APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY

SSEKWEYAMA HASHIBU
•COURSE UNIT: APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY
•The following topics and sub topics have been selected for
semester one syllabi
1. Introduction to psychology: Meaning, Role of psychology to
a Clinical Officer and History of psychology, Goals and aims
of psychology.
2. Schools of psychology: Structuralism, Functionalism,
Humanistic, Behaviouralism, Gestaltism, Psychodynamic,
application to health care, Branches of psychology,
perspectives of psychology,
3. Human Growth and Development: Meaning of Growth and
Development, Factors that promote Growth and Development
, Factors that affect Growth and Development, Physical,
4. Mental processes
 Sensation and Perception: Organs of sense and sensation
process, Principles and laws of perception
 Thinking: Types of thinking, Thinking levels,
 Reasoning: Types of reasoning
 Consciousness: Preconscious, Sub conscious, Sleep and
sleep disorders
 Intelligence: Theories of intelligence, Intelligence
measurements
 Memory: Stages of memory, Levels of memory, Memory
enhancement, Forgetting
 Attention and concentration: Theories of attention and
concentration
 Learning: Learning theories, Factors that promote
learning, application of learning theories to health care
 Emotions: Theories of Emotions, Components of
emotions
5. Personality development: Personality systems (id, ego,
superego), mental defense mechanisms, psychosocial
stages of personality development, grand theories of
personality, approaches in studying personality,
personality structure.
6. Motivation: Theories of motivation
• 7. Attitudes: Attitude formation, Types of attitudes,
Attitude change, factors that influence the formation and
development of attitude, components of attitude.
8. Sleep and Dreams: sleep disorders, stages of sleep,
neurotransmitters and sleep, mgt of sleep d/os
9. Guidance and Counseling: Concept and Principles of
Counseling, Indications for counseling, Qualities of a
good Counselor, the counseling process and the
counseling Skills.
10. Perception and Attending: perception, perceptual
constancy, attending
• Definition: psychology is the study of mind and behavior in
relation to a particular field of knowledge or activity.
• Its also termed as the science of behavior and mental
processes.
• Behaviour includes a variety of overt (obvious, explicit,
open) or clear actions such as walking and gesturing, social
interactions such as talking, emotional reactions like
laughing or frowning. Psychologists use rigorous, systematic
observation that yields comprehensive theories and reliable
knowledge, this makes it a science and different from
common sense.
• Regarding mental health, psychology can be applied to a
variety of issues that impact health and daily life including
performance, enhancement, self-help, ergonomics,
motivation, productivity, and much more.
• Etymology
• The word psychology is derived from two Greek words,
‘psyche’ meaning the mind, soul or spirit and ‘logos’
meaning discourse or to study. The two words combined
produce the ‘study of the mind’.
• History of psychology
• Psychology first appeared as a discipline in its own right
around the time in 1879 when Wilhem Wundt opened the
first ever psychology laboratory in the university of Leipzig
in Germany.
• He and his colleagues were concerned with studying the
mind via ‘introspection’ or observing their own thoughts
and feelings as they occurred.
• William James, Wilhem Wundt and other psychologists of
the time thought of psychology as the study of the mind.
• The origin of psychology is dated to 1879 when Wilhem
Wundt set up the first psychology lab in Leipzig .Most of
the world’s early scientific psychologists got their education
from Wundt.
• Edward B Titchener ( 1867-1927), Wundt’s student
expanded his teachers work and this school of thought is
called structuralism . It attempts to describe the structures
that make up the mind.
• John Dewey, James R Angell and Harvey Carr, influenced
by Dawin’s theory of evolution ,founded the school of
Functionalism which learns how the mind produces useful
behaviours.
• Functionalists ,proposed that more adaptive behavior
patterns are learned and maintained, whereas the less
adaptive ones are discontinued.
• J.B Watson the founder of behaviorism asserted that for
psychology to be a natural science , it must limit it self to
observable and measurable behavior not mental processes
• In the 1920s another school known as the Gestalt
psychologist arose in Germany. It was founded by Max
Wertheimer (1880-1943). They argued that one can't cope
to understand human nature by focusing on the
observable behavior alone.
• The Gestalts were more concerned with perceptions and to
them perceptions are wholes that give meaning to parts.
• SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY
• The emergence of psychology as a separate and
independent field of study was truly born when
Wilhelm Wundt established the
first experimental psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany in
1879.
• Wundt's work was focused on describing the structures
that compose the mind. This perspective relied heavily on
the analysis of sensations and feelings through the use of
introspection, a highly subjective process.-(careful
examination of your own thoughts, feelings and reason for
behaving in a particular way) Wundt believed that properly
trained individuals would be able to accurately identify the
mental processes that accompanied feelings, sensations
and thoughts
• Throughout psychology's history, a number of different
schools of thought have been formed to explain human
thought and behaviour. These schools of thought often rise
to dominance or supremacy for a period of time. Although
these schools of thought are sometimes perceived as
competing forces, each perspective has contributed to our
understanding of psychology. The following are some of the
major schools of thought in psychology.
 Structuralism
• Structuralism was the oldest proper school of psychology.
Structuralists were inspired by the efforts of biologists,
chemists and physicists to analyze matter and categorise
them cells, molecules and atoms.
• Note: Structuralism a theory that considers any text as a
structure whose various parts have meaning when
• Considered together. It’s the school of psychological thought
that considers the structure and elements of immediate
conscious experience to be the proper subject matter of
psychology
• Following the lead of these scientists, structuralism tried to
analyze the mind break into its component elements such as
ideas and sensation and discover how these elements interact.
• It was developed by a German called Edward Titchener
( Wilhem Wundt’s student) in the years (1867-1927). He used
introspection which means looking within . It attempts to
explain behaviour by using these elements interact to form
thoughts and feelings. The inner experiences a person tells can
be interpreted in the light of the behaviour being investigated.
The method is used by doctors, lawyers, intelligence officers
and others people involved in investigative work.
 Functionalism
• It’s a school that was founded by functionalists (William
James and John Dewey (1873-1954), James Angell James
(1869-1949), Harvey Carr (1873-1954)
• Note: Functionalism the idea or belief that the most
important thing of the object is not how it looks but how is
to be used (the function and not the outlook). The school
of thought that an out growth of structuralism and was
concerned with how the mind functions and how this
functioning is related to consciousness (awareness,
perception).
 Functionalists preferred to study how the mind affects
what people do. Functionalists would prefer to study how
the ability to distinguish different tastes affects behaviour.
 Does the person prefer a sour drink to a sweet one.
 Functionalists are interested in how the mind functions and
are concerned with why people behave the way they do.
 Proponents of functonalism stressed the biological
significance( the purpose and function) and natural
processes including behaviours. Among its basic ideas are
the following:
 It’s concerned with mental operation and not mental
structure. For example the mind remembers but does not
contain memory.
 Mental processes are not studied as isolated and
independent events but as part of the biological activity of
the organism. These processes are aspects of the organism
adaptation to the environment and are product to it’s
evolutionary history.
 Functionalism studies the relationship between the
• environment and the response of the organism to the
environment. There are no meaning full differences
between mind and the body; they are part of the same
entity. The human mind is a cumulative process which can
be modified by anew experience.
• The environment influences /controls the way we behave
e.g how much we drink, how we walk ,etc.
• Human experience is continuous and evolves overtime.
• Thinking is not an end in it self. It’s function is to produce
useful elements
 Behaviorism
• It was developed by Edward Thorndike, Ivan Pavlov and
John Watson). This school of psychology originated from
J.B Watson (1879-1958)
 Note: Behaviorism; the theory that all human behaviour is
leant by adapting from outside conditions and that
learning is not influenced by thought and feelings. It
focuses on describing and measuring only what is
observable either directly or through assessment
instruments.
 Behaviorism rejected the position shared by structuralism
and functionalism that the mind is the proper object of
study for psychology.
 Behaviorism believed that because psychology is the study
of observable behaviors, mental events which cannot be
observed, are outside the realm of psychology. Behaviorism
is thus the study of relationship between people’s
environment and their behavior
• Behaviorism further emphasizes the following about
• human behavior:
 Human beings are born empty slates(tabula rasa) i.e. man is
born with an empty mind. The environment , culture…
impact on it with time to form behavior such as language,
caring personality, aggression etc. In one of his works,.
• Watson wrote: Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-
informed and my own specified world to bring them up in
and I will guarantee to take any at random and train him to
become any type of specialist I might select- doctors,
lawyer, artist , and yes even beggar man and thief,
regardless of his talent, tendencies, abilities, vocations and
race of his ancestors.
• The imparted behavior can also rub off depending on
circumstances.
• Most behavior that we manifest are acknowledged through
• learning from the environment.
• Human behavior tend to be pervasive i.e we tend to behave
in a similar pattern in most cases.
• Human beings are reactive to the environment i.e the tend
to respond to the conditions around them with out much
thought i.e we abide by authority.
• Human beings are passive and deterministic i.e they wait to
be modeled by the current circumstances/ environment.
 Gestalt Psychology
• Note: Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that argues
that it is necessary to study a person’s total experience, not
just part of the mind or behaviour, since conscious
experience is more than simply the sum of its parts.
• It was advanced by Marx Werthemer, Kurt Koffka, Richer
• The word Gestalt comes from a German word “Gestalten”
which can be translated to mean the whole unit, a totality,
a pattern , form or a configuration. The following key points
were stressed by Gestalt psychologists:
 The mind does not respond passively to discrete external
stimuli but instead organises (actively)stimuli to form a
coherent and meaningful whole. Thus perception is more
than a series of individual sensations.
 We are likely to get more meaning than simply perceiving
only parts of reality/ behavior individually. E.g Love –
( caring, kissing, romance) , classroom –( desk, chair,
white/black board, chalk, markers) etc.
 Gestalt emphasizes that individuals perceive objects and
patterns as a whole unit and stressed that the whole unit of
what we perceive is different from the total/ sum of its
• different parts meaning that we perceive an object as a
unit, it is more meaningful than when we simply perceive
its parts individually.
 Psychoanalytic Psychology
• It was developed in by a medical doctor called Sigmund
Freud who was practicing in Vienna Australia. He noted
through his research that some of the patients had nothing
physically wrong with them although they had symptoms
of physical illness such as headache, exhaustion , insomnia
etc.
• Psychoanalysis ; therapy, treatment, psychotherapy
psychiatric help; early 1900s a Viennese neurologist named
Sigmund Freud gained worldwide fame by promoting the
idea, that the mind consists three levels of consciousness;
the consciousness, the sub-consciousness and the
• unconsciousness.
• Freud suggested that mental conflicts were behind these
symptoms and that these conflicts had been pushed out
normal awareness into what Freud called the unconscious
part of the mind..
• He further suggested that much of human behavior is as a
result of thoughts, fears and wishes that are hidden within
the unconscious mind.
• People are often unaware of these motivating forces
though they have a strong effect on behavior.
• Freud further suggested that many of the behaviors we
show are as a result of our experience during infancy and
childhood.
• Freud’s psycho-analytic psychology challenges is to
uncover/ reveal/bring into open unconscious conflicts
since they were very deep down in our conscious mind.
1. He developed a technique called Hypnosis (putting some
one into a trace of sleep).Hypnosis was not quite
successful in revealing what was burried in a persons
memory.
2. He developed another method called free association in
which a patient was asked to lie comfortably on a couch
and requested to say whatever came to his/her mind no
matter how irrelevant/ foolish it was.
 Humanism
• This school of psychology was developed by Cal Rogers.
• a system of thought that considers that solving human
problems with the help of reason is more important than
• religious beliefs.
• Basic nature of human being is good. A psychological
perspective that emphasises positive human values and
people’s inherent tendency toward personal growth
 Cognitivism;
• connected with mental processes of understanding, that
involves perception, learning, memory and thinking.
• This school of psychology was developed by Jean Piaget
1936. Jean Piaget explained how a child constructs a mental
model of the world. Leon Festinger in 1957 published a book
Theory of Cognitive Dissonance.
TYPES OR BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
• Psychology is a broad and diverse field. A number of different
subfields and speciality areas have emerged.
• The following are some of the major areas of research and
 Pure psychology
 Applied psychology
• Pure psychology involves: general psychology, abnormal
psychology, social psychology, parapsychology,
geopsychology, developmental psychology.
• Applied psychology involves: educational psychology,
clinical psychology, industrial psychology, legal psychology,
military psychology, political psychology.
