ECOLOGY

• The meaning of the word

ecology was given by
German Biologist
Haeckel in 1869.
• The word ecology is
derived from Greek
words ‘Oikos’ meaning
house, habitat or place
of living and ‘Logos’
meaning to study.

• After that…. Danish

botanist, Eugenius
Warming elaborated
the idea of Ecology.
Definition
Ecology is of interactions
the study among
organism or The
environment. group organismswit
environment h both
consists of
biotic ofcomponents (living organisms)
their and abiotic
components (non – living organisms).
Ecology is study of
interactions between
Non-living components in the
environment…
Light
Wate
r
Wind
Nutrients in
soil Heat
Solar radiation
Atmosphere,
etc.
Living
organisms…
Plants
Anima
ls
Microo
rganis
ms in
soil,
etc.
 Ecosystem
The term Ecosystem
was first proposed
by A.G. Tansley in
1935.
An ecosystem consists
of the
biological community
that occurs in some
locale, and the
physical and
chemical factors
that make up its non-
living environment.
There are many
examples of
Ecosystem is the basic functional unit of
Ecology.
Definition
A group of organisms interacting among
themselves and with environment is known as
ecosystem. Thus an ecosystem is a community of
different species interacting with one another and
with their non living environment exchanging energy
and matter.
Ecology is the study of ecosystems.
Example
Animals cannot synthesis their food directly
but depend on the plants either directly or
 STRUCTURE OF AN ECOSYSTEM
The term structure refers to the various
components of an ecosystem.
An ecosystem has two major components
• Biotic (living) components
• Abiotic (non living) components

• Biotic components
The living organisms (or) living
members in an ecosystem
collectively called biotic components (or)
biotic community.
Ex: Plants, Animals,
 Classification biotic components
The members of biotic components of an
ecosystem are grouped in to three based on how
they get food.
• Producer (Plants)
• Consumer ( Animals)
• Decomposers (Micro-organisms)
1.Producers
( Autotrophs)
Producers synthesise foo
their themselves through d
photosynthesis
Ex: All green plants, trees.
Photosynthesis
The green pigment called chlorophyll, present
in the leaves of plants,
converts CO2 and H2O in the
presenceof
sunlight into carbohydrates.
6CO2 + 6H2O ----> C6H12O6 + 6O 2
V.S.Saravana Mani, Head
& AP/ Chemistry,
2. Consumers also called as
Heterotrophs: Classification of
consumers
Consumers are further classified as
(i) Primary consumers or
Herbivores or Plant eaters:
Primary consumers are also called herbivores, they
directly depend on the plants for their food. So they
are called plant eaters.
Examples : Insects, rat, goat, deer, cow etc.
(ii) Secondary consumers (primary
carnivores) (Meat eaters):
Secondary consumers are primary carnivores,
they feedconsumers.
primary on They directly depend on
the
herbivores for their food.
Ex: Frog, cat, snakes, small birds, etc.,
(iii) Tertiary consumers (Secondary
carnivores) (Meat- eaters)
Tertiary consumers are secondary carnivores,
they feed on secondary consumers. They depend
on the primary carnivores for their food.
Ex: Hawk, Eagle, Tiger, Lion, etc.,
Omnivore: Organisms that feed both
on plants and animals. Ex: Human,
rat, birds.

Detritivore: They feed on dead organisms,

wastes of living beings and partially
decomposed matter. Ex: Termites,
earthworm, ants etc.
3. Decomposers

