UNIT TWO

Map Reading and Interpretations

 2.1 Definition and concepts
 Here is a simple definition:
A map is a simplified, diminished, plain representation of all or part
of the earth’s surface as viewed from vertically above.
A map is a two-dimensional scaled representation of part or whole
of the Earth surface on a flat body such as piece of paper, black
board, wood or cloth.
 Map reading encompasses a systematic identification of natural
features like mountains, rivers, oceans, hills, rocks, etc. and
manmade features like roads, railways, buildings, dam, etc.


Here are the main features of maps:

A map represents all or part of the earth’s surface. For example, a
map might show a city such as Addis Ababa, the entire world, or a
section of a garden.
 A map is a two-dimensional (plane) representation. For example, a
map might be printed on a piece of paper.
 Maps show the earth’s surface as if it were seen from directly
above. This view is called a bird’s-eye view.
All maps are smaller than the area they represent.
Maps are drawn to scale.
In other words, the features shown on a map have the same relative proportions as they
do in reality.
 For example, if one mountain’s diameter is twice as large as that of another mountain,
the first mountain would be shown on a map as twice as large as the second.
 Maps are simplified representations.
 Most maps use generally accepted symbols to represent natural, artificial or cultural
features of the area they represent.
They also use conventional notations to provide background information such as the
map’s title, date and scale.
Map and Globe
 Compare and contrast of map and globe

Similarities Differences
Both maps and globes show the Earth's  Maps are flat, while globes are three-
continents, oceans, and other major dimensional.
features.  Maps can be distorted, while globes are
Both maps and globes can be used for not.
navigation and to study geography.  Maps can show more detail than globes,
Both maps and globes can be used to but globes can provide a more realistic
represent different types of data, such as view of the Earth.
population density, climate, and vegetation.  one of the major advantages of a map is
Globes and maps have different that it represents either whole or a part of
imaginary lines such as the equator, the earth. In contrast, the globe can only
latitudes, longitude, prime meridian, represent entire earth.
and many more
2.2. Uses of Maps
 The map is geography’s most important tool.
 It can present very simple information or highly detailed results from a complicated geographical investigation.
 Maps are basically used for identifying locations, distance, area and direction.
 Location: With the help of a map it is possible to locate a place in reference to another place.
 For example, Ethiopia’s location can be expressed in terms of its neighboring countries, external land masses and
water bodies.
 It is also possible to locate a place using astronomical grid references – parallels and meridians. For example, the
absolute location of Ethiopia is 3˚N-15˚N latitude and 33˚E-48˚E longitude.
 Distance: It is possible to calculate the distance between two or more places on a map. This is done by using the
scale of the map.

For example, the air distance between Bahir Dar and Addis Ababa can be calculated by using a
map of Ethiopia.
 Measuring distances as the scroll flies are carried out by the use of a ruler or straight edge in
between the two locations, and then convert the measured distance into a real world distance
using the map's scale.
 For example, if we measured a distance of 10 cm on a map that had a scale of 1:10,000, we
would multiply 10 (distance) by 10,000 (scale). Thus, the actual distance in the real world would
be 100,000 cm which is equivalent to 1km distance interval.
Area:
The area of a place, a country, a region, a continent, a sub-continent or the whole world can be
calculated from a map.
 This is done by measuring the length and the width of the given place on the map and by
converting them to ground distances with the help of the scale of the map.
Cont.
 Cont.
Direction:
 A map can enable us to identify the direction and bearing of any place on the map. This is
accomplished by referring to another place.
 For example, a map of Ethiopia can help us to find the direction and bearing of Mekele by
referring to Addis Ababa.
In addition to these, maps can be used to:
 Show the distribution of physical and human phenomena on the earth’s surface:
 distribution maps show the locations of phenomena on the earth’s surface.
 For example, we use distribution maps for Ethiopia to show the presence of human and animal
populations, minerals, and vegetation.
 Similarly, we use distribution maps to show patterns of settlement, temperature, and health
conditions.
Show surface configuration:
 topographic maps give information about variations in height on the earth’s
surface. For example, they show heights and depths of valleys, plains and mountains.
Offer visual comparisons:
 because the earth’s surface is vast, it is difficult to compare places by direct observation.
 For example, it would be difficult to compare the distribution of landforms in Ethiopia and
Kenya, even from an airplane. However, by offering us relatively small but accurate
representations of the two countries, maps solve this problem completely.
Support development planning:
 Maps can provide planners with vital information to plan for the future.
 For example, maps can show current conditions and ongoing trends, and they can help us
predict a nation’s socioeconomic conditions.
 Such information is invaluable to the country’s planners as they analyze possibilities and
livelihoods and then prepare for the future.
2.3. Classification of Maps
Based on Purpose: Maps can be classified as general-purpose or specific-purpose.
A. General-Purpose Maps
 A general-purpose map is a map that shows the features of a place in a relatively general
way.
 It provides a wide range of information about the place it represents.
 General-purpose maps are not topical.
 They tend to contain a little of many kinds of information at a relatively low level of
detail.
 Topographic information of each kind in lesser detail.
 A topographic map is a good example of this.
 It can illustrate both physical and human-made features of the earth.
Cont.
Cont.
B. Specific-Purpose Maps
 Specific-purpose maps are often called thematic maps or topical maps.
 We use these terms because specific-purpose maps emphasize on a single topic.
 These maps show detailed information about their subjects.
 Thematic maps can show almost any kind of information that varies from place to place,
such as population distribution, rainfall and temperature patterns, and the distribution of
types of soil or vegetation.
• Soil maps
 Vegetation maps
 Climate maps
 Classification by Scale

