Chapter 4

Memory & Forgetting

Memory
Activity
1. What is a memory?
 Meaning & Processes of Memory

Ψ Memory is the retention of information/what is learned earlier over

time.

Ψ is way in which we record the past for later use in the present.

Memory

Ψ is a blanket label for a large number of processes that form the

bridges between our past and our present.

Ψ To learn about the nature of memory, it is useful to separate the

process from the structure. A process by which we encode,

Processes of Memory

Memory processes are the mental activities we perform to put

information into memory, to keep it there, & to make use of it later. It
involves 3 basic steps:

a) Encoding: the word Encoding has been taken from computer

science, the term encoding refers to the form (i.e. the code) in which
an item of information is to be placed in memory.
 It is the process by which information is initially recorded in a form
usable to memory.
 In encoding we transform a sensory input into a form or a memory
code that can be further processed.
b) Storage: t o be remembered the encoded experience must leave
some record in the nervous system (the memory trace)
 it must be squirreled/ shikako away & held in some more or less
enduring form for later use.
 is what specialists mean placing information in storage.

 is the location which material is saved in memory system. Storage

is the persistence of information in memory.
c) Retrieval: is the point at which one tries to remember to dredge up a particular
memory trace from among all the others we have stored.

Failure to remember can result from problems during any of the 3 phases of the
memory process. For Eg.

 If you encode a new item of information only as a sound pattern, there would be
no memory trace of its meaning.

 If both the sound & the meaning were encoded & held for the length of the
retention interval, the item might have been misfiled in memory.

 If so, the item might be impossible to retrieve even though it is still stored in
memory.

Ψ Memory is the process by which information is encoded, stored & later

retrieved.
 Structures/ Stages of Memory

Ψ Structure/stages of memory: indicates how information is represented in memory,

how long it lasts & how it is organized.

Ψ Among the numbers of models of memory Richard Atkinson & Shiffrin (1971)

models are the best. According to Richard Atkinson & Shiffrin there are 3 models

of memory;

1. Sensory /Register (SM)

2. Short-Term memory (STM)

3. Long- Term memory (LTM)

 How do these memory structures differ?
Each of the 3 (Sensory /Register, Short-Term memory & Long- Term
memory) structures of memories are different due to the following
reasons.

Ψ The content of information

Ψ The capacity & duration of information

Ψ The way information is stored

Ψ The causes of information loss

1) Sensory Memory/Register: It is the entry way to memory.
 is the first information storage area.
 acts as a holding bin, retaining information until we can select items for
attention from the stream of stimuli bombarding our senses.
 gives us a brief time to decide whether information is extraneous or
important.
 includes a number of separate subsystems, as many as there are
senses.
 can hold virtually all the information reaching our senses for a brief
time.
 For eg. visual images (Iconic memory) remain in the visual system for
a maximum of one second.
 Auditory images (Echoic memory) remain in the auditory system for a
Ψ The information stored in sensory memory is a fairly accurate

representation of the environmental information but unprocessed.

Ψ Most information briefly held in the sensory memory simply decays

from the register.

Ψ some of the information that has got attention & recognition pass on

short-term memory for further processing.

 2. Short-term Memory (STM)
 is part of our memory that holds the contents of our attention.
 short-term memories are not brief replicas of the environmental
message.
 consist of the by-products or end results of perceptual analysis.
 is important in a variety of tasks such as thinking, reading,
speaking,& problem solving.
 Various terms used to refer to the stage of short-term memory, such
as;
Ψ working memory
Ψ immediate memory
Ψ active memory&
 Short term memory has 4 characteristics
i. active- the information is only as long as the person is consciously
processing, examining, or manipulating.

ii. Rapidly accessible- is readily available for use.

iii. Preserves/keep the temporal sequence of information- to maintain

the information in sequential manner for a temporary period of
time.

iv. Limited capacity- short-term memory can handle at any one time is

small.
 Ways of Retention of information in STM
1. Chunking: the process of organizing information into smaller groupings
Eg 1. How many of these letters do you remember? U-D-F-O-E-S-R-B-M-T-A-C-I-N-V

Eg. 1 vowels U, E, O, A 2. Consonants D-F-S-R-B-M-T-C-I-N-V

Eg 2. How many of these abbreviation do you remember? USA-DRC-FBI-OMN-ETV

1. Medias- OMN-ETV 2. Others- USA-DRC-FBI

2. Rehearsal
a) Maintenance rehearsal: repeating information mentally or out loud (e.g., a
person‘s name, e-mail address, or phone number)

b) Material/ Elaborative/ to be listed/ rehearsal: involves associating the information

to different things & persons.