• i) Clinical Psychology: Studies; diagnosis, cause, treatment
of mental disorders. For example, clinical psychologists
have recently devised effective forms of treatment for
reducing aggression among highly assaultive children
• ii) Counselling Psychology: Assists individuals in dealing
with many personal problems that do not involve
• psychological disorder. For example counselling
psychologists assist individuals in career planning and
developing more effective interpersonal skills
• iii)Development Psychology: Studies show people change
physically. Cognitively and socially and over entire life span.
For example development psychologist have found that
patterns of attachment children form to their parents can
influence the nature of the romantic relationship they form
as adults.(Vormarock, 1993).
• Iv)Cognitive Psychology: Investigates all aspects of
cognition; memory, thinking, reasoning, language, decision
making. For example cognitive psychologists have recently
found evidence suggesting that the reason we can not
remember events that happen to us before we are about
three years old is that we lack clearly developed self
• concept of this age(Howe and Courage, 1993)
• V)Industrial/ organisation Psychology:
• Studies all aspects of behavior in work- settings selection of
employes, evaluation of performance, work motivation,
leadership. For example industrial/ organisation
psychologist have found that work performance often
decreases sharply when employees feel that they are being
treated un fairly- that they are receiving fewer benefits
than they deserve, score fewer points than those who feel
that there salaries are fair( Harder, 1992)
• Vi)Psychobiology(Physiological Psychology):Investigates
the biological bases of behaviour-the role of biological
events within our nervous systems and bodies in everything
we do, sense, feel or think. For example, psycho-biologist
have recently investigated the possible role
• gender difference in behaviour of subtle difference in the
structure of females and male brains.(Law, Pellegrino and
Hunt, 1993)
• VII) Social Psychology: Studies all aspects of social
behaviour and social thoughts. How we think about and
interact with others. For example social psychologist have
recently found that while men and women use complaints
to change others behaviour, the two genders use this
technique in slightly different ways.
• Viii) Experimental Psychology
• Studies all aspects : of basic psychological processes such
as perceptions, learning and motivation. For example
research by experimental psychologist has recently added
much to our understanding of attention- the process of
directing portions of our information processing capacity to
• specific stimuli. This knowledge in turn is now being applied
to the design of more effective warnings about various
hazards.
• Forensic Psychology is an applied field focused on using
psychological research and principles in the legal and
criminal justice system.
• Comparative Psychology is the branch of psychology
concerned with the study of animal behaviour. This type of
research can lead to a deeper and broader understanding
of human psychology.
• School Psychology is the branch of psychology that works
within the educational system to help children with
emotional, social, and academic issues.
• Personality Psychology looks at the various elements that
make up individual personalities. Well-known personality
• theories include Freud's structural model of personality and
the "Big Five" theory of personality
• Abnormal Psychology is the study of abnormal behaviour
and psychopathology. This specialty area is focused on
research and treatment of a variety of mental disorders and
is linked to psychotherapy, and clinical psychology.
 GOALS AND AIMS OF PSYCHOLOGY
• To measure and predict behaviour
• To understand and explain behaviour
• To predict and control behaviour
• To improve the quality of human life
 Measuring and describing behavior
• The role of a psychologist is to measure behaviour e.g
anxiety, attitudes, depression, intelligence. A major goal of
• technique for measuring these attributes. In order to
understand this context each measuring instrument must
possess two qualities i.e reliability and validity.
• Reliability of an instrument means that when that
instrument is used to measure a given behaviour or
constant or a characteristic it should give us consistent
results every time it is used or administered.eg if you are
trying to find how you weigh and you jump on a weighing
scale several times getting the same results or reading,
then that weighing scale is said to be reliable.
• However if we get different results every time we jump on
it then it is unreliable.
• Validity of an instrument means that the instrument is
measuring the characteristic that is designed or meant to
measure.
• For example , if a teacher wants to know how intelligent his
students are and he uses a tape measure around the head
of each student and decides that the one with the biggest
head or circumference is the most intelligent, he will be
very wrong.
• He may administer the instrument again and again and he
will get similar/ consistent results about the circumference
of the heads of students-in as far as the size of the students
heads are concerned it is invalidity of the results about
intelligence. Reason being that the instrument is used to
measure what it is not designed for. A tape measure is not
an instrument for measuring intelligence. If an instrument
is valid(appropriate) measuring exactly what it is supposed
to measure automatically it is expected to be reliable.
However an instrument may be reliable but not necessary
 Understanding and explaining Behaviour
• The second important goal of psychology is to understand
and explain behaviour and mental processes. In this case
psychology is interested indentifying the why this or that?
The above involves the use of theories .A theory is an
attempted explanation that makes sense out of a large
number of observations. A good theory helps us to make
reasonable guess when we do not know the correct
answer. These guesses are technically called hypothesis. A
hypothesis is a tentative and testable or verifiable
explanation of the relationship between causes and
consequences or effect.
 Prediction and control of Behavior
• The third goal is to be able to predict and there by control
behavior. By prediction we mean that if a given event” A” is
• always followed” B” on different occasions, then in future
whenever we witness ”A” we predict or expect “B” to
follow. By control we mean that we are able to modify and
regulate the condition such that when ”A” produces “B” we
are able to say with confidence that event “A” not any other
caused or produced B. To be able to predict and control
behavior we rely on the past or present information about
behaviour.
 Improvement of quality of Human Life
• Many psychologists argue that the knowledge of
psychology should be used to improve the life of an
individual. E.g to provide better education opportunities for
citizens like UPE & USE programmes. To prevent crime in
society and others like corruption, prejudice, sectarianism
in places of work to control dehumanizing activities like
• prostitution etc All these show that there is need for
psychologists in all spheres of life
• ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGY TO A CLINICAL OFFICER
• Psychology is a science. Science implies to knowledge
which is based on scientific research.
• This knowledge is then available for others to apply.
• The subject matters to be studied in psychology are many:
 Human behavior
 Human experience ,language-communication
 There is an important distinction to be made between
behavior and the interpretation of the meaning of behavior.
 We look at the facial expression and the movement of
person.
 Behaviour of some body is public and observable
 behavior and the interpretation of the meaning of
behavior.
 We look at the facial expression and the movement
of person.
 Behaviour of some body is public and observable
 Experience is however something private about patients,
we want to know what they feel, think, suffering from or
enjoy.
 The study of experience in addition to the study of
behavior makes psychology interesting and relevant to a
clinical officer.
• PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY
• Any topic in psychology can be approached from a variety
of perspectives.
• i. Biological Perspective: This approach explains behaviour
in terms of electrical and chemical pro events taking place
in the body particularly within the brain and the nervous
system. It specifies neurobiological processes that under lie
behaviour and mental processes.
• ii. Behavioural perspective: This approach focuses on
• observable behaviour and tries to explain it in terms of it's
relationship to the environment.
• It was advanced by J.B Watson. In this psychologists study,
individuals by looking at their behaviour rather than the
brains or nervous system.
• III) Cognitive perspective: This focuses on mental processes
such as thinking, remembering, reasoning, deciding,
problem solving etc. And tries to explain behaviour in
terms of mental processes. The perspective is premised on
two assumptions.
a)Its only by studying mental processes that we can
understand what organisms do.
b) We can study mental processes by focusing on specific
behaviour but interpreting them in terms of underlying
mental processes.
• IV) Psychoanalytic perspective: This was developed by
Sigmund Freud. The basic assumptions of this is that much
of our behaviour stems from processes that are un
conscious. By the unconscious processes, Freud meant
beliefs, fears and desires a person is a un aware of but
never the less influence behaviour.
• V)Phenomenological perspective:
It is sometimes called humanistic. Unlike the other
approaches this focuses almost entirely on subjective
experience. It is concerned with the individuals personal
view of events. Phenomenological psychologists put it that
we are not acted upon by forces beyond our control but
instead we are actors capable of controlling our own
destiny. This is also called humanistic psychology.
 HUMAN GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT
• Development is the study of changes in people’s lives from
conception to death( womb to tomb). The field focuses on
factors that constitute development across the life span.
There are three domains namely; physical, cognitive and
psycho-social development. The major development stages
humans go through are prenatal, infancy and childhood,
adolescence, adulthood and old age.
 Principles of human development
• The process of human of growth and development tend to
be characterized by a number of aspects that are described
as principle of human growth and development. These are:
• These processes tend to be gradual and continuous
• They tend to be orderly and take certain pattern.
• are described as principle of human growth and
development. These are:
• These processes tend to be gradual and continuous
• They tend to be orderly and take certain pattern.
• The processes are not uniform in all humans
• The processes are gender related i.e Male and females tend
to have features that are unique to their respective gender
or sex.
• The processes tend to be inter-related and complex, e.g
gender Vs personality, height Vs personality
• Growth and development is affected by the environment
and heredity factors.
A. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
• This refers to the biological growth or maturation. Physical
development includes changes in the body tissues and
organs, such as in terms of height, weight and size .It also
includes the ways a person uses his /her body such as
motor skills and sexual development.
• Prenatal Development
• This is the development that occurs between conception
• and the movement before birth.
• It takes place in place in the mother’s uterus and differs
from mother to mother.
• Development begins in the fallopian tube when a sperm
cell penetrates the wall of ripened ovum to form a zygote.
• The fertilized ovum develops through several stages i.e
 Zygote (0=2weeks)
 Embryo (2-8wks)
 Foetus(8wks-birth)
• All of the organs including the brain must mature a great
deal before birth and different structures and sub
structures mature at different times.
• Although the majority of many unborn young ones follow a
normal development pattern, there are those who
• All of the organs including the brain must mature a
great deal before birth and different structures and
sub structures mature at different times.
• Although the majority of many unborn young ones
follow a normal development pattern, there are
those who
• encounter problems resulting in abnormal growth.
• Factors Affecting Prenatal Development
 Teratogens: These are any agents that may pass from the
mother thru the placenta barrier and affect embryo. This
includes prescribed and unprescribed drugs, narcotics,
nicotine, alcohol, etc.
• Amore severe risk arises if the fetus is exposed to alcohol
during pregnancy. The infant may develop signs of foetal
alcoholic syndrome(FAS) a condition characterized by
stunted growth of the head, and body, malformations of
the face, eyes, ears and nervous system damage resulting in
seizures, hyperactivity, learning, disabilities and mental
retardation
• In milder cases, the child's appearance may be normal but
• learning, disabilities and mental retardation
• In milder cases, the child's appearance may be
normal but the child is still likely to have impaired
academic skills,
• deficits in language, memory and motor speed.
• The more alcohol the mother drinks and the longer she
drinks during pregnancy, the greater the risk to the foetus.
 Maternal Factors
• 1.Maternal nutrition: The growing foetus receives its
nutrition from the mother. If she eats little it also receives
little. Prenatal malnutrition increases the risk of birth
defects, prolonged labour, still birth and infant mortality.
The harmful effects of prenatal malnutrition are greater
when the nutrition deficiency occurs in later pregnancy.
• 3. Maternal diseases: Many disease agents are capable of
crossing the placental barrier, thus affecting normal
prenatal development.
• 4.Mothers emotion state: Although many women are
happy to learn that they are pregnant, over a half of the
• pregnancies are un planned for and causes psychological
stress. Single women and those unhappily married are
often bitter, angry and depressed about their pregnancies.
• Such women put their babies at risk especially
miscarriage, prematurity, low birth weight.
• Stress also weakens the immune system, making pregnant
mothers susceptible to infectious diseases. More so such
women are likely to drink alcohol, and smoke cigarettes.
 Environmental hazards: This may include, trauma and
radiations which can cause mutations or damage DNA.
Effects due to radiations were tragically apparent in
children born to pregnant Japanese women who survived
the bombing of Nagasaki& Yuroshima.(1945).Miscarriage,
slow growth, underdeveloped brains& malformation of
 DNA. Effects due to radiations were tragically
apparent in children born to pregnant Japanese
women who survived the bombing of Nagasaki&
Yuroshima.(1945).Miscarriage, slow growth,
underdeveloped brains& malformation of
 the skeletons& eyes were common.
INFANCY(0-15months)
• This is a period ranging from birth to approximately 2
years. Within this period, the child begins to learn or cope
with the new world.
• Physical development proceeds in the cephalocaudal and
proximal distal order. For example: the child can control his
head before he can control his feet and can control his fore
arms before he can control his fingers.
 Reflexes that are present at birth can disappear during the
first year of life. These reflexes include;
 The motor reflex (extension of limbs when startled)
 Rooting (nipple seeking)
 Palmar grasp (grasping objects placed in the palm)
 And the Babinski reflex (dorsiflexion of the large toe when
the plantar surface of the foot is stroked.
 Implication:
• Children should be given adequate care and affection from
parents and care –takers.
