directional effects between parents and children
• Adolescents who are difficult, stubborn, and uncooperative often make it difficult
for parents to maintain a positive disposition
• Adolescent siblings in the same family often report very different things about
what their parents are like toward them
• These differences in how adolescents perceive their parents' behaviour are
mostly related to differences in the adolescents themselves
… T W O D I M E N S I O N S O F PA R E N TA L
B E H A V I O U R : T H E A U T O N O M Y-
CONTROL DIMENSION…
• Does this discredit the claim that parenting styles influence adolescents?
• No, but it does modify this claim.
• Parents may have beliefs about what is best for their children; however, their actual
behaviour is affected not only by their beliefs, but also by their adolescents' responses.
• Being authoritative parents is easier if their adolescents respond to the demands and
responsiveness they provide.
• However, it is not so easy if one's love is rejected and one's rules and reasons for these
are ignored.
• In the latter situations, parents may be tempted to become more controlling
(authoritarian) or give up trying and become indulgent or indifferent
… T W O D I M E N S I O N S O F PA R E N TA L
B E H A V I O U R : T H E A U T O N O M Y-
CONTROL DIMENSION
• Do adolescents in all cultures value authoritative parenting similarly?
• As we know by now, a key feature of authoritative parenting is that parents do not simply lay down
the rules and expect to be obeyed.
• Parents must explain the reasons for what they want adolescents to do and engage in discussion
with their adolescents about the guidelines for their behaviour.
• Outside Western cultures, this is a rare approach to adolescent socialisation.
• In traditional cultures, parents expect to be obeyed, without question and without requiring an
explanation. In such cultures, the role of the parent carries greater inherent authority than it does in
Western cultures.
• Parents are not supposed to provide reasons why they should be respected and obeyed.
• The simple fact that they are parents and children are children is viewed as sufficient justification for
their authority
P E E R G R O U P R E L AT I O N S H I P S
• Adolescence have a strong desire to ‘belong’
• Their social development is characterised by an increasing interest in and
involvement with their peer group
• It provides:
• Interpersonal contact beyond family relationships
• Plays an important role in adolescent’s socio-cognitive skills and
psychological development
• Important source of information
• Provides socialisation
• Satisfies emotional needs and well-being
STRUCTURE OF THE PEER
GROUP
• Stage 1: cliques are formed (same gender, age interests,
attitudes and values- good friends)
• Stage 2: female and male cliques interact with each other (same
gender cliques provide a safe base from which members can
interact with members from other gender groups)
• Stage 3: mixed- gender cliques are formed
• Stage 4: cliques crowds
• Stage 5: crowd disintegrate, but some still hangout
…STRUCTURE OF THE PEER
GROUP…
• Not all adolescents are accepted by peer groups
• Popular adolescents
• Kind, attractive, smart, funny, confident, energetic
• Unpopular adolescents
• Lack social skills, aggressive, disruptive, selfish
• Neglected adolescents
• Shy, withdrawn, unnoticed
• Some don’t want to be in a peer group (maybe have 1-2 close friends, are
introverted, shy, feel inferior)
…STRUCTURE OF THE PEER
GROUP
• Victimisation by peers or repeated subjection to negative social
experiences with peers predicts psychosocial problems,
particularly social anxiety later on
• Individuals with many friends can often report being lonely and
even suffer from some of the negative effects of loneliness,
while, on the reverse side, those with a few friends may feel
positive
• Loneliness is a form of psychological distress experienced in
response to perceived deficits in one's social relationships
CONFORMITY
• The degree to which a person is willing to change his or her behaviour, attitudes, and beliefs to fit in with a
group, think peer pressure
• Stormy parent-child relationships do not provide adolescents with these skills, with the result that adolescents
find acceptance only in peer groups that follow a counterculture ( a culture against the values of parents and the
society)
• A characteristic of adolescent peer group relationships is an increase in conformity
• 3 types of conformity:
• Compliance- shallowest form (change public behaviour to fit in with the crowd, you pretend to like jazz
because your friends do, but you don’t)
• Identification- middle level (change public behaviour and private beliefs in the presence of peer group, you
pretend to be vegetarian because your friends are vegetarians, but you eat meat when they’re not around)
• Internalisation- deepest level (nonconscious mental process by which the characteristics, beliefs, feelings, or
attitudes of other individuals or groups are assimilated into the self and adopted as one's own, you believe in
astrology because your friends do and so you now believe in it to even without them present)
FA C T O R S T H A T I N F L U E N C E
CONFORMITY
• Difficulty of the task
• Individual differences
• Group size
• Characteristics of the situation
• Cultural differences
• Gender differences
FRIENDSHIPS
• High-quality, best friendships in high school are also associated with long-term emotional and mental wellbeing
• Friendships satisfy adolescents' greater need for intimacy and self-disclosure
• Adolescents will much rather discuss their physical changes and developing sexuality with friends than with their parents
CLOSE FRIENDSHIPS INTIMATE FREINDSHIPS
- Help teenagers cope with stress - Counteract loneliness and isolation and
contribute to the adolescent’s self- concept
development