 3. Long Term Memory- is a memory system used for the relatively permanent

storage of meaningful information.

 The capacity of LTM seems to have no practical limits.

 enables us to learn, get around in the environment, & build a sense of identity &

personal history.

 stores information for indefinite periods i.e it may last for days, months, years, or

even a lifetime.
 The information in LTM is the composed of declarative & non-declarative sub-

systems:

1. Declarative/ explicit memory (documented)- the conscious recollection of

information such as specific facts or events that can be verbally communicated. It

is further subdivided into semantic & episodic memories.

a) Semantic memory- factual knowledge like the meaning of words, concepts

& our ability to do math.

 are internal representations of the world, independent of any particular

context.

b) Episodic memory- memories for events & situations from personal

experience.

 are internal representations of personally experienced

2. Non-declarative/ implicit memory (non-documented)- refers to a variety of

phenomena of memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without that

experience being consciously recollected.

 One of the most important kinds of implicit memory is procedural memory.

 It is about the how to knowledge of procedures or skills:

Eg. Knowing how to comb your hair, use a pencil, or swim.

 Serial Position Effect in LTM
 The three-box model of memory is often invoked/requested to explain interesting
phenomenon called the serial position effect.
 If you are shown a list of items & you are then asked immediately to recall them,
your retention will depend on its position in the list.
Eg. teacher, radio, alarm, sugar, blanket, hospital, freedom, election
There are effect of primacy, Recency & U-shaped in Serial Position in LTM.
1. Primacy is the ability to remember items at the beginning of the list. Eg. Teacher
from the above lists.
2. Recency is the ability to remember items at the end of the list. Eg. Election- from
the above lists
3. U-shaped-When our retention of all the items is plotted, the result will be a U-
shaped curve. Eg. 3, 1, 8, 2, 4, 6, 5- when we remember numbers sequentially.
According to the three-box model (the beginning, the middle & the end),
 The beginning box model- the first few items on a list are remembered well
because short-term memory was relatively empty when they entered, so these
items did not have to compete with others to make it into long term memory. They
were thoroughly processed, so they remain memorable.
 The end box model- the last few items are remembered for a different reason: At
the time of recall, they are still sitting in short-term memory.
 The middle box model- the items in the middle of the list, however, are not so well
retained because of the time they get into short-term memory, it is already
crowded.
Ψ As a result many of these items drop out of short-term memory before they can be
stored in long-term memory.
 Factors Affecting Memory
Good memory involves a process of learning/encoding, retention/storing &
remembering/retrieving.
There are 11 Factors that Influence Memory Process in Human:
1. Ability to retain: depends upon good memory traces/consecutively left in the
brain by past experiences.
2. Good health: A person with good health can retain better than a person with
poor health.
3. Age of the learner: Youngsters can remember better than the aged.
4. Maturity: Very young children cannot retain & remember complex material.
5. Willingness to remember: Willingness to remember helps for better retention.
6. Intelligence/ mind: more intelligent person will have better memory than a dull

person.

7. Interest: If a person has more interest, he will learn & retain better.

8. Over/good learning: Experiments have proved that over learning lead to better

memory.

9. Speed of learning: Quicker learning leads to better retention,

10. Meaningfulness of the material: Meaningful materials remain in our memory for

longer period than for nonsense material.

11. Sleep or rest: Sleep or rest immediately after learning strengthens connections

in the brain & helps for clear memory.