• They need adequate protection from parents and care
takers from external harm.
• Parents and care –takers should endeavor to provide
enough company to their children.
• Children need balanced diet if they are to grow well
healthy.
• Parents and care-takers should learn to understand the
language of their children.
 Common Characteristics:
• Most of the child’s activities are controlled by reflex action .
• The child is completely dependent upon the parents and
care takers.
• The child tends to develop strong , attachment
• To parents, siblings and those that are usually around it
• It is a period for development of locomotion skills.
• The mouth is the greatest source of pleasure.
• Most of the child's communication is through ,crying,
bubbling and the phobic reactions for external objects or
strangers.
 Infant Morbidity and Mortality
• These can be classified into neonatal mortality (0-4wks) and
post neonatal mortality (1-12months)
• Neonatal mortality(0-4weks) causes
 Low birth weight
 prematurity
 Difficulty in labour
 Sepsis
 Congenital anomalies
 Hemolytic disease of newborn
 Placenta cord conditions
 Diarrheal diseases
 Acute respiratory diseases
• Post neonatal mortality (1-12months)
 Malnutrition, congenital anomalies
 Communicable diseases, diarrheal diseases

 Developmental theories
1. Sigmund Freud: he described development in terms of the
parts of the body from which the most pleasure is derived
at each stage during development.
2. Erik Erikson: he described development in terms of critical
periods for the achievement of social goals, if a specific
goal is not achieved at a specific age, the individual will
never achieve that goal.
3. Jean Piaget: described development in terms of learning
capabilities of the child at each age during development.
4. Margaret Mahler: described early development as a
sequential process of separation of the child from mother
to primary care giver.
3. Margaret Mahler: described early development as a
sequential process of separation of the child from
mother to primary care giver.
1. 4. Chess and Thomas: they described the
endogenous differences among infants in
temperament, including
• activity level, cyclic behavior patterns (e.g sleeping),
approaching or withdrawing from new stimuli, reactivity to
stimuli, adaptability, responsiveness, mood, distractibility,
and attention span. These differences in temperament
remain stable through out life.
CHILDHOOD STAGE (15Months 0r 2-12YEARS)
• This is a period from approximately 2 to 12 years of age.
Developmentally this period can be sub- divided into 3 sub
stages, namely;-
a) Early childhood/ Toddler stage(2-5years)
b)Middle childhood/ Pre-school Age(5-9years)
c) Late childhood/ School Age (9-12years)
• According to growth and development process, the
characteristics of children in this period can be categorized
c) Late childhood/ School Age (9-12years)
• According to growth and development process, the
characteristics of children in this period can be
categorized
• according to physical, psychological and cognitive
dimensions.
 Characteristics of childhood stage
 This is a period of rapid growth of muscles and body
structures.
 It is the period for rapid development
 It is a period when the child is highly imitative of what
he /she sees or hears .
 They rarely tell lies.
 It is a period when one has to be careful with what he/she
does before the child.
 The child is inquisitive- highly exploratory, they want
reasons and clear answers, that is how they learn.
 There is need to be careful, not to hurt the child.
 The child is inquisitive- highly exploratory, they want
reasons and clear answers, that is how they learn.
 There is need to be careful, not to hurt the child.
 Children never forget they revenge badly
 They story of child whose doll was thrown down stairs and
how he threw a mother’s baby.
 Play is their greatest source of pleasure.
 They pair with peers of their sex to play games of their sex.
Children develop peer group norms. This is due to
expanded socialization.
 They hate being confined in gates, they want to get out.
• There is egocentrism- basic for early childhood, they see
things from their point of view e.g if you gave them a gift, it
is no longer yours, they expect you to beg them and they
give you something small.
• Egocentrism is the inability to understand or assume any
perspective other than their own.
 EARLY CHILDHOOD.
• Here an 18month old boy makes a tower using three blocks,
climbs stairs using one foot at a time and can say mama,
dada, cookie, bye-bye.
• When told to copy a circle he only makes a mark on paper.
• His mother relates that he plays well with the baby sitter as
long as she remains in the room, when the mother tries to
leave, the child cries and refuses to stay with the baby sitter.
A. Attachment
1. The major task of the second year of life is the separation
of the child from the mother or primary caregiver
2. Because of the close attachment between child and mother
at this age, hospitalized toddlers fear separation from
parents more than they fear bodily harm.
B. Physical and Social Development
1. Physical milestones: At approximately 2 years of age, a
child is half of his adult height.
2. Social development milestones
 Motor characteristics noted in between this age.
a) At 1-half years. (stacks 3 blocks, throws a ball, scribbles on
paper, climbs stairs one foot at time).
b) At 2years. (stacks 6 balls, kicks a ball, undresses self, uses
a spoon).
c) At 3 years. (stacks 9 blocks, copies a circle, can partially
dress himself, climbs stairs using alternate feet)
 Social and cognitive characteristics
a) At one and half years or 1.5years. (moves away from and
then towards the mother- rapprochement, uses about 10
words, says own name).
 Social and cognitive characteristics
a) At one and half years or 1.5years. (moves away
from and then towards the mother-
rapprochement, uses about 10 words, says own
name).
a) At 2 years. ( plays alongside other children, uses about 250
words and 2-word sentences, names body parts and uses
pronouns, favourite word is No)
b) At 3 years. (has sense of male or female, achieves toilet
training, can comfortably spend part of the day away from
mother, speaks in complete sentences, identifies some
colors).
 MIDDLE CHILDHOOD.
• Here a 5 year old boy dresses himself with little help, but can
not yet tie the shoes laces.
• He enjoys going to nursery school two days per week.
• On days when there is no school he sometimes plays with an
imaginary friend.
a) Attachment:
• Here the child is able to spend a portion of the day with
• There is no evidence that daily separation fro working
parents in a good day care setting has long term negative
consequences fro children.
• Death: the child may not be able to completely understand
the meaning of death and may expect a friend, relative, or
a pet to come back to life.
b) Physical and Social Development Milestones
 Motor characteristics
• At 4 years: creates simple drawing of a person, buttons
garments, grooms self i.e brushes teeth and combs hair,
hops on one foot, throws a ball, copies a cross.
• At 5 years: draws a person in detail, skips using alternate
feet, copies a square
• At 6 years: ties shoe laces, rides a bicycle, copies a triangle
writes letters.
 Social and Cognitive Development
• At 4 years: over concerned about illness and injury,
curiosity about sex, has imaginary companions, plays
cooperatively with other children, has good verbal self
expression.
• At 5 years: rivalry for the same sex parent for affection of
the opposite sex parent (oedipus complex).
• At 6 years: begins to develop moral values, understands the
finality of death, begins to read.
 LATE CHILDHOOD
• Here a 9 year old boy tell his teacher that he wants to be
just like his father when he grows up.
• He does well in class and wants to collect postage stamps.
• He is vigilant about the rules. All his friends are boys and
• He does well in class and wants to collect postage
stamps.
• He is vigilant about the rules. All his friends are boys
and
• Shows little interest in spending time with girls.
a) Attachment
• Involvement with people other than the parents. Including
teachers, group leaders, friends (especially sex mates)
increase.
• Because of school age, students cope with separation from
their parents. And tolerate hospitalisation very well.
b) Physical and Social Development
• The child develops ability to perform complex motor tasks
( e.g playing, riding a bike, skipping a rope.
 Motor and social characteristics
• These were explained by various developmental theories.
1. Stage of industry versus inferiority complex by Erikson:
the child is industrious, organised, and accomplished, or
 Motor and social characteristics
• These were explained by various developmental
theories.
1. Stage of industry versus inferiority complex by
Erikson: the child is industrious, organised, and
accomplished, or
• feels that he is incompetent in his interactions with the
world.
• 2. Development of the super-ego by Sigmund Freud:
the child develops a moral sense of right and wrong and
learns to follow the rules.
• 3. Stage of concrete operations by Jean Piaget:
the child develops the capacity for logical thought; child can
determine that have more than one property (e.g an object
can red and metal)
• 4. concept of conservation: the child understands that the
quantity of a substance remains the same regardless of the
size of the container it is in. (e.g the amount of water is the
same whether it is in a tall, thin tube or a short, white
bowel.)
 ADOLESCENCE STAGE
• Adolescence, refers to a period of transition from childhood
to adulthood extending from 12 years to late teens when
physical growth is nearly complete.
• During this period a person develops to sexual maturity
and begins to identify himself or herself as an individual
separate from family.
• Adolescence starts at puberty, the period of sexual
maturation and goes on for three to five years(3-5) with a
child developing into a biologically mature adult.
• It starts with secondary sexual characteristics. In girls,
menarche is the term used to describe the fist menstrual
period.
• The first menstrual period is irregular. Some girls attain
menarche as early as 11years and others as late as 17years,
• menstrual period.
• The first menstrual period is irregular. Some girls
attain menarche as early as 11years and others as
late as 17years,
• But on average it is 13 years. Boys on average mature 2
years later.
• Adolescence and puberty tend to have psychological effects
on the youngsters. The period is characterized by
moodiness, inner turmoil and rebellion.
• Being an early or late mature, affects the adolescent’s
satisfaction with the appearance of the body and hence self
esteem.
• The effect tends to be more negative on the side of girls
than boys .This is the stage during which most youngsters
engage or have their first sex encounters.
• Research shows that today’s adolescents engage in sexual
activities much earlier than their parents did despite the
advent of HIV/AIDS.
• Adolescents consult their peers on areas of sexual culture
• sexual activities much earlier than their parents did
despite the advent of HIV/AIDS.
• Adolescents consult their peers on areas of sexual
culture
• , like how to dress, the music to listen to, the fun to have
etc, but also seek parents advise on important matters.
• Family conflicts in form of quarrels and arguments are
common in this stage. These arguments normally involve
simple aspects of daily life like work, messy rooms, playing
radio on high volume.
• These conflicts represents an adolescents attempt to exert
control over his or her life.
• The adolescent gets caught up between two worlds- one
of dependence and another of responsibility.
• They want independence (power to decide for them selves)
but they fear the increased responsibility that accompanies
adult hood
• If parents are authoritative and un willing to grant more
autonomy to the adolescents, the conflict may escalate
• accompanies adult hood
• If parents are authoritative and un willing to grant
more autonomy to the adolescents, the conflict may
escalate
 Parents who provide explanations for their decisions and
provide democratic structure of decision making give the
adolescent a sense of autonomy that reduces conflict and
leads to easy transition to adulthood.
 One major task in adolescence is identity development, the
search for personal identity, involves deciding what is worth
doing gender roles, feelings about self worth and
competence.
 This is search for self identity, proceeds throughout life and
is resolved in a number of ways.
1. Some young people after a period of experimentation
commit themselves to life goals and proceeds towards
them.
2. For those who accept parents values without question the
1. and proceeds towards them.
2. For those who accept parents values without
question the identity crisis may never occur
• 3. Some adopt a deviant identity, one that is at odds with
the family values.
• 4. Some go through a period of identity confusion and
others never develop a sense of personal identity even as
adults.
• NOTE: Adolescence is classified into
a) Early Adolescence (11-14 years)
• Onset of menstruation (menarche) in girls, which on
average begins at 11-12 years of age.
• First ejaculation in boys, which on average occurs at 13-14
years of age.
• Cognitive growth and formation of personality
• Sex drives, which are released through masturbation and
• Cognitive growth and formation of personality
• Sex drives, which are released through masturbation
and physical activity.
a) Middle Adolescence (14-17 years)
• There is pre-occupation with gender roles, body image and
popularity.
• Love for unattainable people *crushes* and preference of
spending time with friends rather than family are common.
• Homosexuality may occur in children who are not handled
well.
• Risk taking behaviors e.g smoking, drug use may occur.
a) Late Adolescence (17-20 years)
• Development
• The adolescent develops morals, ethics, self control, and
concerns about humanitarian issues and world problems.
• Some adolescents but not all develop the ability for
abstract reasoning ( Piaget’s stage of formal operations.)
 PUBERTY
• Puberty is the period of sexual maturation and
achievement of fertility.
• Puberty is a time in life when a boy or girl becomes sexually
mature.
• It’s the period during which adolescents reach sexual
maturity and become capable of reproduction.
• The time when puberty begins varies greatly among
individuals, however, puberty usually occurs in girls
between ages of 10 and 14 and between the ages of 12 and
16 In boys.
• Central Precocious Puberty (CPP):
• This is puberty that occurs earlier than normal due to
release of hormones from the hypothalamus of the brain.
• Girls are more likely than boys to have precocious puberty.
