IB Biology

2023
B1.1
Carbohydrates
and Lipids

1. In what ways do variations in form allow

diversity of function in carbohydrates and
lipids?
2. How do carbohydrates and lipids compare
as energy storage compounds?

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 B1.1 Carbohydrates and Lipids Sub-Topics

Sub-Topic Clarification
B1.1.1—Chemical properties of a carbon atom allowing for the formation Students should understand the nature of a covalent bond. Students should also understand that a carbon atom can form up to four single bonds or a combination of single
of diverse compounds upon which life is based and double bonds with other carbon atoms or atoms of other non-metallic elements. Include among the diversity of carbon compounds examples of molecules with branched
or unbranched chains and single or multiple rings. NOS: Students should understand that scientific conventions are based on international agreement (SI metric unit prefixes
“kilo”, “centi”, “milli”, “micro” and “nano”).

B1.1.2—Production of macromolecules by condensation reactions that Students should be familiar with examples of polysaccharides, polypeptides and nucleic acids.
link monomers to form a polymer

B1.1.3—Digestion of polymers into monomers by hydrolysis reactions Water molecules are split to provide the -H and -OH groups that are incorporated to produce monomers, hence the name of this type of reaction.

B1.1.4—Form and function of monosaccharides Students should be able to recognize pentoses and hexoses as monosaccharides from molecular diagrams showing them in the ring forms. Use glucose as an example of the
link between the properties of a monosaccharide and how it is used, emphasizing solubility, transportability, chemical stability and the yield of energy from oxidation as
properties.

B1.1.5—Polysaccharides as energy storage compounds Include the compact nature of starch in plants and glycogen in animals due to coiling and branching during polymerization, the relative insolubility of these compounds due to
large molecular size and the relative ease of adding or removing alpha-glucose monomers by condensation and hydrolysis to build or mobilize energy stores.

B1.1.6—Structure of cellulose related to its function as a structural Include the alternating orientation of beta-glucose monomers, giving straight chains that can be grouped in bundles and cross-linked with hydrogen bonds.
polysaccharide in plants

B1.1.7—Role of glycoproteins in cell–cell recognition Include ABO antigens as an example.

B1.1.8—Hydrophobic properties of lipids Lipids are substances in living organisms that dissolve in non-polar solvents but are only sparingly soluble in aqueous solvents. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes and steroids.

B1.1.9—Formation of triglycerides and phospholipids by condensation One glycerol molecule can link three fatty acid molecules or two fatty acid molecules and one phosphate group.
reactions

B1.1.10—Difference between saturated, monounsaturated and Include the number of double carbon (C=C) bonds and how this affects melting point. Relate this to the prevalence of different types of fatty acids in oils and fats used for
polyunsaturated fatty acids energy storage in plants and endotherms respectively.

B1.1.11—Triglycerides in adipose tissues for energy storage and thermal Students should understand that the properties of triglycerides make them suited to long-term energy storage functions. Students should be able to relate the use of
insulation triglycerides as thermal insulators to body temperature and habitat.

B1.1.12—Formation of phospholipid bilayers as a consequence of the Students should use and understand the term “amphipathic”.
hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions

B1.1.13—Ability of non-polar steroids to pass through the phospholipid Include oestradiol and testosterone as examples. Students should be able to identify compounds as steroids from molecular diagrams.
bilayer

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 B1.1.1—Chemical properties of a carbon atom allowing for the formation of diverse compounds upon which life is based

Organic
Molecules

• In chemistry, organic
means “contains carbon”.
• Organic molecules are
those that are synthesized
by living organisms.
• They are all carbon-based
as a result of carbon’s
ability to form a diversity
of stable compounds.