 Forgetting
 Forgetting- is the apparent loss of information encoded & stored in LTM.
 Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/1913) is the German Psychologist who studied
about forgetting memorized lists of 3 letter non-sense syllables
meaningless sets of 2 consonants with a vowel in between, eg. FIW &
BOZ.
 He found that forgetting occurred systematically.
 The most rapid forgetting occurs in the 1st hrs particularly in the 1st
hour.
 After 9 hrs, the rate of forgetting slows & declines little, even after the
passage of many days.
 Accordingly; there is almost always a strong initial decline in memory,
followed by a more gradual drop over time.
 Theories/Mechanisms of Forgetting
There are 5 mechanisms/theories of forgetting: decay, replacement of
old memories by new ones, interference, motivated, & cue dependent
forgetting.
1. The Decay theory- means forgetting due to memory traces or
engram fade with time if they are not accessed now & then.
 the trace simply fades away with nothing left behind, b/se of passage
of time.
 occurs in sensory memory & STM, unless we rehearse the
information.
 the mere passage of time does not account for forgetting in LTM.
 Forgetting is that happened only yesterday while remembering
2. Interference theory- forgetting b/se similar items of information interfere with one
another in either storage or retrieval.
 is forgetting due to confusion of the information when it get into memory.
 There are proactive & retroactive kinds of Interferences in forgetting.
1. Proactive- if earlier/old information interferes to recall the new information.
Eg. old password interferes with the new password.
2. Retroactive-if the new information interferes the ability to remember old
information.
Eg. new phone number interferes with old one.
3. New for Old Memory/ Displacement theory- forgetting due to the new information
entering wipe out old information from the memory. Eg. Encode 994 & 909 later.
 mostly associated with STM, b/se the capacity for information is limited to 7+ or -

chunks.
 cannot be associated with the LTM because of its virtually unlimited capacity.
4. Motivated forgetting theory-
 is block of too threatening/painful memory from consciousness; are called self-
protective process Repression (Sigmund Freud).
 Today many psychologists prefer to use a more general term, motivated
forgetting.
5. Cue dependent forgetting theory- is lack cues, items of information that can help
us find the specific information we‘re looking for.
 is lack retrieval cues, clues that we feel as we lost in the mind‘s library.
 In LTM, Cue dependent forgetting may be the most common type of all.
 Cue is the present context match with the past.
 Cue is the initial stage of learning helps to recall the content of the specific lear in
easy manner.
 mental or physical state act as a retrieval cue, evoking a state dependent
memory.
 Improving Memory
A better approach/guidelines to improve memory are as follow.
1. Pay Attention: do something to remember, you will do better if you
encode it.
2. Encode information in more than one way: elaborate the encoding of
information in different methods.
3. Add meaning: meaningful material link up with information already in
long-term memory.
4. Take your time: minimize interference by break/Sleep for rest or
recreation.
5. Over learn: Study information even after you think & you already know
it.
6. Monitor your learning: test yourself frequently, rehearse thoroughly, &
review periodically, you will have a better idea of how you are doing
 Chapter 5
Motivation & Emotion
Motivation- comes from the Latin word mover‘, which means to move.
 is a factor for activities started, directed & continued to meet
physical/psychological needs.
 is something moves people to do the things they do. Eg. Hungry is a factor for
cooking food. The physical need for hunger causes the action (getting up), directs
it (going to the kitchen), & sustain the search (finding or preparing something to
eat).
There are 2 categorizes for motivation: Intrinsic & Extrinsic motivation.
1. Intrinsic motivation is when person acts because the act itself is rewarding or
satisfying in some internal manner. Eg. Reading a book.
2. Extrinsic motivation is when individuals act because the action leads to an
outcome that is external to a person. eg. giving a child money for every A‘ on a
report card.
 Approaches/ theories of motivation
There are 6 theories i n motivation:- instinct, drive-reduction, arousal, incentive, cognitive,
& humanistic.