• Puberty may also be accompanied by emotional and mood
changes
 SIGNS OF PUBERTY IN GIRLS
a) First Signs of Puberty
 Development of breasts
 Pubic hair starts to grow
b) Later Signs of Puberty
 Girls breasts continue to grow and become full
 Around 2 years after beginning puberty, girls experience
their first menstruation (menarche)
 Pubic hair becomes more coarser and curlier
 Under arm hair begins to grow
 experience their first menstruation (menarche)
 Pubic hair becomes more coarser and curlier
 Under arm hair begins to grow
 Girls start to sweat more and smell
 Girls often get acne
 White vaginal discharge starts
 Some weight gain is noted.
 Development of the genitals
 Their voices become softer
 Growth spurts: their bodies start to develop quite fast
 SIGNS OF PUBERTY IN BOYS
a) First Signs of Puberty in Boys
• The testicles get bigger and he scrotum begins to thin and
redden.
• Pubic hair starts to appear at the base of the penis
b) Later Signs Of Puberty in Boys
• Pubic hair starts to appear at the base of the penis
b) Later Signs Of Puberty in Boys
• The penis and testicles grow and the scrotum gradually
• becomes darker
• Pubic hair becomes thicker and curlier
• Under arm hair starts to grow
• Boys start to sweat more and smell
• Breasts can swell slightly and temporarily
• Boys may have wet dreams (involuntary ejaculations of
semen as they sleep).
• Boys often develop acne
• Boys become taller by an average of 7-8cms.
• Voices become deep and hoarse
• facial hair begins to grow
• Growth spurts: their bodies start develop quite fast.
• Voices become deep and hoarse
• facial hair begins to grow
• Growth spurts: their bodies start develop quite fast.
• It can be seen through three sub stages, i.e
a) 20-35 Early adulthood stage
b) 35-45Middle adulthood
c) 45-60 Late adulthood stage.
 General characteristics of adulthood
 This is a period of assuming responsibilities, social,
economic, political ,marital and civil responsibilities.
 This is a period of assuming responsibilities, social,
economic, political ,marital and civil responsibilities.
 Here most people have accomplished at least basic
education
 The adults acquire variety of experiences from where to
learn.
 This is the time for settling down, people make up their
mind on what they want to be.
 This is the time for caring for the young ones, dependants
or relative or grand children.
 It is time for setting goals/ laying foundation for the future
 Adults should know their roles and responsibilities. If they
are to be better examples for the future generation.
 The individual either maintains a continued sense of
productivity or develops a sense of emptiness. ( Erikson’s
stage of generativity versus stagnation)
 Early Adulthood
 Adult's role in the society is defined, physical development
peaks, and the adult develops independence.
 At approximately 30 years of age there is a period of
reappraisal in one’s life
 Marriage or another type of intimate relationship occurs.
(Erikson’s stage of intimacy versus isolation)
 By around 30 years of life most individuals have children.
There is noted increase in the number of mothers who give
birth by cesarean section than those who give birth by
normal birth.
 Many women suffer from emotional reactions after
childbirth. These include post partum psychosis and major
depression.
 crisis) which may include:
i. A change in profession or life style
ii. Infidelity, separation or divorce
iii. Increased use of alcohol or drugs
iv. depression
 The midlife crisis is associated with awareness of own aging
i. Increased use of alcohol or drugs
ii. depression
 The midlife crisis is associated with awareness of own
aging
 and mortality and or severe or unexpected life style
changes e.g death of a spouse, loss of a job or serious
illness.
 Late Adulthood.
 A successful 50 year old engineer tells his interns that she
just bought an expensive sports car. In explaining her
purchase she says “I realised I better get the things I
wanted now, because am not getting any younger”.
 The climacterium which is the diminution in physiologic
function that occurs during late adult life
1. In men, a decrease in muscle strength, endurance, and
sexual performance occurs.
2. In women, menopause sets in; the ovaries stop
functioning, and menstruation stops at around 50.
 OLD AGE
• This is approximately from 60 plus. It is usually referred to
as retirement age from civic responsibilities .
• However the social responsibilities continue.
• This is a period of looking back, either in desperation or
integrity basing on what one has done or achieved.
• Since they reached retirement age, there is need to be
assisted to fulfill their social responsibilities
• There is need to help these people appreciate them selves
on what they have done and not to despair for what they
have not done.
• In their final stage of life, they need to be assisted to die a
happy death i.e they should be helped to cope with anger,
bargaining, depression so as to accept that death is
inevitable.
• In their final stage of life, they need to be assisted to
die a happy death i.e they should be helped to cope
with anger, bargaining, depression so as to accept
that death is inevitable.
• They need to be loved and they need adequate care and
affection from care takers.
• Should be consulted because they have a wide experience.
• They should give independence to their children to run
their affairs
AGING, DEATH, AND BEREAVEMENT
A. AGING
• A 78 – year old woman appears alert and well groomed.
She tells her physician that she needs some help with food
shopping and house cleaning, but she cooks for herself and
feels that she functions well living on her own.
• She notes that although she remembers the family
members’ birthdays, she occasionally forgets the names of
the people whom she has just met.
 Physical changes associated with aging include:
 Impaired vision and hearing
 Impaired bladder control
 Impaired immune responses.
 Decreased renal, pulmonary and gastrointestinal function.
 Decreased muscle mass and strength.
 Increased fat deposits
 Osteoporosis.
 Brain changes associated with aging include:
 decreased cerebral blood flow and brain weight.
 Enlarged ventricles and sulci
 Increased presence of senile plaques
 Neurofibrillary tangles( even in the normally aging brain)
 Psychological changes in the elderly
 Decreased learning speed and memory lapses occur
 Intelligence remains approximately the same through out
life
 Memory problems of normal aging do not interfere with
social functioning or self care.
 The elderly experience Erikson’s stage of ego integrity
versus despair. Either he individual is satisfied and proud of
his or her accomplishments or experiences a sense of
worthlessness. Most people achieve ego-integrity.
 Psychopathology in the elderly
1. Depression is the common psychiatric disorder in the
elderly;
 Factors associated with depression in the elderly include:
• Loss of a spouse, family members, and friends
• loss of prestige,
• And decline in health
 Note: depression may mimic Alzheimers disease because
depression in the elderly is associated with memory loss
and cognitive problems.
• 2. Sleep patterns change resulting in loss of sleep, poor
sleep quality
• 3. anxiety may be associated with insecurity and anxiety
inducing situations such as physical illness
• B. DYING, DEATH AND BEREAVEMENT
• Death: The permanent end of life of a biological organism.
• Bereavement: it’s a period of mourning after a loss,
especially of a loved one.
 Stages Of Dying
• According to Elizabeth Kubler Ross, the process of dying involves
five stages that usually occur in the following order. However they
also may occur simultaneously or in another order.
1. Denial: the patient refuses to believe that she is dying. (“the lab
test was wrong”, may be they gave results of another person”)
2. Anger: the patient may become angry at the physician and
hospital staff. (“you should have made me come in more often”)
3. Bargaining: the patient may try to strike a bargain with God. (“ I
promise to go to church everyday”)
4. Depression: the patient becomes pre-occupied witjh death and
may become emotionally detached. (“ I feel so hopeless and
helpless”, I wish I knew.)
5. Acceptance: the patient is calm and accepts their fate. (“ I have
made my peace and am ready to die”)
B. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
• This looks at how children develop mental processes by
which they acquire knowledge.
• It is a gradual increase in knowledge and ability to process
information. A Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget studied
children’s cognitive development and came up with the
theory of how their abilities to think and reason progress as
they mature.
• He realized that a child’s intellectual development is not
merely an accumulation of experience or maturation on
unfolding but a child constructs new mental process as he
she interacts. He came up with stages of development.
Stages Of Cognitive Development:
 Sensorimotor stage, pre-operational stage, concrete
operational stage and formal operational stage.
 Sensorimotor/ infancy stage (0-2years)
• During this stage infants are discovering the relationship
between their actions and the consequences.
• The stage is called so because of the interplay between and
the motor ability(motor activity) and the perception.
• The children differentiate them selves from objects and
learn that they are agents of actions.
• So they begin to act intentionally e.g a child shaking a
rattle to make noise( a rattle is a toy that makes noise when
pressed on)
 Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into 6 sub stages.
 Simple reflex phase( birth - 6 weeks)
• Involves the palmar grasp, nipple seeking, Babinski reflex
 Primary circular phase( 6weeks -4 months)
• Baby will repeat pleasurable actions. Baby will wiggle their
fingers, kick their legs and suck their thumbs
 Secondary circular phase (4 - 8 months)
• Infants become object oriented, repeating actions that
bring interesting or pleasurable action. E.g shaking of the
rattle
 Coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12months)
• A stage which marks goal orientation, deliberate planning
steps to meet an object. Eg crawl towards a phone and
picks it. Or crawl towards a hidden rattle.
 Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months)
• Baby tries to discover consequences of actions. E.g
dropping a ball from different heights, Sound produced by
 Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months)
• Baby tries to discover consequences of actions. E.g
dropping a ball from different heights, Sound
produced by shaking a rattle.
 Beginnings of symbolic representation (18 -24moths)
• Acquisition of object permanence. Baby draws a circle
without seeing it first.
 Pre- Operational/toddler or early childhood (2-7years)
• In this stage children can think in symbolic terms but their
but their words and images are not yet organized in a
logical manner.
• They can't comprehend certain rules or operations as yet
and hence the name pre –operational.
• This deficit can be illustrated by experiments on
development of conservation example a child is given clay
to make it to a ball equal to another ball and after doing
this he declares them to be the same.
• Leaving one ball for reference, the experimenter rolls the
other into along sausage shape while the child watches, the
• doing this he declares them to be the same.
• Leaving one ball for reference, the experimenter rolls
the other into along sausage shape while the child
watches, the
• child plainly sees that no clay is added or subtracted but
will believe that the two no longer contain the same clay
but the longer one contains more .
• One reason why children below seven have difficulty in the
conservation principle is that their thinking is still
dominated by visual impression.
 Concrete-operational(7-12years)
• In this stage children can think logically about objects and
events. They master various conservation concepts and can
perform logical manipulations e.g here they can arrange
objects basing on certain dimension say height or weight.
 Formal- operational(12& above years)
• Here the child’s thinking becomes formal, a child can think
logically about abstract prepositions and can test
hypothesis systematically. The child becomes concerned
 Formal- operational(12& above years)
• Here the child’s thinking becomes formal, a child can
think logically about abstract prepositions and can
test hypothesis systematically. The child becomes
concerned
• with hypothetical and future problems. Children in this
stage will experiment by changing variables, e.g they will
reason that one variable affects another, the effect will
appear only if you hold one variable constant and change
the other, if no effect appears they will rule out the
hypothesis.
• Although cognitive development is divided into stages the
quality of the child’s thinking does not change dramatically
from one stage to the next.
• Transition between stages is gradual involving consolidation
of earlier skills. Many of the differences between the
younger and the older children are due to differences in
their ability to remember..
• The younger child may be unable to hold certain concepts
because doing so is beyond what its memory capacity
• The younger child may be unable to hold certain
concepts because doing so is beyond what its
memory capacity
• permits. What changes with age is the ability to organize
knowledge and improve memory.
 Basic concepts of Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development
 Schemas (Building blocks of knowledge).
 Adaptation processes that enable the transition from one
stage to another (equilibrium, assimilation and
accommodation).
 Stages of Cognitive Development which include
sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational stage
and formal operational stage.
 • SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
• Social development refers to how people develop social
and emotional skills across the life span with particular
attention to childhood and adolescence
• Social and emotional development of children depends
greatly on their experiences during their first year of life.
• Most importantly on the manner in which the care givers
respond to their needs.
• Irrespective of where they are raised from , infants begin
smiling at about the same age.
• Indicating that smiling is an innate (in born) response. By
their 4th months infants begin to show preference for
familiar family members though they are still receptive to
strangers.
• At about 8 months they begin to show distress on approach
of a stranger. This is stranger anxiety.
• The distress over separation from the parent reaches a peak
at about 1&1/2 years and then declines, such that by the age
of 2 years most children can comfortably interact with other
people in the absence of their parents.
• Two factors are responsible for the onset for the anxiety.
 The first is memory growth: When the mother leaves the
infants gets aware and this leads to distress and anxiety. But
as memory of past instances of separation and return
improves the infant becomes able to anticipate return of the
mother and the anxiety declines.
 The second factor is growth of autonomy as children grow
they can communicate their wants and dependence on the
 and return improves the infant becomes able to
anticipate return of the mother and the anxiety
declines.