Scale is a ratio that shows the degree to which the area that is mapped has been reduced.
 Based on scale differences, maps can be classified into:
 Large-scale maps
 Medium-scale maps
 Small-scale maps
 Let us now consider each of these types of map in more detail.
A. Large scale map
 Large-Scale Maps ≥ 1:50,000
 Large-scale maps present small areas in detail with great accuracy.
 Large-scales are greater than or equal to 1:50,000.
A large-scale map, such as the map of Addis Ababa, shows the city in considerable detail.
 Large scale maps present a relatively small area and show its features in
considerable detail. For example, at a scale of 1:5,000, a map of a city can include
many features such as buildings.
 The map can also include many details, such as the bends in highways.
B. Medium-Scale Maps 1:50,000 - 1:250,000
 These are maps that are prepared with scales that range between 1:50,000 and
1:250,000.
 Medium-scale maps cover wider areas than large scale maps, but cover
smaller areas than small-scale maps.
 They are also able to present more detailed information than small-scale maps but
are less detailed than large-scale ones.
 Cont.
C. Small-Scale Maps ≤ 1:250,000
 Small-scale maps are those which are prepared with scales less than or equal to 1:250,000.
 These small–scale maps cover wider areas than large and medium scale maps.

2.4 Marginal and boarder information

 Maps are used to convey information.
 To read maps effectively, map users need information about the map.
 Such information is presented in the map’s margins and is known as marginal information.
 Marginal information includes:
 Marginal information includes:
 Title of the map: Gives the map’s name. For example, “Soil Map” explains
that the map presents information about soil.
 Year of publication: identifies the year in which the map was published.
Because this information tells you how old the map is, you might be able to
judge whether the map’s contents are current or might be out of date.
Author: identifies the copyright owner of the map and indicates who (or
what organization) has prepared the map.
 Place of publication and publisher: tells where the map was published and
identifies the organization that published the map.
 Scale: This information indicates the extent to which the area that is
represented in the map has been reduced.
 Legend/Key: explains the meaning of the signs and symbols used
in the map.
 Type of projection: tells the kind of projection used in making the
map.
 Direction or orientation (North) arrow: Shows the north direction
on the map.
 The magnetic declination (variation): is the difference between
Magnetic North and True North.
 Look at the following below figures, map of Ethiopia and
Administration Regions.
 This map show us marginal information about Ethiopia's
Administration Regions
Cont.
2.5 Conventional Signs and symbols

