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Biology Student's Book

CHAPTER 03

MOVEMENT OF
SUBSTANCES
INTO OR OUT OF
THE CELLS

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3.1 Diffusion
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe diffusion.
• State that the energy for diffusion comes
from kinetic energy.
• State that some substances move into and
out of cells by diffusion through the cell
membrane.
• Describe the importance of diffusion of
gases and solutes in living organisms.
• Investigate some factors that influence
diffusion.

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Imagine that you are sitting in the living room reading a book. Your sister
accidentally spills a bottle of perfume in the room. Gradually you
become aware of a pleasant scent spreading through the room.

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What is diffusion?

1. All matter, including perfume, is made up

of particles such as atoms, molecules or
ions.

2. Individual particles of perfume evaporate

to become a gas.

3. The particles of the gas are constantly

moving. Kinetic energy causes the
particles to move.

4. The gas spreads outwards through a

process called diffusion.
Diffusion of perfume particles
(Figure 3.1 of Student’s Book)

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What is a concentration gradient and how is it related to diffusion?

• There are more particles at point A than

at point B. Thus, there is a concentration
difference between these two points.
• Concentration gradient is the difference
in concentration between two regions.
• The steeper the concentration gradient
for a substance, the faster the rate of
diffusion is for that substance.

Represent the bottle where You in the room, some

perfume was spilled. distance away
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What is a concentration gradient and how is it related to diffusion?

• The particles of fluids (liquids and gases)

possess movement (kinetic) energy.
• Randomly moving particles move (diffuse)
down the concentration gradient and
become evenly spaced out after some
time.
• Diffusion is the net movement of particles
from a region of their higher concentration
to a region of their lower concentration,
down a concentration gradient, as a result Arrows show direction of movement of particles
of random movement. (Figure 3.3 of Student’s Book)

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Lets investigate 3A

Using the idea of concentration gradient, explain why the blue colour
gradually spreads throughout the water in jar. When does diffusion stops?

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Lets investigate 3A ● The copper sulfate crystal dissolves in

the water, forming a deep blue solution
at the bottom of the gas jar.
● Then the blue colour gradually spreads
upwards through the water until all the
liquid in the gas jar is in the same
shade of pale blue.
● The dissolved copper sulfate particles
diffuse from the bottom of the gas jar
where they are more concentrated,
upwards to other regions where they
are in lower concentration or where
they are absent.

Diffusion stops when the copper sulfate particles are evenly distributed throughout the solution.

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Can particles diffuse across a membrane?

• Diffusion can occur across a

permeable membrane.
• A permeable membrane allows
both the solvent (water) and the
solutes (the dissolved
substances) to pass through it.
• Eventually, there will be equal
concentrations of all particles on
Diffusion of potassium iodide and copper sulfate particles both sides of the membrane.
through a permeable membrane (Figure 3.5 of Student’s Book)

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What are the factors that affect the rate of diffusion?

1. Temperature https://youtu.be/FDkLXY3qMAs?si
=ZX23DFeY8PVFjQsF
• The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion.

1. Obtain two beakers. To one beaker, add

some hot water (70°C). To another
beaker add a equal volume of cold
water (10°C).
• The
2. Using water in beakeradd
a dropper, A has a higher
a drop of coloured
temperature
liquid, suchthan the water inblue
as methylene beaker B.
solution,
• The
ontoblue
the particles
surface inofbeaker
the water in each
A have
more kineticasenergy
container shown andin thus diffuse
Figure 3.6.at
3. aObserve
faster rate.
the movement of the blue
particles in the water.

In which beaker, A or B, does the blue substance spread outwards at a faster rate?
Suggest a reason for your observation.
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What are the factors that affect the rate of diffusion?

1. Temperature
• The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion.

● Beaker A.
• ● The water in beaker A has a higher
As beaker A has a higher
temperature than the water in beaker B.
temperature of 70°C, the blue
• The blue particles
particles in beaker
have more A have
kinetic energy
more
andkinetic
thus aenergy
higherand thus
rate of diffuse at
diffusion.
a faster rate.

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What are the factors that affect the rate of diffusion?