Decomposers attack the dead bodies of producers

and consumers, and decompose them into
simpler compounds. During the decomposition
inorganic nutrients are released.
The inorganic nutrients together with other organic
substances are then utilised by
the producers for the synthesis of
 Abiotic (non-living) components
The non-living components (physical and
chemical) of ecosystem collectively form a
community called abiotic components (or) abiotic
community.
Ex: Climate, soil, water, air, energy etc.,
1.Physical components: Include the energy, climate,
nutrients and living space that the biological
community needs. They are useful for the growth
and maintenance of its member.
• Climatic (Sunlight, temperature, humidity, rainfall,
wind)
• Edaphic (soil type, soil moisture, soil reaction)
• Geographic (Latitude, longitude, Altitude)
 2.Chemical Components: They are the sources of
essential nutrients.
• Organic substances : Protein, lipids, carbohydrates, etc.,
• Inorganic substances: All micro ( Al, Co, Zn, Cu) and
macro elements (C, H, O, P, N, P, K) and few other
elements.
 TYPES OF
ECOSYSTEM
Natural ecosystem: These operate themselves under
natural conditions. Based on habitat types, it can be
further classified into three types.
Terrestrial ecosystem: This ecosystem is related to
land.
Ex: Grassland ecosystem, forest ecosystem, desert
ecosystem, etc.,
Aquatic ecosystem: This ecosystem is related to
water. I t is further sub classified into two types
based on salt content.
• Fresh water ecosystem
(a) Running water ecosystems. Ex: Rivers,
Streams…
(b) Standing water ecosystems Ex: Pond, lake…
• Marine ecosystem Ex: Seas and sea shores…
 Limiting Factors

 Factors which restrict the further growth of

population
 Availability of food
 Water
 Shelter
 Space
 FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM
The function of an ecosystem is to allow flow of

energy and cycling of nutrients.

Functions of an ecosystem are of three types.
• Primary function: The primary function of all
ecosystem is manufacture of starch
(photosynthesis).
• Secondary function: The secondary function of all
ecosystem is distribution energy in the form of food
to all consumers.
• Tertiary Function: All living systems die at a
particular stage. These dead systems are
decomposed to initiate third function of ecosystems
 The functioning of an ecosystems may be
understood by
studying the following terms.
• Energy and material flow.

• Food chains

• Food webs

• Food pyramids
 ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEMS
• Energy is the most essential requirement for
all living organisms.
• Solar energy is the only source to our planet
earth.
• Solar energy is transformed to chemical
energy in photosynthesis by the plants
(Primary producers).
• S ome amount ofchemical energy is used
by the plants for their growth
and the remaining is transferred
to consumers by the process of
eating.
• Thus the energy enters the ecosystems
The flow of energy in an ecosystem follows
the laws of thermodynamics.
I law of thermodynamics - “Energy neither can be
created nor destroyed, but it can be converted from
one from to other”.
Energy for an ecosystem comes from the sun. I t is
absorbed by plants, it is converted into chemical
energy. This chemical energy utilised by consumers
transform into heat.
I I law of thermodynamics - “Whenever energy is
transformed, there is a loss of energy through the
release of heat”.
Energy is transferred between tropic levels in the form
of heat as it moves from one tropic level to another
Flow of energy and nutrient cycling from abiotic to biotic and vice versa.
 FOOD CHAINS
Definition
“There sequence of eating and being eaten
in an ecosystem is known as food chain”
(or) “Transfer of food energy from the
plants through a series of organisms is
known as food chain”

• A food chain always starts with plant life and ends

with animal. When the organisms die, they are all
decomposed by microorganism (bacteria and
fungi) into nutrients that can again be used by the
plants.
• At each and every level, nearly 80-90% of the
potential energy gets lost as heat.
 Tropic Levels (T1,T2, T3, T4, T5) (or)
Feeding levels The various steps through
which food
energy
passes in an ecosystem is called as tropic
levels. The tropic levels are arranged in the
following way,
• The green plants or producers represent first
tropic level T1,
• The herbivores or primary consumers
represent second tropic level T2.
• The carnivores or secondary
consumers represent third tropic level
 Food chains are classified into two main
types Grazing food chain
Detritus food chain

• Grazing food chain: Found in Grassland ecosystems

and pond ecosystems. Grazing food chain
starts with green plants (primary producers) and
goes to decomposer food chain
or detritus food chain through herbivores and
carnivores.