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 B1.1.1—Chemical properties of a carbon atom allowing for the formation of diverse compounds upon which life is based

Carbon is the backbone of

life

Forms large Proteins

complex and DNA
An varied Carbohydrate

Overview
molecules s

of Carbon
Organic Chemistry: the
study of compounds
containing carbon

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 B1.1.1—Chemical properties of a carbon atom allowing for the formation of diverse compounds upon which life is based

Properties of
Carbon
• Carbon has 4 valence electron, and
therefore can form up to 4 covalent bonds
(tetrahedral).
• Long chains of carbon atoms are bonded
together to form a skeleton for organic
molecules
• Different lengths
• Different arrangement (straight,
branched, ring)
• Different bond types (single,
double, triple)
• Different bonds, rings, and functional
groups may be added on to the skeleton to
change the properties of the molecule.

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 B1.1.3—Digestion of polymers into monomers by hydrolysis reactions

Various Carbon Chains

(a) (c) Double bond

Length position

Ethan Propan 1- 2-
e e Butene Butene
(b) (d) Presence of
Branching rings

Butan 2-
Cyclohexan Benzen
e Methylpropane
e e
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(isobutane)
 B1.1.1—Chemical properties of a carbon atom allowing for the formation of diverse compounds upon which life is based

Hydrocarbons

• Hydrocarbons are molecules

consisting of only carbon and
hydrogen
• Hydrocarbons are found in many of a
cell’s organic molecules
Fat droplets (stained red)

100 µm
(a) A fat molecule(b) Mammalian adipose cells

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 B1.1.1—Chemical properties of a carbon atom allowing for the formation of diverse compounds upon which life is based

Isomers
H
H C H
H H
• Isomers are molecules H H H H H H
C
H
(a) Structural Hisomers
C C C C C H H C C C H
with the same molecular H H H H H H H H

formula but different X X H X

structures and (b) Geometric isomers C C C C

H H X H
properties CO2H CO2H

• Three types of isomers are

(c) EnantiomersC C
• Structural H NH2 NH2 H

CH3 CH3
• Geometric
• Enantiomers

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 B1.1.1—Chemical properties of a carbon atom allowing for the formation of diverse compounds upon which life is based

Estradiol Testosterone

Functional Groups
Functional Group: a chemical group with distinct
properties that behave differently in chemical
reactions

Differences in one functional group may have

significant effects on properties of molecule

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 B1.1.1—Chemical properties of a carbon atom allowing for the formation of diverse compounds upon which life is based

The 7 Functional Groups in Chemical Group

Hydroxyl group (—OH)

Group Properties

Alcohol
Examples

the Chemistry of Life: Ethanol

Carbonyl group ( C ═ O) Ketone

•
Aldehyde

Hydroxyl Acetone Propanal

• Carbonyl
Carboxyl group (—COOH) Carboxylic acid

or organic acid

• Carboxyl
Acetic acid

Amino group (—NH2) Amine

• Amino
•
Glycine

Sulfhydryl Sulfhydryl group (—SH) Thiol

• Methyl Cysteine

• Phosphate Phosphate group (—OPO 32−)Organic

phosphate
Glycerol

phosphate

Methyl group (—CH3) Methylated

5-Methylcytosine
compound

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 B1.1.2—Production of macromolecules by condensation reactions that link monomers to form a polymer. B1.1.3—Digestion of polymers into
monomers by hydrolysis reactions

Metabolism
Chemical reactions of life:
• Forming bonds between molecules
• Dehydration synthesis
• Synthesis
• Anabolic reactions
• Breaking bonds between molecules
• Hydrolysis
• Digestion
• Catabolic reactions

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 B1.1.2—Production of macromolecules by condensation reactions that link monomers to form a polymer

Endergonic

• forms bonds between Types of

molecules Metabolic
• require energy Reactions
• dehydration
synthesis/condensatio
n reaction
• anabolic reactions

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 B1.1.2—Production of macromolecules by condensation reactions that link monomers to form a polymer

The Synthesis
of Polymers
Monomers form larger molecules by condensation reactions called
dehydration synthesis.