2. Diffusion distance
• The shorter the diffusion distance, the faster the rate of diffusion.

● Use cork borer to obtain two cylindrical potato

strips of different diameters but of the same
thickness.
● Place the strips in a petri dish. Add sufficient
• The
dilutesurface
iodineofsolution
each potato strippetri
into the will turn
dishblue-black
until it
when it comes in contact with iodine
reaches just beneath the upper surface of the solution.
• Itpotato
takes strips.
more time for the blue-black colour to reach
● the
Thecentre
surfaceof the thicker
of each potatostrip
potato strip.
will turn blue -
black
• The in of
rate colour when
diffusion is itslower
comes in contact
across longerwith the
iodine solution.
diffusion distances.Using a watch, record the total
time taken for the blue-black colour to reach the
centre of each strip.

What conclusion can you draw from this experiment?

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What are the factors that affect the rate of diffusion?

2. Diffusion distance
• The shorter the diffusion distance, the faster the rate of diffusion.

● It takes more time for the blue-black colour

to reach the centre of the thicker potato
• The surface of each potato strip will turn blue-black
strip
whenthan for in
it comes the thinner
contact withpotato strip.
iodine solution.
● • This suggests that the rate of diffusion is
It takes more time for the blue-black colour to reach
slower
the centreacross
of the longer diffusion
thicker potato strip. distances.
• The rate of diffusion is slower across longer
diffusion distances.

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What are the factors that affect the rate of diffusion?

3. Surface area to volume ratio
• The greater the area per unit volume, the faster the rate of diffusion of a substance for a
given concentration gradient.
• Why do cells not grow beyond a certain size? Look at this example.

The increase in surface

area is not as much as
the increase in volume.
Surface area to volume
ratio decreases.

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What are the factors that affect the rate of diffusion?

3. Surface area to volume ratio
• Cells need to move nutrients and waste materials across their cell membrane fast
enough to stay alive.
• It is determined by the surface area to volume ratio.
• The rate of movement of a substance across the surface of a cell depends on how big
the cell membrane area is.
• The greater the area of cell membrane per unit volume, the faster the rate of diffusion of
a substance for a given concentration gradient.

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What are the factors that affect the rate of diffusion?

3. Surface area to volume ratio

With this decrease in

surface area to volume
ratio, the rate of
movement of the
substances across cell
A will decrease.

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What are the factors that affect the rate of diffusion?

● Actively growing cells are

usually small as in the root
tips or shoot tips.
● As the cell grow in size, cell
activity slows down.
● They stop growing when
they reach a maximum
Cell A1 can obtain X and Y have similar Z has the smallest
food and oxygen from volumes. Y has a surface area per unit
size.
all sides. It can carry reduced surface area, volume. It gets less food
out activities like thus it receives nutrients and oxygen compared to
growth efficiently. and oxygen at a slower X and Y. Cell A3 is less
rate. Cell A2 is less active than A1 and A2.
active than cell A1.

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https://youtu.be/xuG4ZZ1GbzI?si=JlP1jNz7DfWkWSdx

● Use a knife and cut out three pieces of agar stained with methyl orange with the
• Agardimensions shown in the diagram.
block A has the largest surface area to volume ratio. It takes the shortest time to turn
●pink.
Surface area
Thus, the ofofBlock
rate A (6cm²),
absorption BlockasBsurface
increases (10cm²),
area Block C (14cm²).
to volume ratio increases.
● Immerse the three agar blocks in diluted hydrochloric acid and note the time.
• Cells in the body should have the shape of agar block A to increase the rate of substances
● As the acid diffuses into the blocks, the block gradually turns pink.
entering or leaving the cells.

What can you say about the relationship between surface area to volume ratio and the rate of
absorption of the acid? How can you relate the shape of the agar blocks to cells in the body?

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• Agar block A has the largest surface area to volume ratio. It takes the shortest time to turn pink.
Thus, the rate of absorption increases as surface area to volume ratio increases.
• Cells in the body should have the shape of agar block A to increase the rate of substances
entering or leaving the cells.

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Importance of diffusion in living organisms

• Diffusion is important to living organisms.

• The cell membrane only allows some substances to
pass through, but not others.
• Oxygen and carbon dioxide can pass through the cell
membrane, but protein cannot.
• Diffusion is therefore an important way by which
oxygen and carbon dioxide move into and out of cells.
• The cells of your lungs exchange oxygen and carbon
dioxide through diffusion.
• Diffusion also occurs in solute as glucose enters the
liver cells from the blood capillaries by diffusion.

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How do cells adapt their surface area for absorption?

• Some cells are adapted to absorb materials such as root hair cells and the
epithelial cells which line the small intestines.
• These cells often have long, narrow protrusions or folds in their membranes.
• These greatly increase the surface area of cell membrane through which
materials can be absorbed into the cell.