 The second factor is growth of autonomy as children
grow they can communicate their wants and
dependence on the care givers declines, so the issue
of the parents presence
 becomes less critical.
ATTACHMENT
• This is the intimate enduring relationship between the infant
and the care giver during infancy.
• This relationship is characterized by reciprocal affection
shared and a desire to maintain physical closeness.
• People believe that an infant’s attachment to its care giver is
primarily because of the nourishment that the care giver
provides but this is not true as studies reveal that it is for
something more than nourishment.
• The attachment provides the security necessary for the child
to explore his /her environment and it forms the basis for
interpersonal relationship later in life.
• Failure to form secure attachment to primary persons in early
years is related to in ability to develop close personal
• Attachment theory is a psychological model attempting to
describe the dynamics of long term and short term
interpersonal relationships between humans.
• This is not formulated as a general theory of relationships;
but it only addresses a specific facet on how human beings
respond within relationships when hurt, separated from
loved ones, or perceiving threat.
TYPES OF ATTACHMENT
• Mary Ainsworth(1973) found out that children will have
different patterns of attachment depending on how they
experienced their early caregiving environment.
• She identified a secure pattern of attachment and three
patterns of insecurity
1. Secure attachment: Here children play comfortably and
• environment.
• She identified a secure pattern of attachment and
three patterns of insecurity
1. Secure attachment: Here children play comfortably
and are friendly to strangers when parent is
present. They get
• distressed when the parent leaves and may cry, but when
she returns, they calm down and get comforted and go
back to play. Mothers of securely attached children are
more affectionate, caring and responsive to their needs and
cries.
• The insecure patterns of attachment involved the:
 Disorganised attachment
 Avoidant attachment
 Resistant attachment
• 2.Avoidant attachment:(insecure)
• Here children mind less about the care givers presence and
seem not distressed when she leaves.
• If distressed they can be comforted by a stranger, they
ignore the mother when she returns or may approach her
• presence and seem not distressed when she leaves.
• If distressed they can be comforted by a stranger,
they ignore the mother when she returns or may
approach her
• briefly and get back to their play.
• Mothers of such children showed them little affection and
were generally un responsive to the infant’s needs and
cries.
• 3. Resistant attachment (insecure)
• These infants remain close to the mother before departure
but seem ambivalent (contradicting feeling) towards her
when she returns, they display resistive behavior like
hitting, biting and pushing her , they may continue crying
after being picked up and are not easily comforted.
Mothers of such children are inconsistent in their
responsiveness only attending to mood rather than when
the infants need them. i.e they only attend to the babies
when they cry but not when they need them.
• 4.Disorganised attachment (insecure)
• This is in infants who respond in a confused manner,
when re- united to parents. They might look a way while
being held by the parent or show other confused
behaviours making it difficult for the parent to give them a
concern.
• This pattern reflects the greatest insecurity, although
infant’s primary attachment is to the person providing early
care and other family members too are a source of security
ATTACHMENT & LATER DEVELOPMENT
• There is a relationship between the pattern of attachment
and the way the infant copes with new experiences in later
life. The securely attached will be more social and approach
problems with enthusiasm and will always readily seek
help from adults.
• The insecurely attached on other hand get easily frustrated
and angry, seldom ask for help, tend to ignore directions
from adults.
.
• They tend to be socially withdrawn and hesitant about
participating in activities. So the pattern of the care giver-
infant attachment has an important influence or later
development.
PARENTING
• Parenting is the act or process of promoting and supporting
the physical, emotional, social and intellectual
development of a child from infancy to adulthood.
• Types of parenting styles
 Authoritative parenting
 Authoritarian parenting
 Permissive parenting
 Neglect parenting
 1. Authoritarian parenting:
• Authoritarian parents are thought of as disciplinarians.
 They use a strict disciplinary style with little negotiation
possible . Punishment is common.
 Communication is mostly one way: from parent to child.
Rules usually are not explained.
 Parents with this style are typically less nurturing.
 Expectations are high with limited flexibility
 2. Authoritative parenting:
• Authoritative parents are reasonable and nurturing, and set
high, clear expectations. Children with parents who
 Authoritative parenting:
• Authoritative parents are reasonable and nurturing,
and set high, clear expectations. Children with
parents who demonstrate this style tend to be self-
disciplined and think
• for themselves. This style is thought to be the most
beneficial to the children.
 Disciplinary rules are clear and reasons behind them are
explained. Communication is frequent and appropriate to
the child’s level of understanding
 Authoritative parents are nurturing
 Expectations and goals are high but stated clearly.
 3. Permissive Parenting: (indulgent parenting)
• Permissive or indulgent parents mostly let their children do
what they want, and offer limited guidance or direction.
They are more like friends than parents.
 Their discipline style is the opposite of strict. They have
limited or no rules and mostly let their children figure
problems out on their own.
 Their discipline style is the opposite of strict. They
have limited or no rules and mostly let their children
figure problems out on their own.
• Communication is open but these parents let their children
decide for themselves rather than giving them direction.
• Parents in this category tend to be nurturing and war.
• Expectations are typically minimal or not set by these
parents.
• Note: this type of parents are also referred to as lenient,
libertarian or non-directive parents
• 4. Uninvolved Parenting : (neglecting parenting)
• Uninvolved parents give children a lot of freedom and
usually stay out of their way, while others are less
interested in parenting or unsure of what to do.
• No particular discipline style is utilised. An uninvolved
parent lets a child mostly do what he wants, probably out
of a lack of information or caring.
• Communication is limited.
• This group of parents offers little nurturing
• There are few or no expectation of their children.
 FACTORS IN HOW CHILDREN TURN OUT.
 The child’s temperament and how it fits with the parents.
 A teacher’s style of working with children and the match of
teaching style to parenting style.
 The influence of the child’s peer group.
NOTE:
• In addition to attachment, Harry Harlow raised baby
monkeys away from their mothers: he gave them
surrogate mothers made of wire and wood, to which they
developed attachment bonds.
 PSYCHO-SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
• Erikson was interested in how social interaction and
relationship played a role in the development and growth of
human beings.
• Each stage in Erikson’s theory builds on the preceding stages
and paves the way for the following periods of development.
• Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of
the most popular and influential theories of development.
While this theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund
Freud’s work.
 Erikson’s Theory Of Psychosocial Development
 1. Hope: Trust Vs Mistrust (0-2years)
• This is the first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial
development. It occurs between birth and one year of life
and is the most fundamental stage of development.
• Because the child is utterly dependent on the caregivers for
everything that it needs to survive including warmth, food,
love, safety and nurturing.
• If the care giver fails to provide love and care, the
child/baby will come to feel that it can not depend or trust
the adult in her life.
• If a child successfully develops the trust, it will feel safe and
secure in the world.
 2. Will: Autonomy Vs Shame/Doubt (2-4 years)
• This is the second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development and takes place in the early
childhood/toddler stage and is focused on children
developing a greater sense of personal control.
• Parents here provide a strong base of security from which
the child can venture out to assert their will.
• If caregivers encourage self sufficient behavior ( like; feed
themselves, dress themselves, bathe themselves), toddlers
develop a sense of autonomy – a sense of being able to
handle many issues on their own.
• But if caregivers demand too much too soon, or refuse let
their children perform tasks of which they are capable,
children may instead develop shame and doubt about
their ability to handle problems.
• Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure
and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense
of inadequacy and self-doubt.
 3. Purpose: Initiative Vs Guilt (early childhood, 4-6years)
• This is the third stage of psychosocial development which
takes place during the pre-school years.
• At this stage the child, the child wants to begin and
• complete their own actions for a purpose.
• At this point, the child begins to assert control over the
world through directing play and other social interactions.
• The development of courage and independence are what
set preschoolers, apart from the other age groups.
• Activities sought out by a child in this stage may include risk
taking behaviors such as; crossing the road alone, riding a
bike without a helmet.
• Children who fail to acquire the skills are left with a sense
of guilt.
 4. Competence: Industry Vs Inferiority (late childhood, 7-
12 years)
• This is the forth stage that takes place during the late
childhood or in the school age.
• Children who are encouraged and commended by parents
and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in
their skills.
• Those who receive little or no encouragement from
parents, teachers or peers will feel inferior and doubt their
abilities to be successful.
• Erikson viewed the elementary school yeas as critical for
development of self confidence.
• Note: children begin to demonstrate industry by being
diligent, persevering at tasks until completed and putting
work before pleasure while those who are punished for
their efforts will develop a feeling of inferiority about their
capabilities.
• At this stage children start recognising their talents and
continue to discover interests until education improves.
 5. Fidelity: Identity Vs Role Confusion (adolescence, 13-20
years)
• This is the fifth psychosocial stage that takes place during
the often turbulent teenage years. This stage plays a big
role in the sense of a personal identity which will continue
to influence behavior and development for the rest of a
person’s life.
• In later stages of adolescence, the child develops a sense of
sexual identity. Here adolescents are struggling to know
who they are and what they want to be in the future.
• But they experience role confusion- or mixed ideas and
feelings about the specific ways they will fit into society (e.g
affiliating with certain political or religious groups,) and may
experiment with a variety of behaviors and activities.
• Note: the teenager must achieve identity in gender roles,
• politics, and in some cultures, religion.
• Dependent on this stage is the ego quality of fidelity- the
ability to sustain loyalties freely pledged in spite of the
inevitable contradictions and confusions of value systems.
 6. Love or Relationships: Intimacy Vs Isolation (early
adulthood, 21-39 years)
• This is the sixth stage of Erikson's psychosocial
development.
• His stage covers a period of early adulthood when young
adults are exploring personal relationships. People at this
stage become worried about finding the right partner and
fear that if they fail to do so, they may have to spend the
rest of their lives alone.
• It is not a success for every young adult to find someone
with whom they can share lifelong commitment.
• Note: those with a poor sense of personality tend to have
less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer
emotional isolation, loneliness and depression
• Those successful at this stage are able to form lasting,
meaningful relationships with other people.
 Work and Parenthood: Generativity Vs Stagnation ( 40-59
years)
• This is the seventh stage of Erikson’s psychosocial
development. Here adults continue building their lives
basically focusing on family and career. They are active in
their homes and community.
• Adults who are in their 40s and 50s tend to find meaning in
their work. They feel like at this point in their lives, they
should be able to contribute some thing meaningful to
their society and leave a legacy.
• Note: if they fail to achieve this, they feel that they have
been an unproductive member of their society.
• If they are successful, they feel proud of their
accomplishments, watching their children grow into adults
and they live a legacy in the society.
 Reflection on life: Ego integrity Vs Despair (60 & above
years)
• This is the final psychosocial stage that occurs in the old age
and is focused on reflecting back on life. This is the stage
when people are retiring from their civic works.
• Note: Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will
feel a sense of Integrity meaning they have less regrets in
their lives. If they feel they have not done enough during
their life, its likely that they will experience a sense of
despair focusing on what could/should/ would have been.
 MORAL DEVELOPMENT
 PIAGET’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
• Piaget (1932) was principally interested not in what
children do(i.e in whether they break rules or not) but in
what they think. In other words he was interested in the
children’s moral reasoning.
• Piaget was interested in three main aspects of the
children's understanding of moral issues. They were:
1. Children’s understanding of rules: this lead to questions
like; where do rules come from? Can rules be changed?
Who makes the rules?
2. Children’s understanding of moral responsibility: i.e who
is to blame for ‘bad’ things? Is the outcome of the
behavior that makes the action ‘bad’? Is there a difference
1. Children’s understanding of moral responsibility:
i.e who is to blame for ‘bad’ things? Is the outcome
of the behavior that makes the action ‘bad’? Is
there a difference between accidental and
deliberate wrong doing?
• 3. Children’s understanding of Justice: i.e should the
punishment fit the crime? Are the guilt always punished?
• Piaget found out that children’s ideas regarding rules, moral
judgments and punishment tended to change as they got
older.
• Piaget (1932) suggested two main types of moral thinking.
 Heteronomous morality (moral realism)
 Autonomous Morality (Moral Relativism)
Heteronomous Morality (5-8yrs)
• This stage is also known as moral realism- morality imposed
from outside. Children regard morality as obeying other
people’s rules and laws, which can not be changed.
• They accept all rules that are made by some authority figure
(e.g parents, teacher, God) and that breaking the rules will
lead to immediate and severe punishment (immanent
• The function of any punishment is to make the guilt suffer
in that the severity of the punishment should be related to
severity of wrong doing (expiatory punishment).
 During this stage children consider rules as being absolute
and unchanging i.e ‘divine like’
 They think that rules can not be changed.
 Behavior is termed as bad in terms of the observable
consequences regardless of whether its intentional or
accidental damage.