HO 1 2 3 H HO H

Short polymer Unlinked monomer

Dehydration removes a water

molecule, forming a new bond H2O

HO 1 2 3 4 H
Longer polymer
(a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of a polymer
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 B1.1.2—Production of macromolecules by condensation reactions that link monomers to form a polymer

Dehydration Synthesis

enzyme
+

H2 O

enzyme

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 B1.1.3—Digestion of polymers into monomers by hydrolysis reactions

Types of
Metabolic
Reactions

 Exergonic
• Breaking bonds
between molecules
• Hydrolysis
• Release energy
• Digestion
• Catabolic reactions

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 B1.1.3—Digestion of polymers into monomers by hydrolysis reactions

The Breakdown
of Polymers
Polymers can disassemble by hydrolysis (addition of water
molecules).

HO 1 2 3 4 H

Hydrolysis adds a water

H2O
molecule, breaking a bond

HO 1 2 3 H HO H
(b) Hydrolysis of a polymer
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 B1.1.3—Digestion of polymers into monomers by hydrolysis reactions

Hydrolysis

+
enzyme

H2 O

enzyme

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 B1.1.2—Production of macromolecules by condensation reactions that link monomers to form a polymer. B1.1.3—Digestion of polymers into monomers by hydrolysis reactions

- energy released - energy invested

exergonic - digestion endergonic - synthesis

Endergoni
c vs. +G

Exergonic -G

Reactions

G = change in free energy = ability to do work

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 B1.1.2—Production of macromolecules by condensation reactions that link monomers to form a polymer. B1.1.3—Digestion of polymers into
monomers by hydrolysis reactions

Condensation Hydrolysis

Energy Energy
consumed Released
Condensati
Covalent bond Covalent
on vs formed bond broken
Hydrolysis
Water removed Water Added

Monomer  Polymer 
Polymer Monomer

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 Macromolecules

• Large molecules (polymers)

composed of smaller molecules
(monomers).
• Complex in their structures.
• Specific monomers make up
each macromolecule
• Ex: amino acids are the monomers
for proteins

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 Most macromolecules are
polymers, built from
monomers.

Macromolecul
es Four classes of Carbohydrates
life’s organic Lipids
molecules are Proteins
Nucleic Acids
polymers:

You need to be able to identify

and draw the structures for the
above.

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 Carbohydrates

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 B1.1.4—Form and function of monosaccharides

Monomer:
Monosaccharides
Simple Sugar
Molecules

• Composed of C,H,O
(CH2O)n
• Contains 3-7 carbons
• Name often ends in
–ose
• Short-term energy
storage

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 B1.1.4—Form and function of monosaccharides

Simple sugars (monosaccharides) are the

building blocks of complex carbohydrates
(polysaccharides).

Structure of Glucose
hexose (6-sided) sugar
Ribose
pentose (5-sided) sugar
Carbohydrat
es

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 B1.1.4—Form and function of monosaccharides

H O

Monosaccharides 1
C CH2OH
6 6
CH2OH

2 CH2OH
H C OH 5C H
O C
5
O 6
H H H O
H H 5 H

Structure of
3
HO C H
H H H
C
4
OH C
1
C
4 1
C
4
OH 4
OH
1

H C OH H H
O HO 3 2 OH
OH OH
3 C 2
C 3
C C
2 OH

Carbohydrates
H C
5
OH
H OH
H OH H OH
H 6
C OH

May be linear Can form rings Linear and ring forms. Chemical equilibrium between th
linear and ring structures greatly favors the formation of rin
To form the glucose ring, carbon 1 bonds to the oxygen
attached to carbon 5.

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 B1.1.4—Form and function of monosaccharides

Examples of Monosaccharides
Triose sugars Pentose sugars Hexose sugars
(C3H6O3) (C5H10O5) (C6H12O6)
H O H O H O H O
C C C C
H C OH H C OH H C OH H C OH
Aldoses
H C OH H C OH HO C H HO C H
H H C OH H C OH HO C H
H C OH H C OH H C OH
Glyceraldehyde H C OH H C OH
H
Ribose H H
Glucose Galactose
H H H
H C OH H C OH H C OH
C O C O C O
Ketoses

H C OH H C OH HO C H
H H C OH H C OH
Dihydroxyacetone H C OH H C OH
H H C OH
Ribulose H
Fructose

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 B1.1.4—Form and function of monosaccharides

