Sexual Reproduction
Human reproductive organs
Humans, like all mammals, reproduce sexually. A new life begins when a male
gametes fuses with a female one, forming a zygote.
The female reproductive organs
The female gametes, called eggs, are made in the two ovaries.
Leading away from the ovaries are the oviducts, sometimes called Fallopian tubes.
The two oviducts lead to the womb or uterus. This has a very thick walls, made of muscles
for stretching when a women is pregnant.
At the base of the uterus is a narrow opening, guarded by muscles. This is the neck of the
uterus, or cervix.
The cervix leads to the vagina, which opens to the outside.
Female reproductive system
OVARIES (singular
ovary). Two, on
either side of the
abdomen. Every
14 days or so an
egg is released.
Produce
progesterone and
estrogen.
Female reproductive system
OVIDUCTS (also
known as the
Fallopian tubes)
carry the eggs from
the ovaries to the
uterus. Fertilisation
occurs here.
Female reproductive system
UTERUS – if the egg
is fertilised by the
sperm, then it
develops here into
the baby during
which time it is
known as the
womb)
Female reproductive system
CERVIX – the neck
of the uterus.
Becomes dilated
(opens up) just
prior to the birth of
the baby.
Female reproductive system
VAGINA – the birth
canal. Like the
lining of the uterus,
the vagina secretes
a lot of mucus.
Human gametes (sex
Female sex cellcells)
= egg
(ovum)
Membrane
Nucleus containing
chromosomes
Cytoplasm
Jelly coat
The male reproductive organs
The male gametes, called spermatozoa or sperm, are made in two testes.
These are outside the body, in two sacs of skin called scrotum.
The sperm are carried away from each testis in a tube called the sperm duct.
The sperm duct join up with the urethra just below the bladder. The urethra can carry both
urine an sperm at different times.
Where the sperm duct join the urethra, there is a gland called the prostate gland. This
makes a fluid which sperm swim in.
Human gametes (sex
cells)
Male sex cell = sperm
Human gametes (sex
cells)
Male sex cell = sperm
Human gametes (sex
cells)
Male sex cell = sperm
The chromosomes (genetic
Head information) are tightly packed
together in the nucleus
Tail
Human gametes (sex
cells)
Male sex cell = sperm
The chromosomes (genetic
Head information) are tightly packed
together in the nucleus
The tail lashes from side to side
and propels the sperm forwards
Tail
Human gametes (sex
cells)
Male sex cell = sperm
The chromosomes (genetic
Head information) are tightly packed
together in the nucleus
The tail lashes from side to side
and propels the sperm forwards
Tail
A single ejaculate may be about
4cm3 of fluid and may contain
up to 500 million sperms
Male reproductive system
TESTES (singular
testis). Sperms are
manufactured here.
The testes are
slightly cooler than
the rest of the
body.
Produce
testosterone.
Male reproductive system
scrotum : Alters
position to maintain
the optimum
temperature for the
testes (sperms are
heat sensitive)
Male reproductive system
Sperm Duct: carries
sperms from
testicles to urethra
Male reproductive system
URETHRA – tube
which runs down
the centre of the
penis – dual
function, carrying
both urine and
sperms
Male reproductive system
PROSTATE GLAND –
these glands
produce a fluid
which keeps the
sperm alive and
swimming
vigorously. Sperm
+ fluid = semen
Egg production
Eggs begin to be formed inside ovaries before the female birth. At birth, there are
approximately 1 million eggs; and by the time of puberty, only
about 300,000 remain.
When female reach puberty, some of these eggs will begin to mature.
When it is mature, an egg cell bursts out of the ovary and into the funnel at the end
of the oviduct. This is called ovulation which happens once a month in humans.
Fertilisation
After fertilisation has
occurred, the egg
divides repeatedly
into a ball of cells
which moves down
the oviduct to the
uterus. It now sinks
into the soft lining of
the uterus and
becomes implanted.
The woman is now
www.patient.co.uk
pregnant.