Colourised electron micrograph showing highly magnified

microvilli on the edge of an intestine epithelial cell

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Importance of diffusion in living organisms

• Plant cells such as root hair cells also take in oxygen and remove carbon
dioxide through diffusion.

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3.2 Osmosis
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe the role of water as a solvent in
digestion, excretion and transport.
• Describe osmosis.
• State that water diffuses through partially
permeable membranes by osmosis.
• State that water moves into and out of cells by
osmosis through the cell membrane.

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3.2 Osmosis
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Investigate osmosis using dialysis tubing.
• Investigate and describe the effect of
immersing plant tissues in solutions of
different concentrations.
• Explain the effects of immersing animal cells
in solutions of different concentrations.
• Explain the importance of water potential and
osmosis in the uptake and loss of water by
organisms.
• State that plants are supported by water
pressure inside the cells pressing outwards on
the cell wall.

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What is role of water as a solvent?

• Water plays an essential role in living
organisms.
• Water is needed in the breakdown of food
substances from large molecules to small
molecules in digestion.
• It is solvent for the transport of dissolved waste
products to excretory organs for removal in the
process of excretion.
• Water is also the main component of blood
plasma.
• Water transports dissolved substances from one
part of body to another thus it it important
solvent for various substances into and out of
cells.
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What is osmosis?

This membrane is permeable to water molecules but not to sucrose molecules.

Compared to arm B, arm A contains

• More sucrose molecules per unit volume
• Fewer water molecules per unit volume

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What is osmosis? Biology Student's Book

• Sucrose molecules cannot diffuse from arm A to B because the membrane does not allow
sucrose molecules to pass through.
• Water molecules diffuse from B to A because solution B has a higher concentration of water
than solution A.
• A dilute solution has a higher concentration of water than a concentrated solution for the
same volume of solution.
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• Water molecules diffuse from B to A because solution A has a lower water potential than solution B.
• Level of solution in arm A rises, while that in arm B falls.
• Net result: Both arms A and B contain the same number of water molecules per unit volume.
• Diffusion of water molecules across a partially permeable membrane called osmosis.
• Water moves into and out of cells by osmosis through the cell membrane.

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What is water potential and how is it related to osmosis?

• A dilute solution has a higher water

potential than a concentrated solution
having lower water potential for the
same volume.
• Water potential gradient, two
solutions of different water potential
are separated by a partially
permeable membrane.
• Water always moves from a solution
of higher water potential to a lower
water potential across partially
permeable membrane.

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What is water potential and how is it related to osmosis?

• Osmosis is the net movement of

water molecules through a partially
permeable membrane, from a region
of higher water potential (dilute
solution) to a region of lower water
potential (concentrated solution).

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What happens to a plant cell in a solution with a higher concentration of water?

● Cell wall of plants is permeable and allow most

dissolved substances to pass through.
● When a plant cell placed in a solution with a higher
concentration of water (high water potential), water
molecule will move from a region of higher
concentration (outside the cell) into a region of lower
concentration (inside the cell).
● A plant will expand or swell.
● This is because plant cells are protected by an
inelastic cell wall.
● Plants are supported by the pressure of water inside
the cells pressing outwards on the cell wall.

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What happens to a plant cell in a solution with a higher concentration of water?

1. When the plant cell is placed in a solution

with a higher concentration of water (higher
water potential), the cell sap has a lower 4. As water enters the cell, the vacuole increases
concentration of water than the solution in size and pushes the cytoplasm against the cell
outside the cell. wall.
The cell does not burst because it is protected by
Therefore, the water potential of the cell sap the inelastic cell wall.
is lower than that of the solution outside the The turgidity of the cell with water is called turgor.
cell. The pressure exerted by the water in the vacuole
is the turgor pressure.

2. By osmosis, water enters the cell through the

partially permeable cell membrane.

3. The cell expands or swells. The cell is said to

become turgid.

A plant cell in a solution with a higher concentration of water (Figure 3.24 of Student’s Book)
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What happens to an animal cell in a solution of higher water

potential?
• An animal cell does not have a cell wall.
• The cell will swell and may even burst in a solution of higher water potential than the
cytoplasm.

An animal cell in a solution with higher water potential

What happens to a cell in a solution of the same water potential?

• The cell will not change their size or shape.

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What happens to a plant cell in a solution with a lower concentration of water?

● When a cell is placed in a solution with a lower concentration of water (lower water potential),
water molecules will move from a region of higher concentration (inside the cell), into a
region of lower concentration (outside the cell).
● A plant cell will decrease in size and become flaccid.