• Detritus food chain: Found in Grassland ecosystems

and forest ecosystems. Detritus food chain
starts with dead organic matter (plants and animals)
The following diagram shows that grazing food chain
and detritus food chain are interconnected to each
other but are not isolated.
 FOOD WEB
• The interlocking pattern of various food chains
in an ecosystem is known as food web.
• In a food web many food chains are
interconnected, where different types of organisms
are connected at different tropic
levels, so that there are a number of opportunities
of eating and being eaten at each tropic level.
• Grass may be eaten by insects, rats, deer's, etc.,
these may be eaten by carnivores (snake, fox,
tiger). Thus there is a interlocking of various food
Difference between food chains and food web:
In a linear food chain if one species gets affected
(or) becomes extinct, then the species in the
subsequent tropic levels are also affected. But, in a
food web, if one species gets affected, it doestnot
affect other tropic levels so seriously. There are
number of options available at each tropic level.
 Significance of food chains and food webs
• Food chains and food webs play a very important
role in the ecosystem. Energy flow and nutrient
cycling takes place through them.
• They maintain and regulate the population size
of different tropic levels, and thus help in
maintaining ecological balance.
• They have the property of bio-magnification. The
non – biodegradable materials keep on passing
from one tropic level to another. At each
successive tropic level, the concentration keep on
increasing. This process is known as bio-
magnification.
 ECOLOGICAL
PYRAMIDS
• “Graphical representation of structure and
function of tropic levels of an ecosystem,
starting with producers at the bottom and
successive tropic levels forming the apex is
known as an ecological pyramid.”

• In food chain starting from the producers to the

consumers, there is a regular decrease in the
biomass and number of the organisms.
• Since energy is lost as heat in each tropic
levels, it becomes progressively smaller near
the top.
 Types of Ecological
pyramids
• Pyramid of numbers.
• Pyramid of energy.
• Pyramid of biomass.
 I t represents the number of individual organisms
present in each tropic levels.
Ex: A grassland Ecosystem
• The producers in the grasslands are grasses, which
are in size and large in numbers. So the producers
occupy lower tropic level (1St tropic level).
• The primary consumers (herbivores) are rats, the 2nd
tropic level. Since the number of rats are lower
Compared to the grasses, the size is small.
• The secondary consumers (carnivores) are snakes,
which occupy the 3rd tropic level. Since the
number of snakes are lower when compared to the
rats.
• The tertiary consumers (carnivores) are eagles,
which the next tropic level. The number and size of
Upright
Pyramid
A pyramid of biomass is
a graphical
representation of
biomass present in a
unit area of various
trophic levels. I t shows
the relationship between
biomass and trophic
level quantifying the
biomass available in
each trophic level.
 Pyramid of Biomass
• I t represents the total amount of biomass (mass or
weight of biological material or organism) present in
each tropic levels. Ex: A forest ecosystem
• The above figure shows that there is a decrease in the
biomass from the lower tropic level to the higher
tropic level. This because the trees (producers) are
maximum in the forest, which contribute a huge
biomass. The next tropic levels are herbivores (rabbit,
deer) and carnivores (snakes, fox). Top of the tropic level
contains few tertiary consumers (lion, tiger), the biomass
of which is very low.
Pyramid of Energy
• This pyramid indicates not only the amount of
energy flow at each level, but more importantly, the
actual role the various organisms play in the
transfer of energy.
• An energy pyramid illustrates how much energy is
needed as it flows upwards to support the next
trophic level.
• Always there is a huge loss of energy.
FOREST
ECOSYSTEM
A forest is an area with a high density of trees. A forest
ecosystem is one in which tall trees grow that support
many animals and birds. The forests are found in
undisturbed areas receiving moderate to high
rainfall. The forest occupies nearly 3 1 % of the world’s
land in India it is only 19 % of total land area.
Types of forest ecosystem
Based upon the climate conditions, forests are classified
into
• Tropical Rain forests.
• Tropical deciduous forests.
• Tropical scrub forests.
• Temperate rain forests.
• Temperate deciduous forests.
 Characteristics of forest ecosystems
• Forests are characterised by warm temperature
and adequate rainfall, which make the generation
of number of ponds, lakes etc.,
• The forest maintains climate and rainfall.
• The forest support many wild animals and
protect biodiversity.
• The soil is rich in organic matter and nutrients
which support the growth of trees.
• Since penetration of light is so poor, the
conversion of organic matter into nutrients is
very fast.
Structure and Function of forest ecosystem

I. Abiotic components
The abiotic components include basic inorganic &
organic compounds present in the soil &
atmosphere. In addition minerals, the occurrence of
litter is characteristic
features of majority of forests.