1. Instinct/natural theory of motivation

 is the earliest theory of motivation focused on the biologically determined & innate patterns
of both humans & animals behavior.
 Animals & human beings are governed by their instincts/nature to do things like migrating,
shelter building, mating & protecting their territory. According to this theory the humans
instinct to:
 Reproduce is responsible for sexual behavior
 Protect territory may be related to aggressive behavior.
 The instincts in humans are curiosity/gugut, flight (running away), pugnacity
(aggressiveness), & acquisition (gaining resources).
 It is to realize that some human behavior is controlled by hereditary factors.
 2. Drive-Reduction theory of motivation
 involved the concepts of needs & drives as a requirement of some basic material (food/
water) that is essential for the survival of the organism.
 psychological tension & physical arousal to fulfill the need & reduce the tension is
called drive.
 Drive-reduction theory proposes the connection between internal psychological states
& outward behavior. There are 2 kinds of drives; primary & secondary drives.
1) Primary drives- are drives for survival needs of the body such as hunger & thirst
2) Secondary drives- are drives learned through experience/conditioning, like need for
money.
 includes the concept of homeostasis, or the tendency of body to maintain a steady-
state.
 homeostasis keeps the constant level of the body‘s functions.
 When there is a primary drive need, the body is in a state of imbalance. This stimulates
behavior that brings the body back into balance or homeostasis.
3. Arousal theory: beyond drive reduction & to maintain or increase excitement/shock.
 each person tries to maintain/ increase the too low levels of stimulation & activity, we
will try to increase them by seeking stimulation.
4. Incentive theory: motivation‘s pull
 the desire to attain external rewards, is called incentives.
 the desirable external stimuli: like grades, money, love / affection & food account for a
person‘s motivation.
 the push of internal drives in drive-reduction, & the pull of external incentives in
incentive theory.
 Hence, at the same time that we seek to satisfy our underlying hunger needs (the push
of drive-reduction), we are drawn to food that appears very appetizing (the pull of
incentive).
 drives & incentives may work together in motivating behavior.
 4. Cognitive theory: the thoughts behind motivation

 In cognitive theory motivation is a result of people‘s thoughts, beliefs, expectations, &

goals.

eg. A study for a test is based on their expectation of how well studying will pay off in

terms of a good grade.

 It draws a key difference between intrinsic & extrinsic motivation.

 Intrinsic motivation - to participate in an activity for our enjoyment rather than for any

actual or concrete reward that it will bring us.

Eg. if you study a lot b/se you love the subject matter, you’re being guided by intrinsic

motivation.

 Extrinsic motivation - to do something for money, a grade, or other actual, concrete

reward.
 6. Humanistic approaches or theory of motivation
 based on the work of Abraham Maslow; who suggested that human behavior is
influenced by a hierarchy, or ranking, of five classes of needs, or motives.
 He said that needs at the lowest level of the hierarchy must be at least partially
satisfied before people can be motivated by the ones at higher levels.
Maslow‘s 5 Hierarchies of needs for motives from the bottom to the top are as follows:
1. Physiological needs- are biological requirements for human survival, e.g. air, food,
drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep.
2. Safety needs- protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from
fear.
3. Love & belongingness needs- after physiological & safety needs have been fulfilled, the
third level of human needs is social and feelings of belongingness others. Examples
include friendship, intimacy, trust, & acceptance, receiving & giving affection & love.
Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).
4. Esteem needs- the need to be respected as a useful, honorable individual; which
Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement,
mastery, and independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others
(e.g., status, prestige).
5. Self-actualization needs- realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal
growth and peak experiences. A desire to become everything one is capable of
becoming. The following figure shows how our motivation progresses up the pyramid
from the broadest, most fundamental biological needs to higher-order ones.
There are four basic types of motivational conflicts.

1. Approach-approach conflicts of motives- occurs when we must choose only one of

the two desirable activities. Example, going to a movie or a concert.

2. Avoidance-avoidance conflicts of motives- arise when we must select one of t h e

2 undesirable alternatives. Someone forced either to sell the family home or to declare
bankruptcy.

3. Approach-avoidance conflicts of motives- happen when a particular event or

activity has both attractive & unattractive features, eg., a freshman student wants to
start dating but she, at the same time, is worried that this may unduly consume her study
time.

4. Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts of motives- exist when two or more

alternatives each have both positive & negative features. Suppose you must choose
between two jobs.

Eg. One offers a high salary with a well-known company but requires long working hours
& relocation to a miserable climate. The other boasts advancement opportunities, fringe
 II: Emotion
Emotion is Latin word the feeling aspect of consciousness, characterized by certain physical
arousal, behavior that reveals the feeling to the outside world, & an inner awareness of
feelings.
 there are three elements of emotion: the physiology, behavior and subjective
experience.
1. physiology- is physical arousal created by the sympathetic nervous system.
 The heart rate increases, breathing becomes more rapid, the pupils of the eye dilate, &
the mouth may become dry.
2. behavior- are facial expressions, body movements, & actions that indicate how a person
feels. Facial expressions can vary across different cultures, although some aspects of facial
expression seem to be universal.
3. Subjective experience/labeling: is the emotion interpreting the subjective feeling by
giving it a label: anger, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness, shame, interest, surprise & so on.
when the labeling process is a matter of retrieving memories of previous it is cognitive
component of Subjective experience. The label in a subjective feeling is at least in
part of a learned response as language & culture. Such labels may differ in people of d/t
 Theories of emotion

1. James- Lang Theory of Emotion

 James (1884, 1890, 1894) & Lang (1885) 2 names are used together to refer to the James-
Lang theory of emotion. In this theory, a stimulus of some sort (eg. the snarling dog)
produces a physiological reaction. The reaction produces sensations such as increased
heart rate, dry mouth & rapid breathing.

 James & Lang believed that physical arousal led to the labeling of the emotion (fear).
Simply put, afraid due to aroused, embarrassed when face is red, nervous when the stomach
is fluttering.

2. Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

 Cannon & Bard theorized the emotion & the physiological arousal occur more/less at the
same time.

 Cannon is an expert in sympathetic/feeling of sad/ arousal mechanisms, did not feel

that the physical changes aroused by different emotions were distinct enough to allow
 3. Cognitive Arousal Theory of Schechter-Singer
 Schachter-Singer (1962) proposed that two things have to happen before
emotion occurs:
 the physical arousal & labeling of the arousal base on cues from the
surrounding environment.
 These two things happen at the same time, resulting in the labeling of
the emotion. For eg. if a person comes across a snarling dog while taking a walk,
the physical arousal (heart racing, eyes opening wide) is accompanied by the
thought (cognition) that this must be fear.
 Then and only then will the person experience the fear of emotion.
 In other words, I am aroused in the presence of a scary dog; therefore, I must be
afraid.
 Chapter 6
Personality
 is has Greek & Latin roots persona, refers to the theatrical masks worn by Greek actors.
 is the unique pattern of enduring thoughts, feelings, & actions that characterize a person
(as psychologists view).
 it should not be confused with person‘s morals/ ethical behavior; nor with temperament,
the enduring characteristics with which each person is born, such as irritability or
adaptability self agreement.
 However, both character & temperament are vital personalities.
Theories of Personality
 is an area of psychology in which the characteristic behavior of human beings can be
explained. There are 3 theories of personality (a) psychoanalytic, (b) trait & (c) humanistic
theories.
 Psychologists use to investigate personality is depending on the types of personality
theories they take.
 1. The Psychoanalytic theory of personality

 formulated by Sigmund Freud who believed that personality is formed within ourselves,
arising from basic inborn needs, drives, & characteristics.

 He argued that people are in constant conflict between their biological urges (drives) & the
need to tame/suspense them.

 includes a theory of personality structure which has three parts (the id, the ego, & the
superego) which serves a different function & develops at different times.