Sperm production
Sperms are produced in the tests which contains thousands of very narrow coiled
tubes.
Sperm production is very sensitive to heat. If its get too hot, the cells in the tubes
will not develop into sperms.
This is why testis are outside the body, where they are cooler than they would be
inside.
Fertilization and development
Fertilisation is the fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm cell) and a
female gamete (egg cell)
It occurs in the oviducts
Gametes have adaptations to increase the chances of fertilisation and successful
development of an embryo
Fertilization and development
After ovulation, the egg is caught in the funnel of the oviduct. The funnel is lined
with cilia which push the egg into the entrance of the oviduct.
Very slowly, the egg travels toward the uterus with the help of cilia linings and
muscles in the oviduct by peristalsis.
If the egg is not fertilized by a sperm within 8-24 hours after ovulation, it will die.
Fertilization and development
After ejaculation, the sperm are squeezed out of the man’s urethra and into the
women’s vagina.
The fluid containing the sperm is called semen.
The sperm needs to swim using their tails up though the cervix, through the uterus,
and into the oviduct.
One sperm enters the egg. Only the head goes in; the tail is left outside.
The nucleus of the sperm fuses with the nucleus of the egg. This is fertilization.
Fertilisation
Once inside the
vagina,the sperm
swim up through the
uterus and in to the
oviducts. If an egg is
present in the oviduct
then one sperm will
enter the egg and
fuse with the female
nucleus – this is
known as fertilisation.
Fertilisation
After fertilisation has
occurred, the egg
divides repeatedly
into a ball of cells
which moves down
the oviduct to the
uterus. It now sinks
into the soft lining of
the uterus and
becomes implanted.
The woman is now
www.patient.co.uk
pregnant.
Implantation
When the sperm nucleus and the egg nucleus have fused together, they form a
zygote.
The zygote continues to move slowly down the oviduct, and divide by mitosis for
several hours to form a ball of cells. This is known as an embryo.
After several days, the embryo reach the uterus. The uterus has a thick, spongy
lining and the embryo sinks into it. This is called implantation.
The placenta and amnion
The cells in the embryo, now buried in the soft wall of the uterus, continue to divide.
As the embryo grows, a placenta also grows, which connects it to the wall of the uterus.
The placenta is a soft and dark red, and has finger-like projection called villi.
The placenta is where substances are exchanged between mother’s blood and the embryo's
blood.
After eleven weeks, the embryo has developed into a fetus.
The placenta is joined to the fetus by the umbilical cord.
The placenta and amnion
The fetus is surrounded by a strong membrane called the amnion sac that makes a liquid
called amniotic fluid ( support and protect the embryo).
Development of the embryo and fetus
• When it first sinks into the lining of the uterus, the tiny embryo is just a simple ball of cells
that continuo to divides.
• By 6 weeks after fertilization, all the major organs are beginning to grow.
• By 8 weeks, the tiny embryo has muscles and starts to move.
• By 10 or 11 weeks, all of the organs are in place, and the embryo is now called a fetus.
• From now on, the fetus grows steadily, until about 38 weeks after fertilization, when it is
ready to be born.
Birth
• A few weeks before birth, the fetus usually turns over in the uterus, so the head will be
lying downwards just above the opening of the cervix.
• Birth begins when the strong muscles in the wall of the uterus start to contract. This is
called labour.
• This stretch the muscles of the cervix, and the amniotic sac breaks at this stage.
• The amniotic sac breaks, releasing the amniotic fluid.
• Muscles in the uterus wall contract to push the baby out while the cervix dilates.
• The baby exits the mother through the vagina.
• The umbilical cord, which is still attached to the baby, is cut and tied.
Breast feeding
During pregnancy the mammary glands enlarge and become prepared to secrete milk
Shortly after birth, the mother will be stimulated to release milk due to the sucking action of
the baby at the breast
Some mothers struggle to breastfeed successfully and so may feed the baby using formula
milk in a bottle
Puberty
The time when a person approaches sexual maturity is called adolescence.