• Immanent justice- punishment should automatically
following bad behavior.
• Note: Piaget (1932) described heteronomous morality as
morality formed out of being subject to another’s rules.
• In other words it’s the morality that comes from, unilateral
respect. i.e respect children owe to teachers, parents, etc.
 Autonomous Morality (9-10yrs)
• The stage of autonomous morality is also known as moral
relativism. i.e morality based on your own rules. Children
recognise there is absolute right or wrong and that
morality depends on intentions not consequences.
• Children now understand that people make rules and they
can change them. With regards to “the rules of the game”,
older children recognise that rules are needed to prevent
quarrelling and to ensure fair play.
• Children now realise that if they behave in ways that are
not good or appear wrong, but have good intentions, they
are not necessarily going to be punished.
• Thus for them a well intentioned act that turned out badly
is less blame worthy than a malicious act that did no harm.
 KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
• Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget’s (1932)
theory of moral development in principle but wanted to
develop his ideas further.
• He used Piaget’s story telling technique to tell people
stories involving moral dilemmas. In each case, he
presented a choice to be considered, for example, between
the rights of some authority and the needs of some
deserving individual who is being unfairly treated.
• One of the best known of Kohlberg's (19580 stories
concerns a man called Heinz who lived some where in
Europe.
 Heinz’s wife was dying form a particular type of cancer.
Doctors said that a new drug might save her. The drug had
been discovered by a local chemist, and Heinz tried
 desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten
times the money it could cost to make the drug, and this
was much more than Heinz could afford.
 Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from
family and friends. He explained to the chemist that his
wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper
or pay the rest of the money later.
 The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the
drug and was going to make money from it. The husband
was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he broke
into the chemist’s pharmacy and stole the drug.
 Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:
• Should Heinz have stolen the drug? Would it change
anything if Heinz did not love his wife? What if the person
dying was a stranger, would it make any difference? Should
• the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman
died?
 Note
• By studying answers from children of different ages to
these questions, Kohlberg hoped to discover how moral
reasoning changed as people grew older.
• The sample comprised 72 Chicago boys aged 10-16yrs, 58
of whom were followed up at three-yearly intervals for 20
years (Kohlberg 1984). Each boy was given a 2hour
interview based on the ten dilemmas. What Kohlberg was
mainly interested in was not whether the boys judged right
or wrong, but the reasons given for the decision. He found
that these reasons tended to change as the children got
older.
• He later identified 3 distinct levels of moral reasoning.
 Level 1 – Pre-conventional morality (below 9 years old)
• Here the children do not have a personal code of morality,
but instead their moral code is shaped by standards of
adults and the consequences of following or breaking the
rules.
• Stage 1: obedience and punishment orientation.; child
does good in order to avoid being punished. If person is
punished they must have done wrong.
• Stage 2: reward orientation; at this stage, children learn
that different individuals have different view points.
• For example; when a child is asked by his parents to
perform a certain chore at home, they will ask “what’s in it
for me?” and parents will offer an incentive to the child.
 Level 2 – conventional morality (adolescents and adults)
• Here adolescents begin to internalise the moral standards
• of valued adult role models. Authority is internalised but
not questioned, and reasoning is based on the norms of the
group to which the person belongs.
• Stage 3: Good boy, Nice girl orientation; the adolescent is
good in order to be seen as a good person by others. Actins
are aimed at maintaining a good image.
• Stage 4: Law and Order orientation; the individual now
becomes aware of the wider rules of society, so judgments
concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to
avoid guilt.
 Level 3: Post conventional morality;
• Individual judgment is based on the self chosen principles,
and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and
justice.
• Stage 5: social contract and individual rights; individual
• becomes aware that while rule/laws might exist for the
good of the greatest number, there are times when they
will work against the interest of particular individuals.
• For example: Heinz's dilemma, the protection of life being
more important than breaking the law against theft. The
issues are not always clear cut.
• Stage 6: Universal principles; people at this stage develop
their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit
the law. People choose the ethical principles they want to
follow, and if they violate those principles they feel guilty.
• in this way the individual acts because its morally right to
do so (and not because he or she wants to avoid
punishment), it is in their best interest.
 PSYCHO-SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
• For Freud, childhood experiences shape our personalities
and behavior as adults. Sigmund Freud viewed
development as discontinuous; he believed that each of us
must pass through a series of stage during childhood, and
that if we lack nurturing and parenting during a stage, we
may become stuck in ,or fixated on, that stage.
 Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Stages Of Development
 Oral stage (0-1 year)
 Anal stage (1-3 years)
 Phallic stage (3-6 years)
 Latency stage (6-12 years)
 Genital stage. ( 12 years and above)
1. Oral stage (0-1 yr): during this stage the mouth is the
• pleasure centre for development. Freud believed that this is
why infants are born with a suckling reflex and desire their
mothers breast. If a child’s oral needs are not met in
infancy, they develop negative attitudes like nail biting,
thumb sucking to meet this basic need.
• 2. Anal stage (1-3yrs): during this stage, toddlers and pre-
school aged children begin to experiment with urine and
feces. The control they learn to exert over their bodily
functions is manifested in toilet training. Improper
resolution of this stage, such as toilet training can result in a
child who is uptight and overly obsessed with order.
• 3. Phallic stage (3-6yrs): During this stage, preschoolers
take pleasure in their genitals and, according to Freud,
begin to struggle with sexual desires and towards the
opposite sex parent. i.e Oedipus complex( boy’s desire for
• his mother and his urge to replace his father who is seen as a
rival for the mother’s attention. At the same time the boy is
afraid that his father will punish him fir feelings, so he
experiences castration anxiety.
• The Electra complex, later proposed by Freud's protégé Carl
Jung involves a girl’s desire for her fathers attention and wish
to take her mother’s place.
• 4. Latency stage (6-12yrs): During this stage, sexual instincts
subside, and children and children begin to further develop
the superego, or conscience. Children begin to behave in
morally acceptable ways and adopt the values of their parents
and other important adults
• 5. Genital stage (12 years & above):
• During this stage, sexual impulses re-emerge. If other stages
have been successfully met, adolescents engage in appropriate
sexual behavior, which may lead to marriage and childbirth.
 LEARNING THEORIES AND BEHAVIORAL MEDICINE
• Learning
• This is the process of acquiring new or modifying existing
knowledge, behaviors, skills, values or preferences.
• One of the most important characteristics of human beings
is their capacity to learn. An individual starts learning
immediately after birth.
 Factors Influencing Learning
• Learning is a process of bringing relatively permanent
change in behavior of the learner through experience or
practice.
• The learning process is centered on three elements:
 The learner, whose behavior is to be changed or modified.
 The type of experience or training required for modification
 in the learner’s behavior.
 The men and material resources needed for providing
desired experiences and training
 Factors associated with the learner him/herself
• Learner’s physical health: Fever, sensory defects
particularly of the eyes or the ears, malnutrition, loss of
sleep and fatigue are some of the physical handicaps that
hinder effective learning
• Learner‘s mental health: Experiments have shown that
worries, fears, persistent day dreams; feelings of loneliness
and inferiority affect learning. If the learner has no self-
confidence, self-reliance or self- respect due to the
attitudes of teachers or others, it is very difficult for him or
her to learn well
• Basic potential of the learner:
 Learner’s innate abilities and capacities for learning.
 Learner’s general intelligence, knowledge, understanding
skills, etc.
 Learner’s basic interest, aptitudes and attitudes related to
the learning of a particular thing or area.
• The level of motivation: The stronger and clearer the
motive in learning anything, the greater is the effort and
interest shown by the learner in learning it. The result is
greater and more permanent learning.
• Goals of life: The philosophy of immediate as well as
ultimate goals of one’s life affects the process and product
of learning.
• Readiness and willpower: A learner’s readiness and
willpower to learn is a great deciding factor of his results in
learning. If the learner has a will to learn a thing, he finds a
• Maturation: Maturation helps in the process of learning.
We learn things, when we are mature to learn them.
Maturation and learning are closely related to each other.
• Age: There are certain limitations that old people face in
learning new things. They are physically weak and their
ability to learn is slow. They have a poor recent memory
and their reasoning speed decreases.
• Emotions: Tension or anxiety is a double-edged emotion. It
has a positive as well as a negative effect on learning. Some
amount of stress or anxiety is essential for learning. It
provides the drive to learn.
• Sex: Although no sex is superior to the other, certain
differences in interests and aptitudes are found between
the two sexes. Females like to learn things that involve
people, while men are more object- oriented
 Factors Associated with type of Learning Experience
• Nature of learning experience: Learning is influenced by
the nature of the subject matter and the learning
experiences presented to a learner, such as formal or
informal, incidental or well planned, direct or indirect.
• Methodology of learning: Learning depends upon the
methods, techniques and approaches employed for the
teaching and learning of the selected contents. Some of
these techniques are:
 Linking the recent learning with those of the past.
 Correlating learning in one area with that of another.
 Utilization of maximum number of senses. Revision and
practice.
 Provision of proper feedback and reinforcement.
• Meaningfulness of material: The more meaningful the
material, the faster it is learned.
• Amount or length of material: Learning is influenced
considerably by the amount and length of the material to
be learned. In general, more the amount of material to be
learned, more the time the person will take to learn it.
LAWS OF LEARNING
• Edward Lee Thorndike developed the first three laws of
learning i.e. readiness, effect and exercise. Since Thorndike
set down his basic three laws in early 20TH century, five
additional principles have been added: primacy, recency,
intensity, freedom and requirement.
 The various laws of learning are as under:
• Law of readiness, Law of effect, Law of exercise/use, Law of
frequency, Law of disuse, Law of recency, Law of primacy,
• Law of purpose, Law of freedom, Law of requirement, Law
of intensity.
 Law of Readiness
• Learning takes place best, when a person is ready to learn.
Learner’s reaction depends upon the readiness of the
sensory and motor neurons.
 Law of Effect
• It stated that any response that produces a satisfying effect
in a particular situation and responses that produce a
discomforting effect becomes less likely to occur again in
that situation.
 Law of Exercise/Use
• It states that in learning the more frequently a stimulus and
response are associated with each other the more likely the
particular response will follow the stimulus. The law implies
• that one cannot learns a skill for instance by watching
others but by practicing the skill because by doing so the
bond between stimulus and response strengthened.
 Law of Frequency
• The law of frequency is correlated/linked to law of use. If
one response strengthens the situation-response
connection, two responses will strengthen it further, three
still further and so on. The more frequently a connection is
exercised, the stronger the connection becomes.
 Law of Disuse
• Any learning process, which is not practiced for some time
gradually decays. Use strengthens a situation-response
connection. Disuse weakens the connection. Material
without any meaning like nonsense syllables is quickly
forgotten. The material with a meaning like poetry is not so
 Law of Recency
• The law of recency is correlated/linked to law of disuse. The
more recent is the exercise, the stronger is the connection
between the situation and the response. The connection
between a situation and the response is weakened
gradually through disuse.
 Law of Primacy
• Things learned first are usually learned easily and remain
without effort in the mind of the student.
 Law of Purpose
• With a clear or definite goal in mind, the student works
towards a definite purpose.
 Law of intensity
• The more intense the material taught the more likely it will
• be retained. e.g. a sharp vivid dramatic or exciting learning
experience teaches more than a routine or boring
experience.
 Law of requirement
• It states that we must have something to obtain or do
something i.e. it can be ability, skill, instrument or anything
that may help us to learn or gain something.
 Law of freedom
• It states that things freely learned are best learned.
THEORIES OF LEARNING
• There are three theories of learning
1. Try and error theory of learning
2. Classical Conditioning
3. Operant Conditioning
 1. TRY AND ERROR THEORY OF LEARNING
• This theory was propagated by Edward Lee Thorndike
(1874-1949). According to Thorndike, learning is nothing
but the stamping/fixing in of the correct responses and
stamping/fixing out of the incorrect responses through trial
and error.
• To support his View Edward Thorndike conducted an
experiments.
 A hungry cat was placed in a box. There was only one door
for exit, which could be opened by correctly manipulating a
latch. A fish was placed outside the box, which worked as a
strong motive for the cat to come out of the box.
Consequently, the cat made a number of random
movements such as biting, clawing manipulated the latch.
The door then opened and the cat came out and got its
• reward.
 For another trial, the process was repeated. But this time,
it took less time in coming out. On subsequent trials, such
incorrect responses like biting and clawing gradually
diminished, until the cat reached a stage, when it
manipulated the latch as soon as it was put in the box and
came out immediately to eat the fish. In this way gradually,
the cat learned the art of opening the door. Thorndike
named the learning of his experimental cat as ‘trial and
error learning’.