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What happens to a plant cell in a solution with a lower concentration of water?

1. When the plant cell is immersed in a solution

with a lower concentration of water (lower
water potential), the cell sap has a higher 4. As the cell loses water, the vacuole
concentration of water than the solution decreases in size. The cytoplasm shrinks away
outside the cell. from the cell wall.
Therefore, the water potential of the cell sap The cell can be restored to its original state by
is higher than that of the solution outside the placing it in water or in a solution with a higher
cell. concentration of water.
The shrinkage of cytoplasm and cell membrane
away from the cell wall is called plasmolysis.
The cell is said to be plasmolysed.

A plant cell in a solution with a

lower concentration of water
(Figure 3.24 of Student’s Book)

2. By osmosis, water from the vacuole and

cytoplasm leaves the cell through the partially 3. The cell decreases in size and becomes limp.
permeable cell membrane. The cell is said to become flaccid.

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What happens to an animal cell in a solution of lower water

potential?
• The cell shrinks and little spikes appear on the cell membrane. This process is
called crenation.
• The cell will become dehydrated and eventually die.

An animal cell in a solution with lower water potential

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Hypotonic, Isotonic & Hypertonic solution

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Why is turgor important in plants?

• Turgor is important for maintaining the shape of soft tissues in
plants.
• Most leaves and young stems are able to remain firm and erect
because of the pressure of water inside the cells pressing
outwards on the cell wall (turgor pressure).
• High rate of transpiration make the plants lose their turgidity
and plant wilts.
• Turgor of the plant cells cause the opening and closing of the
stomata.

Electron micrograph of stomata

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Why is turgor important in plants?

• Plasmolysis causes cells to become limp or flaccid.

• Cells will be killed if they remain plasmolysed for too long.
• Too much of fertiliser around the roots will cause the the soil
solution (water in soil dissolved with minerals) become very Turgor pressure in the cells of the plant
concentrated and water move out of the roots by osmosis. helps keep this plant firm and upright.

• Inability of the roots to absorb water with continued

transpiration will cause the plant to wilt.
• If sufficient water not added to soil solution, the plant will
eventually die.

Loss of turgor due to excessive

water loss may cause a plant to wilt.
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What are the differences between diffusion and osmosis?

Let’s Practice 3.2
Diffusion Osmosis

Net movement of a substance, gaseous Net movement of water molecules

or solute

Movement of particles down a Movement of water molecules from a

concentration gradient dilute solution to a more concentrated
solution (down a water potential gradient)

Partially permeable membrane not Partially permeable membrane required

required

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Let’s Practice 3.2

Humans have always needed to store food to see them through times when food is in short
supply. Unfortunately, bacteria and fungi attack stored food and make it go bad. One way of
preventing this is to store food in strong salt solutions (brine) or sugar solutions (syrups).

How does storing food in strong salt solutions or in syrups help to prevent the food from turning
bad or decomposing?

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3.3 Active Transport

In this section, you will learn the
following:
• Describe active transport.
• Explain the importance of active
transport.
• State that active transport requires
protein carriers.

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What are the differences between diffusion and active transport?

• Living cells are able to absorb certain substances even

though these substances are of higher concentration
inside the cell than they are in the external
environment.
• Cells absorbing against the concentration gradient
which requires energy.
• Active transport is the movement of particles through
a cell membrane, from a region of their lower
concentration to a region of their higher concentration.

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What are the differences between diffusion and active transport?

• Key differences between diffusion and active transport:

Diffusion Active transport

Net movement of a substance, gaseous or Movement of a dissolved solute

solute

Movement of particles down a Movement of particles against a

concentration gradient concentration gradient

Energy from respiration not required Energy from respiration required

Cell membrane not required Cell membrane required

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Where does active transport occur?

• Active transport occurs only in living cells because
only living cells respire.
• During respiration that energy is released, some of
these energy used in active transport.
• In human body, Examples of active transport are
uptake of glucose by the microvilli of epithelial cells in
the small intestine and from the kidney tubules into
the blood capillaries.

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Where does active transport occur?

• In plants, root hair cells take in mineral ions from the soil solution through diffusion
as well as active transport.

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Where does active transport occur?

• Active transport requires carrier proteins in the cell membrane.

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Let’s Practice 3.3

1. Why does active transport not take place in dead cells?

2. Name three characteristics that are different between diffusion and active transport.

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What have you learnt?

Can you draw your own mind map?

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