Glucose
• Glucose has the formula
C6H12O6

• It forms a hexagonal ring

(hexose)
• Glucose is the form of
sugar that fuels respiration
• Glucose forms the base
unit for many polymers

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 B1.1.4—Form and function of monosaccharides

Alpha vs Beta
Glucose:
Differentiate
Between the
Two

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 B1.1.4—Form and function of monosaccharides

Galactose
• Most commonly found in
milk, but also found in
cereals.
• Galactose is also a hexose
sugar like glucose.
• It has the same formula
C6H12O6 but is less sweet

Galactosemia, which means “galactose in the

blood,” refers to a group of inherited disorders that
impair the body's ability to process and produce
energy from galactose.

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 B1.1.4—Form and function of monosaccharides

Fructose
• Fructose is another pentose
sugar commonly found in
fruits and honey.
• It is the sweetest naturally
occurring carbohydrate.

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 B1.1.4—Form and function of monosaccharides

Ribose
• Ribose is a pentose sugar,
it has a pentagonal ring.
• It forms the backbone of
RNA.
• Deoxyribose differs as
shown in the diagram and
forms the backbone of
DNA.

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 B1.1.4—Form and function of monosaccharides

Monosaccharide Monomers are Joined by

Condensation Reactions to Form Polymers.
These polymers are joined by a glycosidic bond and water is a
waste product.

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 B1.1.5—Polysaccharides as energy storage compounds

• Consist of two monosaccharides

Disaccharides • Are joined by a glycosidic
linkage

Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of maltose.

The bonding of two glucose units forms maltose. The glycosidic link
joins the number 1 carbon of one glucose to the number 4 carbon of the
second glucose. Joining the glucose monomers in a different
way would result in a different disaccharide.
CH2 OH CH2 OH CH2 OH CH2 OH

H O H H O H H O H 1– 4 H O H
H H H 1 glycosidic 4 H
OH H OH
HO
OH H OH
OH H linkage OH H
HO OH HO
O OH

H OH H OH
H OH H OH

H2 O

Glucose Glucose Maltose

CH2OH CH2 OH
CH2 OH
CH2 OH

H O H O H H O H 1–2 O H
H H 1 glycosidic
2
OH H H HO OH H linkage
H HO

HO
OH HO CH2 OH HO O CH2 OH

H OH OH
H H OH OH H
H2 O

Glucose Fructose Sucrose

Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of sucrose.

Sucrose is a disaccharide formed from glucose and fructose.
Notice that fructose, though a hexose like glucose, forms a
five-sided ring.

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 B1.1.5—Polysaccharides as energy storage compounds

Examples of
Disaccharides
• Maltose (C12H22O11) is a dimer of glucose.
• Lactose (C12H22O11) is most found in milk.
• The two subunits that make up lactose are
glucose and galactose.
• Sucrose (C12H22O11) is also known as table
sugar.
• The two monosaccharides that make it up
are glucose and fructose.

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 B1.1.5—Polysaccharides as energy storage compounds

Polysaccharides

• Are polymers of sugars

• Serve many roles in
organisms
• Some important
polysaccharides are:
1. Starch
2. Glycogen
3. Cellulose
4. Chitin
5. Glycoproteins

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 B1.1.5—Polysaccharides as energy storage compounds

Chloroplas
Starch
t

Amylose and
Amylopectin are
both forms of
1 m
starch and
made from
repeating
glucose units
Amylose
Amylopectin

Starch: a plant polysaccharide

• Starch is made by linking together α-glucose molecules.

• The major storage form of glucose in plants.
1. Starch • All the glucose molecules in starch can be orientated in
the same way so the starch molecule is curved, rather
than straight.