• Self- disclosure and honest communication between close friends provide opportunities to get to know themselves better and
be sensitive towards others, this is good for identity development and empathy development
• The youth may be more likely to make personal disclosures online than in face-to-face communication, which eventually could
lead to the formation of new friendships, this is called the social compensation hypothesis
• There is a certain degree of distancing between parents and adolescents as adolescents' friendship relationships become
stronger and their need for privacy increases.
• But, this distancing effect is usually only temporary and does not necessarily imply that adolescents' feelings for their parents
diminish
 R O M A N T I C R E L AT I O N S H I P S
• The hormonal changes of puberty are implicated strongly in the intense
feelings of sexual attraction and falling in love
• Romantic relationships contribute to adolescents' identity formation, changes
in family and peer relationships, as well as their emotional and behavioural
adjustment
• Romantic relationships typically develop in three stages in adolescence:
Stage 1 (12-14 years old) Stage 2 (15-17 years old) Stage 3 (18-20 years old)
• Triggered by puberty • casual, short-term dating • form a strong emotional bond
• Become friends outside of • ‘special’ companion > with a compatible other
school (movies, dances, etc) emotional intimacy • Last longer than a year
• tinged with sexuality and • Serious, exclusive and highly
passion rewarding
• Struggle with questions of
identity and balance
ADOLESCENCE AND THE
C Y B E R S PA C E
• Cyberspace- an electronic system that allows users around the world to
communicate with one another or to access information for any purpose
• it plays an important role in the fulfilment of developmental needs
during adolescence
• Identity experimentation and exploration
• Intimacy and belonging
• Separation from parents and family
• Venting frustrations
• Mastery and accomplishment
C O N S O F C Y B E R S PA C E
• Increased screen time = decreased psychological and physical well-being
• When looking for information, they could find something inappropriate and damaging
• Can express frustrations negatively
• Cyberbullying, cybersex, internet addiction
• Hiding behind the online anonymity makes the abuse easier to inflict, resulting in an
online disinhibition effect — the phenomenon where individuals communicating
online may feel anonymous, invisible, and more comfortable disclosing or
confronting issues in a virtual setting, due to the often less immediate or
depersonalised nature of the online environment
• False identities- catfishing
G U I D E L I N E S F O R PA R E N T S W H E N
I N T R O D U C I N G T H E C Y B E R S PA C E T O
KIDS
• Have discussions at a young age – learn about online safety
• Acknowledge the good and the bad – regulate their media
activities
• Parents should be role models- lead by example, spend time
without the phones
• Show interest and monitor their ICT activities- know what your
kids are doing
• Set reasonable rules and discipline misbehaviour- have
boundaries
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
• Adolescence is a crucial period for the development of abstract thinking skills, which leads to the
integration of moral principles and values
• Moral development involves changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviours regarding standards of
what is right and wrong
• It has an intrapersonal dimension, which refers to the ways in which people think, reason about
themselves and others, the emotions they experience, and the actions they take when they are by
themselves, and an interpersonal dimension, which refers to the same processes when they
interact with others
• Adolescents develop their moral identities based on their daily experience, where they must make
decisions and regulate their behaviour when coping with new challenges and social influences
• Moral experiences and expertise gained in adolescence form the foundation of mature moral
character, identity, and action
P S Y C H O A N A LY
TIC
PERSPECTIVE
• An individual’s conscience (superego) originates outside the
individual in parental/ societal influences