Sperm production begins in boy, and ovulation in a girl.
Secondary sexual characteristics are brought about by hormones. Testosterone
produced in the testes and estrogens produced in the ovaries.
The menstrual cycle
• One egg is released into the oviduct every month in an adult women.
• Before the egg is released, the lining of the uterus becomes thick and spongy, to
prepare itself for fertilized egg cell (ready to supply the embryo with food and
oxygen if it should arrive.
• If the egg is not fertilized, it is dead by the time it reaches the uterus. It doesn't’t
sink into the spongy wall, but continues onwards, down the vagina.
• As the spongy uterus lining is not needed now, it gradually disintegrates, and
also lost through the vagina. This is called menstruation, or period.
• After menstruation, the lining of the uterus builds up again, to be ready for the
next egg if it is fertilized.
The menstrual cycle
• Starts in early adolescence in girls (around age 12) and is controlled by hormones
• The average menstrual cycle is 28 days long
• Ovulation (the release of an egg) occurs about halfway through the cycle (day 14) and
the egg then travels down the oviduct to the uterus
• Failure to fertilise the egg causes menstruation (commonly called a period) to occur – this
is caused by the breakdown of the thickened lining of the uterus
• Menstruation lasts around 5 – 7 days and signals the beginning of the next cycle
• After menstruation finishes, the lining of the uterus starts to thicken again in preparation for
possible implantation in the next cycle
Hormonal control of the menstrual cycle
Estrogen is not the only female sex hormone. The ovaries also produce progesterone during
certain stages of the menstrual cycle, and during pregnancy.
The secretion of these hormones is controlled by two other hormones secreted by the
pituitary gland called LH and FSH.
1. First, a follicle develops inside an ovary to mature the egg. The development of the
follicle is stimulated by FSH.
2. The developing of the follicles secretes estrogen, and the concentration in the blood
steadily increase. The estrogen makes the lining of the uterus to grow thick and spongy.
3. Throughout this time, the pituitary gland secretes FSH and LH. These hormones
stimulate the follicle to keep on secreting estrogen.
4. When the follicle is fully develop (on day 13), there is a surge in the production of LH.
This cause ovulation to take place.
5. The now empty follicle stops secreting estrogen and it becomes a corpus
luteum.
6. The corpus luteum starts to secrete progesterone and the level of FSH and LH
fall.
7. Progesterone keeps the lining thick and spongy and well supplied with blood, in
case the egg is fertilized.
8. If it is not fertilized, the corpus luteum gradually disappears. Stopping the
secretion of progesterone and the lining of the uterus breaks down (menstruation).
The menstrual cycle is regulated by four hormones
● FSH - Follicle stimulating hormone triggers the development of an egg cell in the
ovary, and also stimulates estrogen production in the ovaries. This is produced in
the pituitary gland.
● LH - Luteinising hormone triggers an egg to be released, as well as stimulating
progesterone production in the ovaries.
● Progesterone - Progesterone is responsible for maintaining the thick uterus
lining in the cycle and during pregnancy. It also decreases FSH production.
● Estrogen - Stimulates LH production, whilst decreasing FSH production.
The menstrual cycle is regulated by four hormones
At the beginning of the cycle, levels of FSH and LH are high to stimulate egg
production and cause the production of estrogen which thickens the uterus lining.
When the egg is released, the levels of LH, FSH and estrogen decrease, whilst
progesterone is released to maintain the uterus lining.
If the egg is not fertilized, progesterone levels decrease and the uterus lining
breaks down, causing menstruation.
