ENZYME
REGULATION
GEETHU
MURALEEDHARAN
MSC BIOINFORMATICS
2ND SEM
INTRODUCTION
TO ENZYMES
• Enzymes are vital biological catalysts that speed up chemical
reactions in living organisms. They are typically proteins, although
some RNA molecules can also function as enzymes.
• Understanding how enzymes are regulated is crucial for
comprehending fundamental biological processes and developing
effective treatments for various diseases.
ENZYME STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Enzymes are complex biological molecules that catalyze chemical
reactions in living organisms. They have a unique three-dimensional
structure that determines their function and specificity. The active site
of an enzyme binds to substrates and lowers the activation energy
required for a reaction to occur.
The shape and flexibility of the enzyme's structure are critical for its
ability to recognize and bind to substrates. Factors like pH, temperature,
and the presence of cofactors can impact an enzyme's structure and,
consequently, its function.
FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY
1 Temperature 2 pH
Enzymes are highly sensitive to temperature The pH of the environment strongly impacts
changes. Optimal temperatures allow enzyme activity. Each enzyme has an
enzymes to function at peak efficiency, while optimal pH range where its structure and
extreme heat or cold can denature and function are best suited.
inactivate them.
3 Substrate Concentration 4 Enzyme Concentration
Enzyme activity increases as substrate More enzyme molecules mean more active
concentration rises, until the enzyme sites are available to bind and catalyze
becomes saturated. At this point, increasing reactions. Increasing enzyme concentration
substrate does not further enhance reaction accelerates the overall reaction rate.
rates.
ENZYME ACTIVATION
Catalytic Activation Regulatory Activation
Enzymes can be activated
Enzymes can also be
through interactions with
activated by the removal of
specific molecules that bind
inhibitory factors, allowing
to the enzyme, altering its
the enzyme to carry out its
shape and increasing its
functions more effectively.
catalytic efficiency.
ENZYME REGULATION
• Enzyme regulation is the process by which the activity of enzymes is increased or decreased to
meet the needs of the cell. The regulation of enzymes has been a key element in clinical
diagnosis because of their role in maintaining life process
• Enzyme activity can be regulated by various mechanisms including allosteric regulation,
covalent modification and changes in gene expression
• Inhibitors can also decreases enzyme activity by binding to the enzymes.
ALLOSTERIC REGULATION
• Allosteric regulation is a mechanism by which the activity of
an enzyme is modulated by the binding of an effector
molecule at a site, allosteric site.
• Allosteric regulation can either increase or decrease the
enzyme activity.
• Allosteric regulation is a crucial aspect of cellular regulation,
providing a sophisticated means of controlling enzyme activity
and ensure proper metabolic function.
• Homotropic regulation are the substrate itself act as an
allosteric effector. This seen often seen in enzymes display
cooperative binding.
• Eg:-Hemoglobin
• In heterotropic regulation when a molecule other than
substrate act as the allosteric effector.
MECHANISMS OF ALLOSTERIC REGULATION
1. Conformational change: Binding of an allosteric effector induces a change in the 3D
shape of the enzyme.
2.Cooperative Binding: In enzyme with multiple subunits, binding of an effector to one
subunit can affect the activity of other subunits.
3.Positive v/s Negative Regulation:
• Positive Regulation: Allosteric activators enhance the enzymes ability to bind the
substrate, often by increasing the enzyme’s affinity for the substrate
• Negative Regulation: Allosteric inhibitors reduce the enzyme’s ability to bind the
substrate, often by decreasing the enzyme’s affinity towards substrate or by stabilizing a
less active form of the enzyme.
EXAMPLES OF ALLOSTERIC
REGULATION
Acetyl-CoA carboxylase
It regulate the process of lipogenesis. This enzyme is activated by citrate and inhibited by a long chain acyl-
CoA molecule such as palmitoyl-CoA.
Phosphofructokinase
It regulate glycolysis. ATP as inhibitor of this enzyme. and AMP as effector.
Aspartate Transcarbamoylase
The CTP (Cytidine triphosphate) act as an allosteric inhibitor, stabilizing the Tstate of the enzyme, which as
lower activation energy.
COVALENTLY MODIFIED REGULATION
Covalent modification of enzymes is a crucial regulatory mechanism that can swiftly alter enzyme activity, stability, localization or
interaction with other molecules. This type of regulation involves the addition or removal of specific chemical groups to the enzyme,
which induces conformational changes affecting the enzyme’s function.
Phosphorylation Acetylation
Enzymes can be regulated through the addition or The acetylation of lysine residues on enzymes can
removal of phosphate groups on specific amino neutralize positive charges, altering enzyme
acid residues. This covalent modification changes structure and activity. This modification is involved
the enzyme's shape and activity, allowing for rapid in regulating metabolic pathways and gene
and reversible control of its function. expression.
Feedback Inhibition (End Product Inhibition)
Feedback inhibition is a cellular control mechanism, in which the activity of an enzyme is inhibited by the end product of a biochemical
pathway.
Negative Feedback Allosteric Inhibition Homeostatic Control
Regulation
Feedback inhibition allows the
Feedback inhibition is a In feedback inhibition, the end-
cell to maintain homeostasis by
regulatory mechanism where product binds to an allosteric
automatically adjusting the rate
the end-product of a metabolic site on the enzyme, causing a
of a metabolic pathway in
pathway inhibits an enzyme conformational change that
response to changes in the
involved in the earlier pathway, reduces the enzyme's activity
concentration of its end-
forming a negative feedback and slows down the metabolic
product, preventing wasteful
loop that reduces further pathway.
over-production.
production of the end-product.
CONCLUSION
Enzyme regulation is fundamental to the proper functioning of biological
systems. It ensures homeostasis, optimizes metabolic processes and enables cells
to adapt to environmental changes. The significance of enzyme regulation extend
beyond basic biology impacting medical diagnostics and treatments, industrial
applications, agricultural practices and environmental management.