• Psychoanalytic psychologists understand the development of

morality as a process of ‘incorporation’ by the child of his/her
parent and society’s moral principles/ values

• According to Freud’s model, the ego (reality principle) mediates the

demands of the id (basic urges/ pleasure principle) and the
superego (internalized values and morals/ morality principle); and
as the individual develops, he/she learns to control the demands of
the id and behave in more socially acceptable ways

• During adolescence, the superego is re-externalized

• This means that the morality/values adopted by the superego

during childhood are experienced more consciously - and are
evaluated and tested. The values regarded as
unrealistic/unacceptable are gradually rejected, and acceptable
values re-incorporated, so that ultimately the superego
(internalized morality/ values) becomes more unique to the
individual
MORAL REASONING
• the study of how people think about right and wrong and how they acquire and apply
moral rules
• According to Kohlberg, the development of moral reasoning and judgement progresses
through three levels, each consisting of two stages: the pre-conventional level, the
conventional level, and the post-conventional level
• These levels of moral development are related to the stages of cognitive development
as outlined by Piaget
• For example, to reach the conventional level of moral judgement, the individual should
have reached the stage of concrete operations, however, the attainment of a particular
stage of cognitive development does not ensure that the individual will reach the level
of moral development that is associated with that level of cognitive development
KOHLBERG’S LEVELS OF MORAL
D E V E LO P M E N T A N D P I A G E T ’ S S TA G E S O F
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (ADOLESCENCE)
• Level 2: Conventional morality (morality of conventional role
conformity)
• individual conforms to the social order and the expectations
of others
• moral reasoning becomes less egocentric
• Stage 3: Morality of mutual interpersonal expectations,
relationships, and conformity - 'good boy/girl' orientation
(Heinz shouldn’t steal, its wrong)
• Stage 4: Morality of social systems and conscience
orientation- law and order (maybe its okay for Heinz to steal
KOHLBERG’S LEVELS OF MORAL
D E V E LO P M E N T A N D P I A G E T ’ S S TA G E S O F
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (ADOLESCENCE)
• Level 3: Post- conventional level (morality of self-accepted or autonomous moral
principles- highest level of moral development)
• individual defines and internalises moral values and principles independent from
the groups or people who uphold these principles
• individuals decide for themselves what their own personal moral code (i.e., their
moral values and behaviour) should be
• Stage 5: Morality of social contract, usefulness, and individual rights (Should
Heinz be prosecuted, the law should be revised)
• Stage 6: Morality of universal ethical principles (morality of individual principles
of conscience) (Heinz should steal the drug because life is paramount and
preserving a life takes precedence over all other rights)
CRITICISM LEVELLED AGAINST
KO H L B E R G ' S T H E O RY
• Gender bias (he used male participants)
• When reasoning about moral issues, women tend to consider responsibilities- care
justice
• Men, on the other hand, take rights and rules into consideration- a justice perspective
• Research methodology (low validity and reliability)
• Moral reasoning and moral behaviour (based on assumptions that may not be valid in
practice because research was based on what people said and not on what they did)
• Cultural bias (based on Western culture)
• Overemphasis on cognitive development (other researchers argue that in addition to a
person's level of cognitive reasoning, personal characteristics and situational factors may
also influence a person's moral behaviour in day-to-day life)
 M O R A L B E H AV I O U R
• Other personal factors as well as environmental factors should
also be considered in people's moral behaviour, here are the
JAMES REST : 4- COMPONENT MODEL OR MORALITY
examples in this regard;
MORAL SENSITIVITY MORAL JUDGEMENT MORAL MOTIVATION MORAL CHARACTER
• understand that one's • Right vs wrong way to • decision makers must • taking responsibility
behaviour could affect do something be motivated to follow for one's actions, and
others • E.g., deciding that through with the to resist social
• E.g., knowing that you will not drink any ethical behaviour pressure
drinking and driving alcohol at your • E.g., you decide to • E.g., to stick to your
could cause an friend's party because rather mingle with decision not to drink
accident harming you must drive your non-drinkers at the because you are the
yourself and others friends home party rather than with designated driver,
the drinkers, because despite ridicule and
the latter may try to pressure from your
convince you to take friends
…MORAL DEVELOPMENT
• Albert Bandura: Social cognitive theory or moral thought and action
• Moral values and behaviour are acquired through observing and imitating the
behaviour of models
• The superego is re-externalised
• The re-externalisation of the superego -the values adopted by the superego
during childhood are now experienced consciously during adolescence
• Moral agency- people are considered as active agents who pursue their goals in
accordance with personal values
• People may engage in behaviour that violates their personal principles but
remain morally committed to those principles and avoid feelings of conflict,
guilt, or remorse- moral disengagement
 THE MECHANISMS OF MORAL
DISENGAGEMENT
MECHANISM DEFINITION EXAMPLES
MORAL JUSTIFICATION Individuals interpret harm to others in "It's for the greater good." "We're actually
ways that appear morally justifiable doing them a favour."
EUPHEMISTIC LANGUAGE Use of morally neutral language to make “I'm just borrowing it." "This is how we do
unethical conduct seem nonthreatening or things here.”
less harmful
DISTORTION OF CONSEQUENCES Distorting or minimising the consequences "We're not harming anyone." "It's not a big
of unethical behaviour to disconnect issue.”
unethical actions and self-sanctions
ADVANTAGEOUS COMPARISON Comparison of unethical behaviour with “At least we are not doing what those
even worse behaviour to make the original people are doing." "It could be worse."
behaviour seem acceptable
DEHUMANISATION Adopting the view of the victim as an "Women are there to be used." "Those
object to weaken empathy people are hooligans.
DIFFUSION OF RESPONSIBILITY Placing responsibility for unethical “Everybody is doing it." "We made this
behaviour onto a group, thereby making decision together."
one feel less responsible for the unethical
behaviour of a collective