Summary of sexual
development
MALE FEMALE
AT BIRTH Testes have descended into scrotal
sac but they do not make sperms
Ovaries containing immature eggs
present in abdomen but they do
yet not produce eggs yet
12-14
years
PUBERTY
45-50
70-75
Summary of sexual
development
MALE FEMALE
AT BIRTH Testes have descended into scrotal
sac but they do not make sperms
Ovaries containing immature eggs
present in abdomen but they do
yet not produce eggs yet
PITUITARY GLAND PITUITARY GLAND
12-14
years Ovaries
Testes
PUBERTY
Male sex hormones Female sex hormones
(androgens) (oestrogens)
Testes start producing Ovaries start producing eggs.
sperms. Secondary sexual Secondary sexual
characteristics, eg growth of characteristics, eg. growth of
body hair, breaking of voice breasts, fat in thighs
45-50
70-75
Summary of sexual
development
MALE FEMALE
AT BIRTH Testes have descended into scrotal
sac but they do not make sperms
Ovaries containing immature eggs
present in abdomen but they do
yet not produce eggs yet
PITUITARY GLAND PITUITARY GLAND
12-14 Gonad-stimulating hormones Gonad-stimulating hormones
years
Testes Ovaries
PUBERTY
Male sex hormones Female sex hormones
(androgens) (oestrogens)
Testes start producing Ovaries start producing eggs.
sperms. Secondary sexual Secondary sexual
characteristics, eg growth of characteristics, eg. growth of
body hair, breaking of voice breasts, fat in thighs
45-50 MENOPAUSE
Ovaries stop producing eggs
70-75
Summary of sexual
development
MALE FEMALE
AT BIRTH Testes have descended into scrotal
sac but they do not make sperms
Ovaries containing immature eggs
present in abdomen but they do
yet not produce eggs yet
PITUITARY GLAND PITUITARY GLAND
12-14 Gonad-stimulating hormones Gonad-stimulating hormones
years
Testes Ovaries
PUBERTY
Male sex hormones Female sex hormones
(androgens) (oestrogens)
Testes start producing Ovaries start producing eggs.
sperms. Secondary sexual Secondary sexual
characteristics, eg growth of characteristics, eg. growth of
body hair, breaking of voice breasts, fat in thighs
45-50 MENOPAUSE
Ovaries stop producing eggs
70-75 Testes stop making sperms
“Approximately once a month
from puberty to the
menopause, the human
female experiences a
menstrual cycle. This is part
of a cycle of events which
occurs inside her body”
The Menstrual Cycle
Menstruation
Uterus lining Graafian
develops follicle
Ovulation
The Menstrual Cycle
Menstruation
Uterus lining Graafian
develops follicle
Ovulation
The Menstrual Cycle
The cycle starts with
menstruation. During this time
the uterus lining breaks down
and passes out through the
vagina. This is known as
menstrual bleeding, or having a
‘period’.
The Menstrual Cycle
Menstruation
Uterus lining Graafian
develops follicle
Ovulation
The Menstrual Cycle
Thousands of immature eggs
are present in the ovaries.
Following menstruation, one
develops within a protective
structure called the Graafian
follicle. Development takes
about 14 days.
The Menstrual Cycle
Menstruation
Uterus lining Graafian
develops follicle
Ovulation
The Menstrual Cycle
After about 14 days the follicle
moves to the edge of the ovary
and the mature egg pops out
into the oviduct. This process is
called ovulation.
The Menstrual Cycle
Menstruation
Uterus lining Graafian
develops follicle
Ovulation
The Menstrual Cycle
During the time the lining of the
uterus has been thickening, with
many blood vessels. If the egg
has been fertilised then it will
become embedded in the lining
and the pregnancy will continue.
If not, then menstruation occurs
….
The Menstrual Cycle
The whole menstrual cycle is
controlled by hormones (special
chemical messengers in the
blood).
The Menstrual Cycle
The pituitary gland, at the
base of the brain, releases a
hormone (FSH, or follicle
stimulating hormone), which
causes the follicle to develop in
the ovary.
The Menstrual Cycle
The ovary produces oestrogen
which causes the lining of the
uterus to re-build after
menstruation.
The Menstrual Cycle
At the time of ovulation the
ovary produces another
hormone, progesterone, which
causes the uterus to become
thicker and full of blood vessels.
The Menstrual Cycle
If the egg is not fertilised then
production of the two hormones
stops, and menstruation
continues.