 Conventional signs and symbols are those signs and symbols that are used on maps
through the agreement of all map-makers of the world.
 They are used to represent the same detail on a map in all the countries of the world.
 Signs and symbols help the map reader to understand maps.
 Therefore, the map reader has to look first at the key or legend of the map.
 When you create a map, the symbols you select should satisfy the following
requirements.
 They should be uniform throughout the map.
 They should be easy to read and understand.
 The space occupation, orientation and size of the symbols should be constant.
 Here are some of the symbols and conventional signs that are widely used and
understood worldwide.
 Cities and towns are indicated by dots or patches of shading
 Streams and bodies of water are often printed in blue
 Political boundaries are shown by dot lines/solid lines.
The scale of a map is the ratio between the measurement of distance on the map and the
corresponding measurement on the earth’s surface.
For instance, the ratio of the map distance between two cities on a map and the actual
distance between the two corresponding cities on the earth is the scale to which that map is
drawn.
 Map scale can be linear or areal.
 Linear scale expresses the ratio of map distance to ground distance.
 It is the most common scale type.
 Areal scale shows the relationship between map area and ground area.
 Areal scale is the square of linear scale.
 For example, if a map has a linear scale of 1 cm to 6 km, then the areal scale of the map is
(1 cm)2 to (6 km)2, which means 1 cm2 to 36 km2.
 How to Find the Scale of a Map ?
 There are two ways of finding a map scale, if it is not given.

By using the known distance between two points on the map

 This method is used if the ground distance between two points or places
shown on the map is given. Then use the following procedure to obtain the
scale:
 Measure the distance between the two points on the map in centimeters.
 Divide the obtained distance on the map by the ground distance
to obtain the ratio between the two.
This gives you the scale of the map.
To understand this better see the following example. Let us say, if
the straight-line distance between Addis Ababa and Mekele is 555 km.
using the following figure, calculate the scale of the map:
 Using the distance between Addis Ababa and Mekele.
Measure the distance between Addis Ababa and Mekele by using a ruler
approximately 3 cm.
The given air distance between the two places is 555 km.
 Find the ratio between the distance on map and the actual distance.
This is the scale.
B. By using latitudes

In this method, the scale of the map can be obtained by using the
values of latitudes.
 For example, let us calculate the scale of the above Figure by
using the 5o and 10o N latitude lines:
The degree difference between the two latitudes is 5o (10o – 5o).
The distance that 5o represents is 555 km (111 km × 5).
 The distance between the two latitudes on the map is
approximately 3 cm.
The scale of the map is, therefore:
Measurements in maps [location, distance, area, direction]

There are three(3) type of distance namely straight line, curved and field distance.
the straight-line distance refers to the shortest distance between two points in a straight line.
For instance, if you want to measure the distance between two cities on a map, you would
use the straight-line distance and measure by ruler.
the curve distance refers to the length of a curved path between two points.
 It is longer than the straight-line distance because it follows the curvature of the path and
we can measure by edge piece of paper followed measure by ruler.
Field distance is the actual distance, which takes into account the effect of relief.
 mathematically formula it can be expressed as: FD = Field distance, MD =Map distance,
AD =altitude difference.
 Cont.
 Find the actual field distance if the distance on the map between two point is 4cm from
the figure.
Solution
Con………..
Measuring regular shaped Areas

 A regular shape is a geometrical shape such as a circle,

triangle or square.
 If you are measuring an area with a regular shape, use the
mathematical formula for its geometric shape.
 Then calculate the ground area by using the map’s areal
scale.
 The following table gives you some of geometric
formulae for calculating the areas of regular shapes.
 Cont.
If map scale =1: 200000 and side of square = 4 cm, length
and width of rectangle =6 cm& 4 cm respectively, base and
height of triangle = 3 cm& 2cm respectively and radios of
circle = 4 cm. Then find the area of the regular shape area from
the above given figures:
A. find area on the map from each geometrical shape?
B. Find the actual ground area of each geometrical shape?
Solution
• To find the areas of the shapes on the map and their
corresponding actual ground areas, we will first calculate
the areas of each shape based on the dimensions
provided and then apply the scale factor to find the actual
ground area.

• A. Area on the map

• 1. Area of the square:

• Area = side² = 4cm × 4cm = 16cm²

Con………….
2. Area of the rectangle:
• Area = length × width = 6cm × 4cm =
24cm²
3. Area of the triangle:
• Area = 1 / 2 × base × height = 1 / 2 × 3cm
× 2cm = 3cm²
4. Area of the circle:
• Area = π r² = π (4cm)² = 16\picm² ≈
50.27cm²
B. Find the actual ground area of each geometrical shape?
• The scale is given as 1:200000. This means that 1 cm on the
map represents 200000 cm (or 2 km) in reality.
• To find the actual ground area, we will multiply each area on
the map by the square of the scale factor:
1. Scale factor:
The scale factor for area is (200000)² = 40000000000.
Now we can calculate the actual ground areas:
Con…………..
1. Actual area of the square:
16cm² × 40000000000 = 640000000000cm²
Converting to km²:
= 640000000000cm² ÷ 1000000 = 640000m² = 0.64km²
2. Actual area of the rectangle:
24cm² × 40000000000 = 960000000000cm²
Converting to km²:
= 960000000000cm² ÷ 1000000 = 960000m² = 0.96km²
3. Actual area of the triangle:
3cm² × 40000000000 = 120000000000cm²
Converting to km²:
= 120000000000cm² ÷ 1000000 = 120000m² = 0.12km²
Con…………
4. Actual area of the circle:
• Using 16π cm²:
• 16\picm² × 40000000000 = 640000000000\picm²
• Converting to km²:
= 640000000000\picm² / 1000000 = 640000\pim²
= 640000π / 1000000km²
= 0.64\pikm²
≈ 2.01km²
Measuring Irregular-Shaped Areas
 If the feature to be measured has an irregular shape, its area cannot be
directly calculated by using mathematical formulae.
 In such cases, we can use the grid square method to measure the area of the
lake, marsh area and irregular shape farm land on the map. See the figure.
Measurement of Direction

 Directions from one point to another or the bearing of one point from another can be given

using two different sets of units.

 The traditional system uses the cardinal compass points north, east, and south, west and
subdivisions of them.

 A modern, and more accurate, method gives the directions in degrees and fractions of
degrees clockwise from north.

 The relationship between the two ways of giving directions is shown in following Figure.

 Find the direction from point A to point B on the map from the figure of next slide:
Cont.
2.6. RELIEF REPRESENTATION ON MAPS

Relief refers to the difference in altitude between the

highest and lowest points in an area or surface structure of
any part of the earth.
 It relates to land features like plains, hills, plateaus,
valleys, ridges, etc.
 These relief features have three dimensions (length,
breadth and height), but a map on which they are
represented has only two dimensions, (length and breadth).
 Cont.
Methods of Showing Relief on a Map
 In order to read relief features from maps, you should first know how map
–makers represent the uneven surface of the earth on a plane sheet of
paper, i.e., on a map.
There are different ways of showing relief on maps. These include:
 Physiographic diagrams
 Hachures
o d s
 Layer coloring
e th
 Hill shading
i o n al M
a d it
 Form lines Tr
 Contours
A. Physiographic Diagrams
 Early map makers used to represent relief features by diagrammatic pictures
known as physiographic diagrams.
 They show three-dimensional pictures of landscapes as viewed from the
side or oblique direction (see Figure 1.15).
 This method of showing relief is simple and easy to understand.
However, it has the following disadvantages:
It shows the side and oblique view of the landscape, unlike the modern
relief map that gives you an overhead view of an area.
 Some geographic details of an area would be hidden from view behind
the “backs” of the pictures of hills or mountains.
 Exact heights and slopes of the land forms are not indicated.
 It lacks accuracy because it is drawn without scale.
B. Hachures
Hachures are short disconnected lines that represent slopes.
 For example, Figure 1.16. They are drawn in the direction in which water flows.
 Originally they were used to represent mountains and valleys on simple sketch maps.
 Basically, hachures show the steepness of slopes.
 When slopes are steep, hachures are put close together.
 For gentle slopes, the hachures are spaced wide apart.
 Hachures representing steep slopes are shorter than those representing gentle slopes.
 This approach has significant limitations, such as:
 Flat areas are unshaded.
Therefore, plateaus and plains can be confused.
Hachures do not indicate height and exact gradients.
They give only qualitative information
 Hachures are laborious to draw and can be difficult to read and
interpret.
 Nowadays, hachures are not used alone.
 they are used in combination with contour lines to show
landforms like escarpments, depressions and craters.
C. Hill shading

Hill shading or relief shading is also known as oblique

illumination.
 It is a method of showing relief on a map, assuming an oblique
light that illuminates the landscape from the northwest corner of
the map.
 Hence the northwest-facing slopes are shaded lighter than are the
east-facing and south-facing slopes.
 The steeper the slope is, the darker it is shaded.
Hill shading offers a quick general impression of the land
configuration that it represents.
But still it has some limitations such as:
 It does not give absolute altitude
It fails to indicate clearly whether the ground is
sloping upward or downward.
 It fails to indicate whether the unshaded areas are low
or high-level areas.
 Hence, plateaus and plains can be confused.
Detailed map information can be obscured by
shading.
 Cont.
 In general, hill shading is now used in combination with spot heights and
contours to overcome some of its drawbacks.

 figure: hill shading of Ethiopian DEM:

D. Layer Coloring (Layer Tinting)

 It is a method of showing relief by using colors.