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 B1.1.5—Polysaccharides as energy storage compounds

2. Glycogen
• (C6H10O5)n :consists of glucose monomers.
• Condensation reactions link carbon
atom 1 - 4 on the next α-glucose.
• Branches occur where a condensation
reaction instead links carbon atom 1 –
6.
• The molecule is compact.
• Glycogen is the major storage form of
glucose in animals.
• It is stored in the liver and some
muscles in humans. The molecule
• Glycogen is useful in cells for glucose, and varies in size,
consequently energy, storage. typically it
consists of 30,000
units

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 B1.1.6—Structure of cellulose related to its function as a structural polysaccharide in plants

• Cellulose is a major component of the tough

walls that enclose plant cells
3. Cellulose • It is a polymer of glucose
• Has different glycosidic linkages than starch

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 B1.1.6—Structure of cellulose related to its function as a structural polysaccharide in plants

• Cellulose is made by linking together β-glucose molecules

• Condensation reactions link carbon atom 1 to carbon atom 4 on the next β-
glucose.

3. Cellulose • The molecules are linked together with hydrogen bonds which form bundles called
cellulose microfibrils.
• This prevents plant cells from bursting, even under very high (water) pressure.

• Cellulose is difficult to digest

• Cows have microbes in their stomachs to facilitate this process

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 B1.1.5—Polysaccharides as energy storage compounds

CH2O
H
H O OH
H
OH H
OH H

4. Chitin H NH
C O
CH
3

• Another important
structural polysaccharide (b) Chitin forms the exoskeleton
(a) The structure of the (c) Chitin is used to make a
of arthropods. This cicada strong and flexible surgical
• Is found in the chitin monomer.
is molting, shedding its old thread that decomposes after
exoskeleton of exoskeleton and emerging the wound or incision heals.
arthropods in adult form.

• Is found in the cell

walls of fungi
• Can be used as
surgical thread

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 B1.1.7—Role of glycoproteins in cell–cell recognition

5.
Glycoproteins

• A glycoprotein is a sugar-protein
molecule.
• Glycoproteins perform vital
biochemical and structural
functions.
• They enable cells to recognize
another cell as familiar or
foreign, which is called cell-cell
recognition.
• They also help cells attach to A glycoprotein is a compound containing carbohydrate (or glycan) covalently
and bind other cells, which is linked to protein. The carbohydrate may be in the form of a monosaccharide,
disaccharide(s). oligosaccharide(s), polysaccharide(s), or their derivatives
called cell adhesion. (e.g. sulfo- or phospho-substituted).

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 B1.1.7—Role of glycoproteins in cell–cell recognition

• ABO blood grouping is based on differences in the type of glycoprotein (protein

5. •
with carbohydrates attached) present on the surface of red blood cells.

Type A individuals have type A glycoproteins.

Glycoproteins • Type B individuals have type B glycoproteins.

– ABO •

•
Type AB individuals have both.

Type O individuals have neither.

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 B1.1.4—Form and function of monosaccharides

Using Visualizat
ion Software
• Select the glucose molecule and identify the colors used to represent carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen atoms.

• Using the models identify and describe the differences between glucose, sucrose and
fructose.

• Look at the amylose model and zoom out from it. Describe the overall shape of the
molecule.

• Zoom in on the amylose molecule. Each glucose sub-unit is bonded to how many other
sub-units? Which carbons atoms used to form the glycosidic bonds? Are there any
exceptions to these rules?

• Select the amylopectin model and zoom in on the branch point. This glucose sub-unit
is bonded how many others and which carbon atoms are used for bonded compared
with the un-branched amylose molecule?

• Using a similar approach to that above investigate the structure of glycogen and find
the similarities and differences between it and both amylose and amylopectin.

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 B1.1.4—Form and function of monosaccharides

Circle the
Sugars:

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 Lipids

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 B1.1.8—Hydrophobic properties of lipids

Lipids

• Lipids are a diverse group of

hydrophobic molecules
• They are the one class of large
biological molecules that do not
consist of polymers
• Share the common trait of being
hydrophobic
• Are constructed from two types
of smaller molecules, a single
glycerol and usually three fatty
acids
• Vary in the length and number
and locations of double bonds
they contain

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 B1.1.8—Hydrophobic properties of lipids

Structure of Lipids

• Fatty acids are chains of

hydrogen and carbon and
are the building blocks of
lipids and fats (left).
• Phospholipids that make
up cell membranes have
two tails made of fatty
acid chains (right).