ATTRIBUTION OF BLAME Arguing that the victim enticed the “Such people deserve to be treated badly.”
harmful act.
 MORAL EMOTIONS
• Moral emotions are complex and interwoven with the cognitive and social
aspects of adolescents' development, while personality (e.g., moral identity
and moral character) also plays a role
• The social domain theory considers the coexistence of different social
MORALITY orientations, motivations, and emotions
• Focuses on ethical issues and rules of morality
• E.g., laws and regulations that prohibit lying,
stealing, cheating, and physically harming
another person
SOCIAL CONVENTIONS • Based on social consensus to control behaviour
and maintain the social system
• E.g., traffic rules, standing in line to wait your
turn, or raising your hand in class to ask a
question.
PERSONAL ISSUES • Actions for which the issue of 'right or wrong' is
one of preference rather than societal regulation
• E.g., one's choice of friends
MORAL PERSONALITY
• Moral identity, or moral self- the degree to which being a moral person is important to a person's
self-concept- it has been hypothesised as the 'missing link' between moral judgement and moral
action
• Moral identity theory- if people strongly identify with their own moral values, they will behave
according to their moral judgement, because doing otherwise would create an unpleasant
situation of cognitive dissonance
• Mature moral individuals engage in moral metacognition — the knowledge and regulation of one's
own cognitive processes. This includes moral self-monitoring and moral self-reflection, which
reduces the risk of moral disengagement.
• Moral identity formation is associated with certain individual characteristics, developmental
contexts, and opportunities for moral action (Hardy et al., 2015). These include academic
achievement, self-mastery, prosocial moral reasoning, empathy, and an agreeable and positive
personality disposition
FA C T O R S T H AT I N F L U E N C E T H E
MORAL DEVELOPMENT OF
ADOLESCENTS
• Cognition
• Personality
• Parental attitudes and actions
• Peer interaction
• Religion
• Schooling
• Cultural context
• Egocentrism
• Heteronomous acceptance of others’ value system
• Individualisation (the process of increasing levels of personal autonomy and self-reliance), together with an emphasis
on personal rights, is often regarded as a major contributor to a decline in morality- morality has changed
• People are basing their morality on personal convictions rather than on predetermined guidelines. This may be an
indication of moral self-relevance - the degree to which morality is central to the self-concept and identity