II. Biotic components

1. Producers: In a forest, the producers are mainly
trees produce food by photosynthesis. Apart from
trees, climbers, epiphytes, shrubs and ground
vegetation. Dominant species of trees in forest are
2. Consumers
Primary consumers (herbivores): They directly
depend on the plants for their food.
Ex: Ants, flies, insects, mice, deer, squirrels.
Larger animals such as Elephants, Deer, Giraffe etc.
Secondary consumers (primary carnivores):They
directly depend on the herbivores for their
food.
Ex: Lizards, snakes, birds, fox.
Tertiary consumers :They depend on the primary
carnivores for their food.
Ex: Animals like tiger, lion, etc.,
3. Decomposers
They decompose the dead plant and animal
I t provides numerous environmental
services like; Ø Nutrient cycling,
Ø Maintaining
biodiversity Ø
Providing wildlife habitat
Ø Affecting rainfall
patterns Ø Regulating
stream flow
Ø Storing water
Ø Reducing flooding
Ø Preventing soil erosion
Ø Reclaiming degraded
land & many more….

Apart from environmental values, forest ecosystems

have some traditional values as well.
Ø Fire Wood &
 GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
Grassland occupies about 20% of earth’s surface.
In
addition to grass some trees and shrubs are/also
present in grasslands. Limited grazing helps
to improve the net primary
production of the grasslands. But,
overgrazing leads degradation of these
grasslands resulting in desertification.
Types of grassland ecosystem
Depending upon the climate conditions
grassland are classified into three
types
• Tropical grasslands
 Features of different types of grassland
Tropical grasslands
They are found near the borders of tropical rain
forests. Characterised by high temperature
and moderate rainfall (40 to 100
cm). It is also known as Savanna
type. Tall grasses with scattered shrubs and
stunted trees and animals like zebras, giraffes,
antelopes, etc., are observed here.
Temperate grasslands
They are usually found in the centres of
continents, highly sloped hills. They are
characterised by very cold winters and hot
summers: Intense grazing
and summer fires, do not support shrubs or
 Polar grasslands
They are found in arctic polar regions. They
are characterised by severe cold and
strong winds along with ice and snow. In
summers several small annual plants
grow. There are animals like arctic wolf, weasel,
arctic fox, etc.,

Characteristics of Grassland Ecosystems

• Grassland ecosystem is a plain land occupied by
grasses.
• Soil is very rich in nutrients and organic matter.
• Since it has tall grass, it is ideal place for grazing
animals.
Structure and function of the grassland
Ecosystems Abiotic components: Nutrients,
H, 0, N, P, S, etc.,
These abiotic components are supplied by C02,
H2O, C, Nitrate,
phosphates and sulphates.
Biotic Components
Producers: They produce
food. Ex: Grasses, Herbs
and shrubs. Consumers:.
Primary consumers (herbivores) :They depend on grasses
for their food Ex: Insects, cows, buffaloes, deer, sheep,
etc.,
Secondary consumers (carnivores) :They feed on
herbivores. Examples: Lizards, birds, Snakes, jackals,
fox, etc.,
Importance:
• Grasslands are of vital importance for raising
livestock for human consumption and for milk and
other dairy products
• Grasslands provided home to many different
animals that were hunted and domesticated
• They are used as grazing area for cattle
• They Maintain Biodiversity
• Protects restored habitat for many plants and
animals including pheasant, ducks, songbirds
and endangered species
 DESERT ECOSYSTEMS
Introduction
Desert occupies about 14% of our world’s land
area. I t is characterised by less
than 25 cm rainfall. The
atmosphere is dry and hence it is a poor insulator
.

Types of desert ecosystems

Based on the climatic conditions, deserts are
classified into three types.
• Tropical deserts.
• Temperate deserts.
• Cold deserts.
Features of different types of deserts
Tropical desert is an environment of extremes, it is
the driest and hottest place on earth. Rainfall is
sporadic and in some years no measurable
precipitation falls at all.
•Africa: Sahara desert.
•Rajasthan: Thar desert.

Temperate desert is a barren area of land

where little precipitation occurs (less than 10%),
characterised by very hot summer and very long-
lasting frost in Winter time. Ex: Atacama, Mojave.

Cold deserts have hot summers but

extremelycoldwinters. These are found in
Characteristics of Desert ecosystem
The desert air is dry and the climate is hot.
Annual rainfall is less than 25 cm. The soil is
very poor in nutrients and organic matter,
Vegetation is poor.