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 B1.1.8—Hydrophobic properties of lipids

General Structure of a Fatty Acid

O
H 3C (CH2)n C
Chain (or ring) of carbon and
OH
hydrogen atoms
Carboxylic group

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 B1.1.9—Formation of triglycerides and phospholipids by condensation reactions

Major component of the cell membrane

(phospholipids).

Fats in animals can serve as heat insulators while

sphingolipids in the myelin sheath (of neurons) can
serve as electrical insulators

Lipid
Hormonal signaling.

Functions
Triglycerides may form a tissue layer around many key
internal organs and provide protection against physical
injury
• Triglycerides can be used as a long-term energy storage source
• They are stored in specialized groups of cells called adipose tissue

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 B1.1.9—Formation of triglycerides and phospholipids by condensation reactions

Triglyceride
3 Fatty Acid Chains + Glycerol

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 B1.1.9—Formation of triglycerides and phospholipids by condensation reactions

Triglycerides

• Triglycerides are formed by a

condensation reaction that includes
one glycerol molecule and three
fatty acids.
• Each fatty acid is bonded to the
glycerol molecule in three
condensation reactions therefore
three water molecules are
produced.
• The bonds are known as ester bonds
that form when a reaction occurs
between the –COOH groups of the
fatty acids and the –OH groups of
the glycerol molecule.

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 B1.1.9—Formation of triglycerides and phospholipids by condensation reactions

Triglycerides –
Function

• Triglycerides travel through

the circulatory system and are
either utilized immediately or are
stored in adipose tissue, thereby
serving as the most abundant
form of stored energy in the
body.
• Triglycerides can serve as this
important storage medium
because of their hydrophobicity,
which allows them to be stored
as droplets, without contact with
water molecules.

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 B1.1.9—Formation of triglycerides and phospholipids by condensation reactions

Triglycerides – Function

Triglyceride Levels
• In addition to serving as a source of
energy, triglycerides carry the fat- Normal Less than 150 mg/dL
soluble vitamins (including vitamin Borderline-high 150-199 mg/dL
K, an important nutrient in normal
blood coagulation). High 200-499 mg/dL

• Triglycerides also provide thermal Very high 500 mg/dL or above

insulation and contribute to the
structure of membranes by the SOURCE: National Heart, Lung and Blood
Institute, National Institutes of Health, U.S.
formation of a lipid bilayer. Department of Health and Human Services

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 B1.1.9—Formation of triglycerides and phospholipids by condensation reactions

Lipids
• The amount of energy released in cell respiration per
gram of lipids is DOUBLE that for carbohydrates (and
protein).

Provide • Lipids add 1/6 as much to body mass as carbohydrates:

fats are stored as pure droplets whereas when 1g

Long-Term
glycogen is stored it is associated with 2g of water.
• This is especially critical for active animals as energy
stores must be carried.

Energy • However, glycogen is crucial as medium-term energy

storage because glycogen can be broken down to

Storage
glucose rapidly
• Fats in adipose tissue cannot be mobilized as
rapidly
• Glucose can be used either in anaerobic or aerobic
cell respiration whereas fats and fatty acids can
only be used in aerobic respiration

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 B1.1.9—Formation of triglycerides and phospholipids by condensation reactions

Immediate use – glucose.

Energy Storage

Medium-term storage – glycogen.

Long-term storage – lipids.

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 B1.1.9—Formation of triglycerides and phospholipids by condensation reactions

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 B1.1.10—Difference between saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids

Saturated – no double bonds

Types of Fats
Monounsaturated – one
1
double bond

2
Polyunsaturated – more (2+)
double bonds

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 B1.1.10—Difference between saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids

Saturated Fatty
Acids

• Have the
maximum number
of hydrogen Stearic acid
atoms possible
• Have no double
bonds
(a) Saturated fat and fatty acid
• Solid at room
temperature

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 B1.1.10—Difference between saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids

Unsaturated fatty acids

Unsaturated Fatty
• Have one or more double bonds
• Liquid at room temperature
Acids
Types of unsaturated
fats:
• Trans
• Cis
• Monounsaturated
• Polyunsaturated