The series of colors for showing different altitudes starts from sea level.
 Identify the types of colors used to represent the different elevation zones.
Layer coloring has the following disadvantages:
 Color shading does not indicate gradual changes in slopes.
 The edges of the areas of different colors can suggest nonexistent physical boundaries.
 Dark colors can obscure details in the areas that they overlie.
 Some colors can create false impressions in the map reader’s mind.
 For example, green might suggest vegetation or a fertile area
Look at the following figure that represent layer coloring of Ethiopian topography on next slide :
 Cont.

Figure of layer coloring land scape of Ethiopia

E. Form lines
 form line is imaginary pecked or broken line joining points with the same
approximate height on a map.
 Usually they are drawn on topographic maps to show where survey work is incomplete or poorly
accomplished.
 Also, these lines are useful for showing sea depths.
However, Form lines have the following limitations:
 They are not drawn on a map at a fixed interval of altitude.
 Although they represent the relief of an area, they provide little or no
reference to sea level.
 In many cases they are unnumbered.
 They are usually drawn with broken lines.
Look at the figures from next slide:
Cont.
 F. Contour Lines or Isohypses
 Contour lines are the most common and accurate way of showing relief on

modern maps.
 A shoreline is a good example of a contour line.
 Contour lines are lines drawn on a map joining places of the same
elevation above mean sea level.
 They give almost true altitudes.
 They also indicate different slopes and land forms.
 Contour lines represent different land feature on the map.
 Closed contours with more or less circular shapes, with values increasing
towards the center and with the top indicated by a spot height represent
mountains or hills
Modern Methods
1. Hill

A hill is a landform that extends above the surrounding terrain

but is smaller than a mountain.

Figure of hill
 Cont.
 As indicated the above Figure a contour line joins all points on the hill that are at the
same height.
 For example, contour line 150 m passes through points A and B, while
contour line 250 m runs through points C and D.
All of the points on contour line 150 m are 150 m high and those on the 250 m line are all
250 m high.
 To give clearer impressions of the relief on contour maps, contour lines are sometimes
used in combination with hachures, hill-shading, layer-coloring and spot heights.
II. depressions
 Closed contours with more or less circular shapes, with values decreasing towards the
center represent depressions.
 depression is an area of land that is lower in altitude than the areas surrounding it.
 It is a low point on the ground or a sinkhole.
 It could also be described as an area of low ground surrounded by higher ground in all
directions, or simply as a hole in the ground
III. Spur
 Spur is a short and continuously sloping line of higher ground that
normally extends out from the side of a ridge.
 Usually, a spur is formed by two roughly parallel streams that cut draws
along the side of a ridge.
 Contours with “V or U shapes, with downward bending and values
increasing upward represent spurs.
IV. Ridge:

 A ridge is a sloping line of high ground.

It is a long narrow hill top or a range of hills.
 ridge normally has low ground in three directions and high ground in one
direction.
 Contour lines representing a ridge tend to be U-shaped or V-shaped. The
closed end of the contour line points toward lower ground.

V. Cliff:

 Cliff is a vertical or nearly vertical relief feature with a sudden

change vertical distance (elevation) with almost no change in its horizontal
distance.
 Cliffs are shown on topographic maps by using contour lines that are very
close together and overlap (merge).
VI. Saddle
A saddle is a dip or low point between two areas of higher ground.
The feature is like the seat on a riding horse.

Figure: Saddle and its contour representation

VII. Valley
 valley is a long low-lying area of land, often with a river or stream
running through it, that is surrounded by higher ground.
 Contour lines forming a valley are either U-shaped or V-shaped.
 While U-shaped contours represent valleys with steep slopes and flat
bottoms, V-shaped contours show valleys with relatively gently descending
slopes with V-shaped bottoms.

Figure: Valley and representation of contour lines

General Properties of Contour Lines

 Contour lines are imaginary lines used on a map to represent relief.