Structure and functions of the desert

ecosystems
I. Abiotic Components
Intense solar radiation, lashing winds, and
little moisture
i.e. less than 10 inches (25 cm) of rainfall. The
nutrient cycling is also very low. The characteristic
feature of the abiotic component is lack of organic
Desert Ecosystem
II. Biotic Components
Producers: In deserts mostly Succulent (e.g.,
cacti) plants are found available. They have water
inside them to stay alive, waxy coating to prevent
intense heat, thorn on the outside to protect them
from being eaten.
Ex: Succulents, Shrubs, bushes, some grasses and few
trees.

Consumers: These animals dig holes in the ground to live

in. They come out at night to find food. Most of
the animals can extract water from the seeds they eat.
Ex: Locust, scorpions, snakes, camel, elk etc.

Decomposers: Desert has poor vegetation with a

very low amount of dead
AQUATIC
ECOSYSTEMS
The aquatic ecosystem deals with water
bodies. The major types of organisms found in
aquatic environments are determined by the
water’s salinity.
Types of aquatic life zone

Aquatic life zones are divided into two

types.
1. Fresh water life zones
Eg. Ponds, streams, lakes, rivers.
2. Salt water life zones
Eg. Oceans, estuaries.
 FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEM POND
ECOSYSTEMS
Introduction
A pond is a fresh water aquatic ecosystems, where
water is stagnant. I t receives enough
water during rainy season. I t contains several
types of algae, aquatic plants,
insects, fishes and birds.

Characteristics of pond
• Pond is temporary, only seasonal.
• I t is a stagnant fresh water body.
• Ponds get polluted easily due to limited
amount of water.
• Pond ecosystems are lentic ecosystems –
 Structure and functions of pond
ecosystems Abiotic components
Ex: Temperature, light, water and organic and
inorganic compounds
Biotic Components
• Producers
These include green photosynthetic organism. They
are of two types.
• Phytoplankton: These are microscopic marine
plants, which freely float on the
surface of water.
Ex: Floating plants like Nostoc, Anabena,
Consmarium.
• Microphytes are microscopic algae
Ex: Floating plants and submerged plants like
Consumers
Primary consumers (Zooplanktons): These are
microscopic animals which freely float on the
surface of water.
Zooplanktons are found along with phytoplankton.
They feed on plants (phytoplankton).
Ex: Protozoa, very small fish, ciliates,
flagelaltes and protozoans.
Secondary consumers (Carnivores):They feed on
zooplankton Ex: Insects like water beetles and small
fish.
Tertiary consumers :They feed on smaller
fish Ex: Large fish like game fish.
Decomposers: They decompose the dead plant and
animal matter and their nutrients are released
Importance of pond ecosystems.

1.Biodiversity: Pond ecosystems are very important habitats

for so many different types of fish, birds, plants and
crustaceans as well as insects such as dragonflies, damsel
flies and pond skaters.
2.Ubiquity: Pond ecosystems can be found on every
continent on the planet.
3.Abundance: Pond ecosystems are very abundant. Not
only can they be found almost everywhere, they can be
found plentifully.
4.Source of hydration: A watering hole in a prairie or desert
many species of animals will come to pond. Humans can also
use these ecosystems as a source of water.
LAKE ECOSYSTEM
Lakes are large natural shallow water bodies.
Lakes are used for various purposes. Lakes are
supplied with water from rainfall, melting snow
and streams.
Types of lakes
Some important types of lake are
Oligotrophic lakes : They have low nutrient
concentrations Eutrophic lakes : They are
overnourished by nutrients like N and P
Dystrophic lakes : They have low pH, high
humic and content and brown waters.
Volcanic lakes : They receive water from
magma after volcanic eruption.
 Zones of Lake
Dependingupon their depth and fro
distance the shore, likes m
consists of four distinct zones.
• Littoral zones: I t is the top layer of the Lake. I t
has a shallow water.
• Limnetic zone: Next to the littoral zone is limnetic
zone, where effect penetration of solar. light
takes place.
• Profundal zone: The deep open water, where it is
too dark.
• Benthic zone: This zone is found, at the bottom of
the lake.
 Characteristics of lake ecosystem
• Lake is a shallow fresh water body;
• I t is a permanent water body with large
Water resources.
• I t helps in irrigation and drinking.
Structure and function of lake
ecosystem
I. Abiotic components
Temperature, light, proteins and lipids,
O2 CO2
II. Biotic Consumers
Producers: They are green plants, may. be
submerged, free floating ad amphibious
plants.
Examples: Phytoplanktons, algae and
 2. Consumers
Primary Consumers (Zooplanktons): They
feed on phytopankton
Ex: Ciliates, protozoans, etc.
Secondary consumers (carnivores) : They
feed on zooplankton. Ex Insects and
small fishes.
Tertiary consumers: They feed on smaller
fish Ex: Large fishes like game
fish.
Decomposers: They decompose the dead
plants ad animals Ex: Bacteria, fungi
and aclinonrcetes.
 RIVER (or) STREAM ECOSYSTEM