 According to Freud, the three parts of personality interact with one another & determines
the personality of an individual. 0918055874
I. Structure of personality
 Freud held that personality consisted of 3 separate, but interacting components.
 They represent aspects of personality that describe the interaction of various processes &
forces.
 The components are: the Id, the Ego & the Super Ego are not actual physical structures
found in certain part of the brain.
 A. Id: If it feels good, do it
 is the first & most primitive part of the personality in infant.
 is a Latin word that means “it”.
 is unconscious amoral part of the personality that exists at birth, containing all of
the basic biological drives; eg. hunger, thirst, aggression.
 When these drives are active, the person will feel an increase in physical &
psychological tension that Freud called it libido, the instinctual energy that may
come into conflict with the demands a society‘s standards for behavior.
 When libidinal energy is high, it is unpleasant for the person, so the goal is to
reduce libido by fulfilling the drive; Eat when hungry, drink when thirsty.
 is the desire for immediate satisfaction of needs with no regard for the
consequences.
 The pleasure principle can be summed up simply as if it feels good, do it.
 B. The Ego: The Executive/performing/ Director
 is the second part of personality & is Latin word for “I”,
 is mostly conscious & is far more rational, logical & cunning/smart than the id.
 works on the reality principle, which is the need to satisfy the demands of the id &
reduce libido only in ways that will not lead to negative consequences. “if it feels
good, do it, but only if you can get away with it” is reality principle.
 The ego decides to deny the id & its drives because the consequence would be
painful or too unpleasant. Eg, pry/secret the object out of the baby‘s hands, with
the baby protesting mightily all the while.
 C. The Superego: The moral watchdog/guard

 is the third & final part & the moral center of personality.

 Latin word meaning over the self develops as a preschool aged child learns the rules,

customs, & expectations of the society.

 It has: the ego ideal & the conscience/mind/ parts.

 The ego-ideal part is a kind of measuring device.

1. The ego-ideal part is the ideal/ correct & acceptable behavior that the child has learned

about from parents & others in the society. All behavior is held up to this standard &

judged by the conscience.

2. The conscience is part of the personality that makes people pride when they do the right &

guilt/moral anxiety when they do the wrong things.

 Defense Mechanisms
 personality is the outcome of the continual battle for dominance among the id, the ego, &
the superego. The conflict is managed by psychological defense mechanisms.
 Defense mechanisms are unconscious tactics that either prevent threatening material from
surfacing or hiding it when it does. Some of the psychological defense mechanisms are.
1. Repression- involves banishing/ moving threatening thoughts, feelings, & memories into the
unconscious mind. Eg: an husband who is defeated by his wife will not remember/ talk it out
again.
2. Denial: is refusal to recognize/acknowledge a threatening situation. Eg; Mr. X is an alcoholic
who denies/ unaccepting being an alcoholic.
3. Regression: involves reverting to immature behaviors that have relieved anxiety in the
past. Eg: a girl/a boy who has just entered school may go back to sucking her/his thumb or
wetting the bed.
4. Displacement: expressing feelings toward a person who is less threatening than the person
who is the true target of those feelings. Eg: Hating your boss but taking it out on family
members.
5. Rationalization: giving socially acceptable reasons for one's inappropriate behavior.
Eg: make bad grades but states the reason as being knowledge rather than grade oriented; &
grades only showing superficial/mere learning.
6. Projection: attribution/manifest of one's undesirable feelings to other people.
Eg: a paranoid/abnormal person uses projection to justify isolation & anger.
7. Reaction formation: involves a tendency to act in a manner opposite to one's true feelings.
Eg: a person who acts conservation but focuses on violence in their behavior.
8. Sublimation: expressing behavior through indirect, socially acceptable outlets/exits.
Eg: an aggressive person who loves playing football.
Defense mechanism is not considered as inappropriate or unhealthy unless we rely on them to
an extreme level, are to manage conflict & stress, may not be possible to get through life
without such defenses, but, excessive use may create more stress than it alleviates.
 2. The Trait/behavior/character theory of personality
In trait theory personality is a combination of stable internal characteristics that people
display consistently over time & across situations.
 there are 3 assumptions made by trait theory to personality. Personality traits are:
1. relatively stable, & therefore predictable, over time. So a gentle person tends to stay the
same way across time.
2. relatively stable across situations based on activity. A person who is competitive at work will
probably also be competitive on the tennis court or at a party.
3. People differ in how much of a particular personality trait they possess; no two people are
exactly alike on all traits. The result is an endless variety of unique personalities.
The five trait dimensions are
i. Openness refers to willingness to try new things & be open to new experiences.
ii. Conscientiousness is a person‘s organization & motivation, with people who score high in
the dimension being those who are careful about being in places on time & careful with
belongings as well.
iii. Extraversion is a term first used by Carl Jung, who believed that all people could be divided
into two personality types: extraverts (are outgoing/gilts & sociable) & introverts non-sociable
(are more solitary /single & dislike being the center of attention).
iv. Agreeableness is the basic emotional style of a person, who may be easygoing, friendly &
pleasant or grumpy, crabby & hard to get along with.
V. Neuroticism is emotional instability or stability.
People who are excessively worried, over anxious & moody would score high on this
dimension, whereas those who are more even-tempered & calm could score low.
 3. Humanistic theory of personality