Unlike the lines that represent rivers, boundaries or coast lines, contours do
not really exist on the earth’s surface.
 The only contour line that exists both on the map and in the field is the sea
level.
 A set of contour lines is drawn at a fixed height interval.
 The difference in altitude between two successive contour lines is known as vertical
interval (V. I.) or contour interval (C. I.).
The V. I. helps us to find out the heights of unnumbered contour lines.
 Contour lines cannot merge, overlap or cross one another on maps except at vertical
cliffs, waterfalls or over hanging cliffs.
For example, two or more contour lines run together and
then separate to represent the cliff shown in the figure below.
The crossing of contours occurs only in the case of an overhanging cliff.
 Usually contours representing a cave under an overhanging cliff are shown with pecked
lines.

c\ reality

Figure overhanging cliff

 Contour lines never branch.
 If you see branching lines on a map, they represent features such as
rivers, roads, boundaries, etc.
 A contour line joins all points of the same altitude.
 For example, an altitude of 250 m will be on the 250 m contour line.
 The altitude of any point outside this line will be either greater or
less than 250 meters (see Figure).

 Contour lines are always numbered in the direction towards which
altitude increases.
 These numbers can be shown with or without breaking contour
lines (see Figure )
 Contour lines indicate the nature of slopes.
 When contour lines are far apart, they show gentle slopes.
 But when contour lines are close together, they show steep slopes (See
Figure).

 Contour lines can be printed with different thicknesses on a map.
This is especially helpful in mountainous areas where altitudes may vary
considerably from summits to valley floors.
 In order to make the reading of contour maps easier, every fifth or tenth
contour line is printed thicker than the rest.
Such contour lines are called index contour lines, while the rest are called
regular contour lines.
 Contour lines can show different types of landforms, such as mountains,
hills, plateaus, depressions, valleys, spurs, ridges, gorges, passes, plains,
etc. See below figure:
Different Methods of Showing Altitudes on Contour Maps
 Contour lines show altitude and relief on modern maps.
 However, they do not show the specific heights of individual features such as mountain
peaks, hilltops, valley floors, towers, towns, roads or railways.
 Such heights are indicated on maps, using the following methods:
A. Spot heights
B. Trigonometrical points
C. Benchmarks
D. Calculating Altitude:
 When the altitude of a point on a contour map is not shown by any of
the above methods, it can be obtained by measurement and calculation,
using the interpolation method.
 This can be done only if the given point is located between two contour lines.
 Find the altitude of point A in the given below Figure,
Slopes and Gradients
Slope is the upward or downward inclination of a natural or artificial surface.
 It is a deviation of the surface from the horizontal.
On a map, steepness of a slope depends on:
The distance between the contours drawn on the map.
 The closer the contours are, the steeper is the slope representation and vice versa (see Figure 1.24).
The vertical interval (V.I.) between two successive contours.
The bigger the V.I, the steeper is the slope representation and vice versa.

There are different types of slopes, which include:

i) Even slope: An even slope has a constant gradient from the bottom to the top.
 On a map of an even slope, the contour lines are evenly spaced throughout. For example, study the slope
represented in the following Figure.
ii. Concave Slope

In a concave slope; the contour lines are widely spaced at the base and are close together
at the top.
 In other words, a concave slope has a steep gradient at the top.
 The gradient becomes gentler towards the bottom (see the following Figure).
iii Convex Slope

 In a convex slope, the contour lines are close together at the base and widely spaced at
the top.
The slope has a steep gradient at the bottom that becomes gentler towards the top. (See
the following Figure)
iv Terraced or Stepped Slope

In a terraced or stepped slope, the contour lines are alternatively close together and far
apart in a regular pattern.
 This means the gradient changes several times between the bottom and the top of the
slope (see the following Figure).
v. Escarpment

 An escarpment is the steep slope of a plateau, especially one where the plateau ends and
the lowland starts.
 You can also identify other two more slopes on either side of a mountain ridge.
 One slope is steep and the other is gentle.
 The steep slope is called the scarp slope and gentler slope is called the dip slope (see the
following Figure).
Gradient on Contour Maps

Gradient (GR) is the degree or rate of change of slope or elevation between two points.
 It is calculated using altitude difference (vertical distance) and map distance (horizontal
distance) between two points.
 Both AD and MD must be in the same unit of measurement.
 It can be expressed in any of these three different ways:
Usually we express gradient as a percentage.
 This expression is the simplest to use, and it is relatively easy to calculate.
 Cont.
 Here are some examples of the three methods:
Cont.
Cont.