The Menstrual Cycle
If the woman becomes pregnant
then the ovary continues to
produce progesterone and the
lining remains intact and builds
up further. The periods will stop
during pregnancy.
Pregnancy
Placenta
Umbilical
cord
Amniotic sac
Amnion
Foetus
Pregnancy
The amnion is a thin
membrane that
surrounds the
developing embryo.
Pregnancy
The membrane
encloses a cavity
called the amniotic
cavity, filled with a
watery amniotic fluid.
Pregnancy
The amniotic fluid
protects the foetus
from bumping and
damage as the
mother moves
around
Pregnancy
The placenta is attached
to the lining of the uterus.
It has numerous finger-like
projections called villi.
Pregnancy
The placenta is attached
to the lining of the uterus.
It has numerous finger-like
projections called villi.
Blood space
Placent Capillary in
a villus
Umbilical Umbilical
artery vein
Foetu
s
Pregnancy
The foetus’s blood and the mother’s blood
never mix. Instead, they come very close,
and are separated by a very thin membrane.
At birth, the placenta is delivered shortly
after the baby.
Blood space
Placent Capillary in
a villus
Umbilical Umbilical
artery vein
Foetu
s
Pregnancy
After about nine
months the uterus
(womb) will undergo
contractions. This is
called labour. The
amniotic sac will
become ruptured
(breaking of the
waters) and shortly
afterwards the baby
will be born.
Birth Control
Birth control methods are important in keeping family sizes small and in limiting
the increase in human population
Humans can use mechanical, chemical, surgical and natural contraceptive methods
to prevent a pregnancy
Some birth control methods also give protection from sexually transmitted
infections
Natural
Abstinence
avoiding sexual intercourse completely
Rhythm method
avoiding sexual intercourse during the fertile period of the menstrual cycle
when ovulation occurs
Chemical
Chemicals called spermicides can be used to kill sperm when they enter the
vagina.
The use of sex hormones to disturb the menstrual cycle. The contraceptive pills
which stops the eggs from being released in the ovaries.
An IUD (intra-uterine device) that is placed inside the uterus. These devices
release hormones to prevent implantation
Mechincal methods (Barrier)
These all work by preventing sperm from reaching the egg
Condom
latex sheath worn over the penis
prevents sperm entering the vagina as ejaculate remains in condom
also protects against STIs
Femidom
latex sheath inserted into the vagina
prevents entry of sperm into the vagina
Diaphragm
a rubber cap that fits over the entrance to the cervix
prevents entry of sperm into uterus
often used with a spermicide (cream which kills sperm)
Surgical
Vasectomy
the sperm ducts are cut, meaning that no sperm is present in the semen when
ejaculation occurs
very effective but difficult to reverse
Female sterilisation (tubal ligation)
the oviducts are cut or tied off, preventing eggs from reaching the uterus or
sperm from reaching the eggs
very effective but difficult to reverse
Increasing fertility
Fertility treatments
On the other hand, there are also people who would like to have children who
have difficulty becoming pregnant. In vitro fertilization (IVF) and artificial
insemination (AI) are two fertility treatments which can solve this:
● IVF - If fertilization cannot occur due to the sperm count or
quality being too low, the egg cell can be fertilized outside of the body and then
be implanted back into the uterus.
● AI - sperm is directly inserted into the uterus. This sperm
can be from the partner, or from a sperm bank if their sperm is not of a high
enough quality.
STI
Unprotected sexual intercourse can lead to the transfer of pathogens via exchange
of body fluids
Infections passed on in this way are known as sexually transmitted infections
(STIs)
An example of an STI is HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus), the virus that
usually leads to the development of acquired immunodeficiency disease (AIDS)
HIV can also be spread via sharing needles with an infected person, blood
transfusions with infected blood and from mother to fetus through the placenta and
mother to baby via breastfeeding
Content
Section 3
a) Reproduction
Reproduction - Flowering plants
and - Humans
Inheritance
b) Inheritance