 Founded by Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers who focused on the things that make people

uniquely human, such as subjective/personal emotions & the freedom to choose one‘s

destiny.
 Abraham Maslow‘s theory discussed that People were considered to be healthy, creative, &
productive, motivational processes lie at the core of personality development.

They are 5 hierarchy of needs in human; these needs are

1. Physiological needs,
2. safety & security needs,
3. belongingness & love needs,
4. self-esteem needs, &
5. self-actualization needs.
 Carl Rogers & Self-Concept

 the humanistic theory of personality focus on the theory of Carl Rogers in Chapter 6.

 Like Maslow, Rogers believed that human beings are always striving to fulfill their innate

capacities & capabilities & to become everything that their genetic potential will allow

them to become. This striving for fulfillment is called self-actualizing tendency.

 An important tool in human self-actualization is the dev’t of an image of oneself/the self-

concept.

 Self-concept is based on what people are told by others & how the sense of self is reflected

in the words & actions of important people (parents, siblings, coworkers, friends, &

teachers) in one‘s life.

 There are two components of self-concept
i. the real self is one‘s actual perception of characteristics, traits, & abilities that form the
basis of the striving for self-actualization.
ii. the ideal self is the perception of what one should be or would like to be. It primarily
comes from those important, significant others in one‘s life, most often the parents
sometimes teachers.
Rogers believed that when the real self & the ideal self are very close or similar to each other,
people feel competent & capable, but when there is a mismatch between the real & ideal
selves, anxiety & neurotic behavior can be the result.
 The two halves of the self are more likely to match if they aren‘t that far apart at the start.
 When one has a realistic view of the real self, & the ideal self is attainable, there usually
isn‘t a problem of a mismatch.
 It is when a person‘s view of real self is distorted or the ideal self is impossible to

attain that problems arise.

 Once again, it is primarily how the important people in a person‘s life react to the

person that determines the degree of agreement between the real & the ideal

selves.
 Carl Rogers & Conditional & Unconditional Positive Regard
 Positive regard is a warmth, affection/love, & respect that comes from the
significant others in people‘s experience.
 Positive is vital to people‘s ability to cope/enduring with stress & to strive to
achieve self-actualization.
 Rogers believed that Unconditioned positive regard, or love/affection & respect
with no strings/ rope attached, is necessary for people to be able to explore/search
fully all that they can achieve & become.
 Conditional positive regard is love/affection, respect & warmth that is given by
parents, spouses/owners, & friends depend, or seem to depend, on doing what
those people want.
 Although self-actualization & to be fully functioning‘ are highly related concepts, there are
some subtle differences.
 Self-actualization is a goal that people are always striving to reach, according to Maslow
(1987).
 In Rogers's view, only a person who is fully functioning is capable of reaching the goal of
self-actualization.
 To be fully functioning is a necessary step in the process of self-actualization.
 Maslow (1987) listed several people that he considered to be self-actualized people:
Albert Einstein, Mahatma Gandhi, & Eleanor Roosevelt. These were people that
Maslow found to have the self-actualized qualities of being creative, autonomous &
unprejudiced/fair justiceful. We may add Nelson Mandela of South Africa to this list.
 In Roger's view, these same people would be seen as having trusted their true feelings
and innermost needs rather than just going along with the crowd, a description that
certainly seems to apply in these three cases.