 2. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY OF LEARNING
 The theory of classical conditioning was proposed by Ivan
Pavlov (1849-1936), a Russian physiologist. Pavlov, while
studying the physiology of digestion; found that behavior
can be classically conditioned. He experimented on a dog
 and found that food placed in the mouth of a hungry dog
automatically causes salivation. In this case, salivation is an
unlearned response, or an unconditioned response and
the food is an unconditioned stimulus (natural).
 Later on, a bell was rung each time before the food was
presented. Pavlov now found that the dog started to
salivate at the sound of the bell and this was termed as a
conditioned response. The bell is a conditioned stimulus
(artificial stimulus).
 In later studies Pavlov noticed that if he did not provide
food after the bell was rung, the dog eventually stopped
salivating called ‘extinction’ and demonstrated that
reinforcement is essential both to acquire and maintain
respondent learning.
 Pavlov also found that if the dog is given a prolonged rest
 period during extinction, it will once again salivate when
the bell is rung. This phenomenon is called as spontaneous
recovery.
 Prior to conditioning, the ringing of a bell does not bring
about salivation — making the bell a neutral stimulus. On
the other hand, food naturally brings about salivation,
making the food an unconditioned stimulus and salivation
an unconditioned response.
 During conditioning, the bell is rung just before the
presentation of the food.
 After conditioning, the ringing of the bell alone brings
about salivation. The bell which was earlier considered as
neutral stimulus is now considered as conditional stimulus
bringing about conditioned response of salivation.
 So classical Conditioning is a type of learning, in which a
 neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is
paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that
response.
Terms used
 An unconditioned stimulus : This is a stimulus that
automatically produces a response.(E.g presence of food
automatically produces saliva).
 An unconditioned response: This is a natural, reflexive
behavior that does not have to be learned. (e.g production
of saliva in presence of food).
 Conditioned Stimulus: a stimulus that produces a
conditioned response after learning.(ringing a bell and the
dog salivates)
 Conditioned Response: a behavioral response that is
produced after associating a conditioned stimulus (CU)
 with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). For example, a dog
salivates at the ringing of a bell).
 Acquisition: this is the (acquiring)learning of the behavior
in response to an unconditioned stimulus(UCS). E.g
salivating in response to hearing a bell.
 Extinction: This is when a conditioned response (CS)
decreases and eventually fades if the conditioned stimulus
is not followed by an unconditional stimulus.(e.g a dog
stops salivating on hearing the bell when food is not
brought.)
 Spontaneous Recovery
• This is when a conditional stimulus regains the ability to
elicit a conditional response
 Stimulus Generalization
• A response to a new stimulus (any sound) that resembles
• the conditioned stimulus (sound of a bell ringing) resulting
in the conditioned response (salivating of the dog).
 Stimulus discrimination.
• Here the object learns to differentiate between the
conditioned stimulus (CS) to any other stimulus similar to it.
(i.e the dog learns to differentiate sound of a car hooting to
sound heard from the bell so as to salivate).
Related Concepts.
1. Aversive Conditioning: an unwanted behavior (e.g
drinking alcohol) is paired with painful or aversive stimulus
((e.g medication that causes nausea). Ideally, this pairing
creates an association between the unwanted behavior
and the aversive stimulus and alcohol drinking ceases.
• Assignment/Qn: Define- learned helplessness and
imprinting in terms of behavior.
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Bell ?
(N)
Meat Salvation
(UCS) (UCR)
Bell + Meat Salivation
(N) (UCS) (UCR)
Bell Salivation
(CS) ( CR)
 Higher Order Conditioning
• Here a conditioned stimulus is trained to serve as an
unconditional stimulus, i.e using is to clap, disturb call
some one, etc.
• Clapping
• Coughing
• Beating Fear Response.
 Conditional Emotional Response.
• Emotional responses can be aroused by some stimuli e.g
feelings can be associated to certain stimuli e.g location,
time of the day, etc. that were originally neutral but
through conditioning, they take on the same property of
the unconditioned stimulus e.g presence of asexual
partner………sexual feeling, going through a dark place
…..fear which when during day there is no fear.
• Many people are troubled by behavior like phobia: A phobic
person was probably at some point in in life subjected to a
fearsome object in conjunction with a stimulus that elicited
the pain.
 Drug tolerance
• Classical Conditioning can take place outside the laboratory
and one example is drug tolerance.
• This refers to a situation where by certain drug users
experience a progressively weaker effect after taking the
drugs for a long time.
• In many cases his is learnt. When a drug user injects self, the
injection procedure is a stimulus that reliably predicts
another stimulus which is the entry of the drug into the
brain. The drug triggers a variety of body responses of
defenses against its effects like change in hormone
• Injection entry into body change in experience
(UCS) (UCR)
• Injection bodily reactions
(CS) (CR)

• Initially, the injection procedure is a neutral stimulus that

gives rise to no response but after pairing with the entry of
the drug into the brain, the injection procedure itself
becomes able top evoke the body’s anti drug defences.
• The first time the person takes the drug, there is delay of the
drug entry into the brain and this time the body mobilises its
defences. After conditioning stimulus has takes place, this
may trigger defense mechanisms even before the drug enters
the brain. Thu facing reactions aroused earlier and the effects
of the drugs grow weaker and the user can tolerate heavier
  3. OPERANT CONDITIONING/ INSTRUMENTAL
CONDITIONING
• The theory of learning by operant conditioning was given
by BF Skinner (1904-1990).
• Basically Skinner revolted against the concept of classical
conditioning. He said that man is an active organism, and
not a victim of his environment. He does not wait for the
stimulus; instead, he acts or operates on the environment,
so as to change it in some way. Thus, he called it as operant
behavior.
• According to Skinner, operant behavior is determined by
the events or consequences that follow the response. If the
consequences are favorable, the individual will repeat the
same behavior. In this case, the consequences are said to
have provided positive reinforcement and cause repetition
• of the behavior.
• Alternatively, if the consequences are unfavorable, they
reduce the chances of the same behavior from getting
repeated. In such a case, the consequences are said to have
provided negative reinforcement and reduce the chances
of the behavior from recurring again.
• Thus, operant conditioning is called as type-R conditioning,
to emphasize the effect of the response on future behavior.
In this way Skinner said that learning is shaped and
maintained by its consequences.
• The following is one of the experiments carried out by
Skinner to support his concept of operant conditioning.
 A hungry rat was placed in a box designed by Skinner, which
was known as the Skinner box or operant chamber. The
chamber contained a lever which would drop food
 pellets into it(chamber) if pressed.
 In the beginning the experimenter himself dropped the
food pellets into the box and later stopped. The rat, being
hungry, began to explore the box and pressed the lever
accidentally. The food pellet was released into the box and
the rat ate it up.
 After a while, it pressed the lever again and ate the food
pellet, which got released. After the third or fourth time,
the rat began to press the lever more rapidly.
 Thus, the food is said to have provided positive
reinforcement to the rat and operant behavior got
established, i.e. the rat continued to press the lever, in
order to obtain the food pellets. Based on the findings of
his experiments, he concluded that behavior is shaped and
maintained by its consequences. It is operated by the
 Principles
1. Behavior is determined by its consequences for the
individual the consequence, or reinforcement, occurs
immediately following behavior.
2. In operant conditioning, a behavior that is not part of the
individual’s natural repertoire can be learned through
reward or punishment.
 Elements used.
• The likelihood that a behavior will occur is increased by
reinforcement and decreased by punishment.
Reinforcement
• The process, by which a stimulus increases the probability
that a preceding behavior will be repeated
 Positive Reinforcement (reward): is the introduction of a
• pleasant (positive) stimulus that increases the rate of
behavior.
 Negative Reinforcement (escape): is the removal of an
aversive or unpleasant behavior that increases the rate of
behavior. eg turning off an electric shock when a prisoner
gives some useful information
Punishment:
• Is the introduction of an aversive stimulus aimed at
reducing the rate of an unwanted behavior.
• Or A stimulus that decreases the probability that a
previous behavior will occur again.
• Qn: Define negative and positive punishment.
Extinction in operant conditioning:
• is the gradual disappearance of a learned behavior when
 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
• The simplest procedure in operant conditioning is to provide
reinforcement every time the correct response occurs. When
this happens it is referred to as continuous reinforcement.
However this is only necessarily when we are just beginning to
learn, later reinforcement may become irregular.
• Reinforcement for certain responses and not for others is called
partial reinforcement or intermittent reinforcement and this
has four schedules:
 Schedules of Partial or intermittent Reinforcement
1. Fixed Ratio Schedule: Here reinforcement is provided every
after a certain(fixed) number of correct responses, e.g
reinforcement every after 6 correct responses.
2. Variable ratio Schedule:
• Here the number of responses necessary for reinforcement
varies from time to time e.g Reinforcement may come after 3
• 3. Fixed interval schedule:
• Here reinforcement is provided for the first responses
made after the specific time interval eg the cat may get
food for the first correct responses it makes every after six
minutes. Animals on search reinforcement learn to pause
after reinforcement and wait for the end of interval
• 4. Variable interval schedule:
• Here the time interval varies between one reinforcement
and the next. There is no way of knowing how long it will
take before being reinforced again.
• With the subject accustomed to continuous reinforcement
sudden cessation(stop) of reinforcement, is very noticeable
and will lead to extinction more easily than with the others
(Partial reinforcement where long time may pass before it
can discover that responses will never be reinforced again.
 CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSION
• Animals including people learn to avoid foods especially un
familiar ones. If they become ill after taking them. This type
of learning occurs reliably after a single pairing even with
the delay of hours between the food and the illness. The
animal is predisposed to associate the illness or discomfort
with what it ate there by avoiding it in future.
SOCIAL/ OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
• We learn about many behaviours before we try them the
first time . Much learning especially in humans results
from observing the behavior of others and imagining the
consequences of our behaviour. According to Albert
Bandura imitation and modeling are fundamental means by
which new models of behaviour are acquired. This theory
of learning recognizes the importance of our ability to
• symbolize, imagine, figure out cause- effect relationship
and anticipate outcomes of our behaviour
• Source Of Reinforcement In Social Learning
• Imitation is reinforced in three ways:
1.Direct reinforcement of the learner by the model:
• Here the learner expects reinforcement from the model
and this could be material or approval. It is common to
hear parents exclaim over behaviour of children” He is
smart” He behaves like Dad.
• 2.Consequences of the behaviour Particularly if behaviour
is socially acceptable.
• 3.Vicarious reinforcement:- This involves deriving a second
hand type of reinforcement from observing some one else
performing a behaviour . ( vicarious means :experienced
• as a result of watching, listening to or reading about the
activities of other people, rather than by doing the
activities yourself )
• The observer assumes that the model does something
because he derives or gets a reward and so any one else
who engages in the same type of behaviour will get a
reward.
• To be influenced we must identify with the person receiving
the reinforcement or punishment. Most people think of
them selves as successful and one who gets punished is
seen as a looser or “not smart enough” Such people tend
to ignore the danger associated with the act i.e “ Illusion of
invulnerability”
• Role of Self –efficacy in learning:
• At times we doubt our capability in coping other people’s
behaviour though they have been reinforced. People imitate
some one –else’s behaviour only if they have a sense of self
efficacy. This is the perception that they too could perform
the same task successfully.
• Our persistence in coping is strongly influenced by self
efficacy.(efficacy= an ability, especially of a medicine or a
method of achieving something, to produce the intended
result; effectiveness.
MODELS.
• The term model refers to the actual person we imitate
people whose behaviours serve as stimulus or who are
privileged in life eg film actors, TV presenters, foot ballers
etc. However, peers sibling and parents also serve as models.
 Related Concepts
1. Shaping: This involves rewarding closer and closer
approximations of the wanted behavior until the correct
behavior is achieved. (e.g a child is told to wash her
clothes and is initially rewarded for doing so. And
eventually a child learns to wash clothes often when they
are dirty.
2. Modeling: This is a type of observational learning. (e.g a
medical student learns to behave I a manner similar to
that of a resident whom she admires.)
 4. INSIGHTFUL LEARNING THEORY
• Gestalt psychology was founded in Germany in 1912 by
Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) and his colleagues. Gestalt
psychologists used the term ‘insight’ to describe the
perception of the whole situation by the learner and his
• intelligence in responding to the proper relationships.
• The following are some of the experiments carried out by
Gestalt psychologists to support their view on learning:
 Kohler put a chimpanzee in a cage and a banana was hung
from the roof of the cage. A box was placed inside the cage.