Oleic acid

cis double bond

(b) Unsaturated fat and fatty acid causes bending

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 B1.1.10—Difference between saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids

Cis and Trans Unsaturated Fats

Cis-isomers Trans-isomers

Very common in nature Rare in nature – usually artificially produced to produce solid fats,
e.g. margarine from vegetable oils.

the hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the two carbon atoms the hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the two carbon atoms

The double bond causes a bend in the fatty acid chain The double bond does not causes a bend in the fatty acid chain

Therefore cis-isomers are only loosely packed Trans-isomers can be closely packed

Triglycerides formed from cis-isomers have low melting points – they Triglycerides formed from trans-isomers have high melting points –
usually liquid at room temperature they usually solid at room temperature

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 B1.1.10—Difference between saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids

• There have been many claims about the effects of

Healthy vs different types of fat on human health.

Unhealthy • The main concern is coronary heart disease (CHD). In

this disease the coronary arteries become partially
Fats blocked by fatty deposits, leading to blood clot
formation and heart attacks.

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 B1.1.10—Difference between saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids

A positive
Remember: correlation
correlation has been found between saturated
≠ causation.
fatty acid and trans fat intake and rates of CHD in many
studies.
Genetic factors could be responsible.

Other aspects of the diet could explain the CHD rates.

Causal links for trans fats:

• Other risk factors have been tested, to see if they can account for the correlation,
but none did. Trans-fats therefore probably do cause CHD.
• In patients who had died from CHD, fatty deposits in the diseased arteries have been
found to contain high concentrations of trans-fats, which gives more evidence of a
causal link.

© Created by Alyssa 2023

 B1.1.10—Difference between saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids

But what about

unsaturated
fats as a
whole?

• There are populations that do not fit

the correlation such as the Maasai of
Kenya.
• They have a diet that is rich in meat, fat,
blood and milk.
• They therefore have a high consumption
of saturated fats, yet CHD is almost
unknown among the Maasai.

• Diets rich in olive oil, which contains

cis-monounsaturated fatty acids, are
traditionally eaten in countries
around the Mediterranean.
• The populations of these countries
typically have low rates of CHD and it
has been claimed that this is due to the
intake of cis-monounsaturated fatty
acids.

© Created by Alyssa 2023

 B1.1.12—Formation of phospholipid bilayers as a consequence of the hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions

Phospholipi • Have only two fatty acids

ds • Have a phosphate group instead of a
third fatty acid

© Created by Alyssa 2023

 B1.1.12—Formation of phospholipid bilayers as a consequence of the hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions

Hydrophilic head
CH2 N(CH )
Choline
3

CH2 3

O
O P O– Phosphate
O
CH2 CH CH2
Glycerol
Phospholipi O
C OC
O
O

d Structure

Hydrophobic tails
Fatty acids
• Consists of a
Hydrophilic
hydrophilic “head” head
Hydrophobic
and hydrophobic tails

“tails” (c) Phospholipid

(a) Structural formula (b) Space-filling model
symbol
• Results in a bilayer
arrangement found
in cell membranes

© Created by Alyssa 2023

 B1.1.13—Ability of non-polar steroids to pass through the phospholipid bilayer

H3 C CH3

CH3
Steroids CH3

CH3

• Lipids characterized by a
carbon skeleton consisting HO
of four fused rings
• Types of steroids:
cholesterol, sex hormones,
adrenocorticoid.
• One steroid, cholesterol, is
found in cell membranes
• Steroids are involved in
hormonal signaling (e.g.
estrogen, progesterone,
testosterone)

© Created by Alyssa 2023

 B1.1.13—Ability of non-polar steroids to pass through the phospholipid bilayer

• The main feature, as in all lipids, is the large number of

carbon-hydrogens which make steroids non-polar.
Non-Polar • They can travel across the hydrophobic (or nonpolar)
Steroids interior of the plasma membrane whereas peptide
hormones are polar molecules that cannot travel
across the hydrophobic interior.

© Created by Alyssa 2023