Introduction
The running water of a stream or a river is usually
well oxygenated, because it absorb’s oxygen from
the air. The number of
animals are low in river or stream.

Characteristics of River or Stream.

I t is a fresh water, and free flowing water
systems.
Due to mixing of water, dissolved oxygen content
is. more. River deposits large amount of nutrients.
 Structure and function of River or Stream
Ecosystem Abiotic components
Examples : River, Light, Temperature, Chemistry,
Substrate

Biotic Components
Producers: Phytoplankton, algae, water grasses,
aquatic masses other amphibious plants.
Consumers
1.Primary consumers: They feed on
phytoplankton. Ex : Water insects, snails,
fishes:
2.Secondary consumers: They feed on primary
consumers Ex: Birds
Decomposers: They decomposes the dead
V.S.Saravana Mani, Head
& AP/ Chemistry,
 SALT WATER ECOSYSTEMS. OCEAN (MARINE)
ECOSYSTEMS

Introduction
Oceans cover more than two thirds of the earth’s
surface. ocean environment is characterised by its high
concentration of salts and minerals.I t supplies huge variety
of products and drugs. I t also provides us iron,
magnesium, iron, natural gas.
Zones of Oceans
The oceans have two major life zones.
Coastal zone: I t is relatively warm, nutrient rich shallow water.
I t has high primary productivity because of high nutrients
and sunlight.
Open sea: I t is the deeper part of the ocean. I t is vertically
divided into three regions.
• Euphotic zone: I t receives abundant light and
shows high photosynthetic activity.
• Bathyal zone: I t receives dim light and is usually
V.S.Saravana Mani, Head
& AP/ Chemistry,
Characteristics of Ocean Ecosystem
I t occupies a large surface area with saline
water. Since ship, submarines can sail in
ocean, commercial activities may be earned
out.
I t is rich in biodiversity.
I t moderates the- temperature
Structure and function Ecosystems

Abiotic components Examples

Temperature, light, NaCl, K, Ca, and Mg
Salts alkalinity

Biotic components
1. Producers :
Phytoplanktons (diatoms, unicellular algae,
etc., ) and marine
plants (sea weeds, chlorophycela,
phaeophyceae).
2. Consumers
These are heterotrophic macro consumers. They
depend on producers for their nutrition.
Primary consumers (herbivores) :They feed on
producers Ex: Crustaceans, molluscs, fish
Secondary consumers (carnivores) : They
feed on herbivores
Ex: Herring, mackerel, etc.,
Tertiary Consumers: They are the top
consumers. They feed on small
Ex: Cod, Haddock, -etc.,
3.Decomposers: They decompose the dead organic
matter. Ex: Bacteria and some fungi.
 ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
Introduction
An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal area at the’
mouth of a river, where sea water mixes with
freshwater. I t is strongly affected by tidal action.
Estuaries are generally : abundant of nutrients.
Estuaries are useful to human beings due
to their high food potential. I t is essential to protect
the estuaries from pollution.
Characteristics of Estuarine ecosystem
• Estuaries are transition zones, which are strongly
affected by tides of the sea.
• Water characteristics are periodically changed.
• The living organism in estuarine ecosystems have wide
tolerance.
• Salinity remains highest during the summer and lowest
during the winter.
Structure and function of Estuarine
Ecosystem Abiotic Components
Examples :Temperature, pH, sodium and
potassium salts and various nutrients.
Biotic
Components
Producers
Examples :Marsh grasses, seaweeds , sea-
grasses and phytoplankton.
Consumers
Examples :Oysters, crabs, seabirds, small
fishes Decomposers
Examples :Bacterias, fungi and
actenomycetous.
V.S.Saravana Mani, Head
& AP/ Chemistry,
Thank
You