The chimpanzee tried to reach the banana by jumping, but
could not succeed. Suddenly, he got an idea and used the
box as a jumping platform by placing it just below the
banana.
 In another experiment, the problem was made more
difficult, and the chimpanzee had to use two or three boxes
to reach the bananas. Moreover, the placing of one box
over the other required different specific arrangements. In
a more complicated arrangement, the banana was placed
outside the cage.
 Two sticks, one longer than the other were placed in the
cage. One stick was hollow at one end, so that the other
stick could be thrust into, forming a longer stick.
 The banana was kept at such a distance that it could not be
picked up by anyone of the sticks. The chimpanzee first
tried these sticks one after the other, but could not
succeed. Suddenly, it got an idea of joining the two sticks
together and finally reached the banana.
 NB: Based on their experiments the Gestalt psychologists
concluded that, on the whole, insight depends on the
following factors:
• Past experiences which help in the insightful solution.
• Insightful solutions depend upon the basic intelligence of
the learner. The greater the intelligence, the more is the
insight.
• Insight recurs when the learning situation is so arranged
that all the necessary aspects are open for observation.
• Insightful learning may initially pass through the process of
trial and error. But this stage does not last long. These
initial efforts, in the form of simple trial and error, open the
way for insightful learning.
 COGNITIVE THEORY OF LEARNING OR OBSERVATIONAL
LEARNING
• Learning through imitation (social learning theory).
• According to psychologist Albert Bandura and colleagues
(1977), a major part of human learning consists of
observational learning; learning through observing the
behavior of another person called a model.
• According to Bandura, observational learning takes place in
four steps
 Paying attention and perceiving the most critical features of
another person’s behavior
 Remembering the behavior
 Reproducing the action
 Being motivated to learn and carry out the behavior
• Instead of learning occurring through trial and error, than,
with successes being reinforced and failures punished,
many important skills are learned through observational
processes. For example, a girl happens to watch a TV
program concerning the preparation of some new dishes.
First she observes the demonstration of preparation of new
dish on the TV screen and then tries to keep in her memory
all that she has observed on the screen and then enters her
kitchen to convert the stored observation into action. Her
learning of the preparation of the new dishes may then be
• reinforced by the response she gets from the members of
her family, who taste the new dishes.
• Assignment.
• Discuss why it is important to study learning in psychology
MEMORY, THINKING,REASONING
AND INTELLIGENCE
SSEKWEYAMA HASHIBU
 MEMORY
• All learning requires memory. If we remembered nothing
from our experiences, we could learn nothing.
• Memory: is the act of preserving what has been acquired
for later use. OR The process by which information is
encoded, stored, and retrieved
• The mental operations by which our sensory experience are
converted into memory is known as information processing
and this focuses on the ways in which we receive, integrate,
retain and use information.
• We have three stages of memory-
 encoding
 storage
 retrieval.
• Encoding: Is depositing of information into our memory.
• Storage: Is the process by which information is retained in
our memory.
• Retrieval: Is the recovering of information from memory
when needed.
• Note: Forgetting is attributed to failure at any of the three
stages. Our memory operates at three levels, namely:
 sensory register/memory or Immediate memory
 short term memory (STM)
 Long term memory (LTM)
 SENSORY MEMORY-
• This holds/preserves sensory information for a few seconds
or less after an item has been perceived. (e.g the ability to
look at an item, and remember what it looked like with just
• i.e when we receive a visual input, its image remains with
us for approximately 0.5s in a relatively unanalyzed form.
After this, any information which is not attended to or
processed further is forgotten.
 The first experiments exploring this form of sensory
memory were conducted by George Sperling(1963) using
the partial “report paradigm
 The duration of sensory memory was fist investigated by
psychologist George Sperling during the 1960s. In a classic
experiment, participants stared at the screen for about half
a second, then the screen went blank.
 The participants then said as many of the letters they could
remember seeing out of the 12. while most were able to
report about 5 or 4, others insisted that they had seen all
the letters but they had faded too quickly as they reported
 could remember seeing out of the 12. while most
were able to report about 5 or 4, others insisted that
they had seen all the letters but they had faded too
quickly as they reported
 them. He then varied the experiment and participants were
show the three rows of the four letters per row for about
half second and the screen went blank.
 Participants would see the display, but be unable to report
all of the items(12 in the “whole report” procedure)before
they decayed.
 This type of memory cannot be prolonged via rehearsal.
TYPES OF SENSORY MEMORY
• Iconic memory- also knows as visual memory: is a fast
decaying store of visual information. A type of sensory
memory that briefly stores an image which has been
perceived for a small duration, e.g a flash of light
• Echoic memory- is a fast decaying store of auditory
information, another type of sensory memory that briefly
stores sounds which have been perceived for a small
• Haptic memory: this is also known as the tactile memory,
involves the very brief memory of a touch. This type of
sensory memory lasts for approximately two seconds.

Information

Incoming Initial
SENSORY
information REGISTER processing STM Rehearsal LTM

Retrieval

forgotten forgotten forgotten

 SHORT TERM MEMORY(STM)
• Allows recall for a period of several seconds to a minute(15-
30s) without rehearsal. Its readily accessible info and used
as a foundation for making decision in a short duration.
• Has a limited capacity ,believed to be about seven pieces of
information. In 1956, George A Miller conducted
experiments showing that the store of short term memory
was 7+or -2 items.(the magical number).
• STM can be increased by a process called maintenance
rehearsal.
• Some info from SM is successfully passed on to LTM which
allows us to store info long enough to be able to us it,
hence working memory.
• If information is to be remembered. It must be transferred
to short term memory shortly after it has come in .There
• it’s then processed o r or ignored. This has to be done very
first because more and more information will be coming in
soon.
• The limit of short term memory is demonstrated by our
ability to easily repeat five digits but nine or more are
difficult.
• For information to be retained in short term memory it has
to rehearsed.
• In rehearsal the event is repeated several times. Short term
memory is seen as a system that not only temporally
stores the information but also processes works with
current information . It is thus often referred to as
working memory
 LONG TERM MEMORY
• The storage in sensory memory and short term memory
generally has a strictly limited capacity and duration, which
means that information, is not retained indefinitely.
• By contrast, long term memory can store much larger
quantities of information for a potentially unlimited
duration ( sometimes a whole life span).
• Its capacity is immeasurably large. For example, given a
random seven digit number we may remember it for only a
few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in
our short term memory.
• On the other hand, we can remember telephone numbers
for many years through repetition; this information is said
to be stored in long term memory.
• While short term memory encodes information acoustically
• (secret code, sign), long term memory encodes it
semantically( knowledge of words, symbols, or concepts)
and the rules for their manipulation or usage, such as in a
language.
• Short term memory is supported by transient patterns of
neuronal communication, dependent on regions of the
frontal lobe(especially dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and the
parietal lobe. Long term memories on the other hand are
maintained by more stable and permanent changes in neural
connections widely spread through out the brain.
 Encoding
• Definition-it’s the initial process of recording information in
a form usable to memory.
• OR It’s the depositing of information into memory.
• Its facilitated by attention which involves focusing on a
 Levels of processing
1. Shallow processing
2. Intermediate processing
3. Deep processing
TYPES OF ENCODING
 Structural /Physical Encoding-
• Emphasises the physical structure of the stimuli. E.g. encoding
the word “birthday” by the way it is spelt, b – i – r – t – h – d – a
–y
 Phonememic /Acoustic encoding-
• Emphasises what a word sounds like . E.g. Encoding the word
“birthday” by the way it sounds.
 Semantic Encoding-
• Emphasises the meaning of the verbal input. E.g. Encoding the
word “birthday” by its meaning, “a day of joy and celebration
• Factors Affecting Encoding
• Encoding specificity principle: the principle that the
environmental cues present at the time information is
encoded into long-term memory serve as the best retrieval
cues for the information.
• State-dependent memory: long-term memory retrieval is
best when a person’s physiological state at the time of
encoding and retrieval is the same.
• Mood-dependent memory: long-term memory retrieval is
best when a person’s mood state at the time of encoding
and retrieval is the same.
• Mood-congruence effect: long-term memory retrieval is
best for experiences and information that are congruent
with a person’s current mood.
 MEMORY DISTINCTION
 SENSORY MEMORY
• Sensory memory stores info for just a fraction of a second
in its original sensory form.
• Stimuli such as a momentarily flash of light, an abrupt
sound & a pin prick all present stimulation of very brief
duration but provide important info that require a
response. Such stimuli are stored in SM.
• There are several types of SM each related to different
source of sensory info eg:
 - iconic memory for visual information
 - echoic memory for auditory information
 - & Haptic memory for touch information.
•
 - echoic memory for auditory information
 - & Haptic memory for touch information.
• Sensory memory stores info for a very short time & if
not
 - echoic memory for auditory information
 - & Haptic memory for touch information.
• Sensory memory stores info for a very short time & if
not
• transferred to STM it is lost. Eg :iconic memory lasts for< a
second, echoic memory lasts for 2-3 seconds.
 SHORT-TERM MEMORY(STM)
• It is the next stage of memory after SM.
• Here info first have meaning, but it has a relatively short
maximum level of retention.
• It stores information for about 15 seconds.
• The specific process by which memories are transformed
from SM to STM is not clear; some theorists suggest that
info is first translated into graphical presentations or
images. Others hypothesize that transfer occur when
stimuli are converted into words
• Info stored in STM is believed to be seven chunks or items
of info with a variation of + or -2 chunks.
• words
• Info stored in STM is believed to be seven chunks or
items of info with a variation of + or -2 chunks.
• A chunk a meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be stored
as a unit in short term memory eg it is easy to member a
telephone no. arranged format; 0784 290 791 than one
arranged in format 0784290791.
• STM is not only looked at as having info to be transferred to
LTM but also as an info processing system that manages
both new gathered info from SM & older info pulled from
LTM hence the term working memory.
• It involves an executive active processor that involves
reasoning & decision making
• Helps us keep info briefly as we do some thing with it.
• It can make some one less aware of the surrounding eg if a
phone call requires reasoning, it makes one less aware of
the surrounding.
 LONG-TERM MEMORY
• It ‘s stored in the memory store after STM
• It has un limited capacity & very long duration
• LTM is broadly subdivided into; procedural & declarative
memory
 `Procedural memory;
• This stores memory for skills & habits eg riding a bike,
wiping, milking etc.
 Declarative memory
• Conserves' factual info eg names, dates faces & facts such
as “a ball is spherical”.
• Information about things is stored in declarative memory
whereas information about how things are done is stored
in procedural memory.
• Note: Declarative memory is subdivided into semantic &
episodic memory
 Semantic memory:
• Concerns memory for general knowledge & facts about the
world eg Kenyatta was the first president of Kenya, I had
journey to Nairobi . Memory of the rules of playing a game.
 Episodic memory:
• Is the memory of a person’s specific events in a person’s life
including details of when, where and how they happened.
E.g first birthday surprise, first kiss, romance of your first
cut and how it went.
• Episodic Memories are more fragile than the semantic
memories, e.g people at times remember the statements
they have heard but forgotten where and from whom the
heard the statement, its called source amnesia.
 RETRIEVAL
• It is the bringing or recovering of information from LTM
back into working memory. It is achieved by;
• Retrieval cues:
 a retrieval cue is a stimulus that allows one to easy recall
info stored in the LTM. It might be a word, sound, emotion,
smell; whatever the specific cue, a memory will come to
conscious mind when the cue is present eg smell of roasted
chicken may remind you of a party on which you ate
roasted chicken.
• Recall :
 Memory tasks in which specific info must be retrieved eg
writing an assay in a test.
• Recognition:
 eg writing an assay in a test.
• Recognition:
• Memory tasks in which one is able identify a stimulus that
he was exposed to or identify it from a list of alternatives
eg answering multiple choice questions.
• State dependent learning:
• Recalling concept of original experience or recalling the
mood associated to the memory helps in retrieval eg a
person feeling sad may remember the events that occurred
during the previous episode of sadness.
• Imagery:
• Creation of mental pictures of an event or object helps in
retrieval.
 Assignment
1. State 5 extrinsic and 8 intrinsic factors that influence
memory.
 FORGETTING
• Definition: This is inability to recall which may be due to failure
in encoding, storage or retrieval of information. There are two
types of forgetting: i.e
 natural forgetting and
 morbid/abnormal forgetting.
• There are four theories that account for forgetting:
 1. Interference Theory:
• According to this theory information is lost from memory
because it is disturbed or displaced by other information.
• Interference can be caused by an experience that occurred after
we had learnt a material.
• This is called retrograde interference. In this case later
memories interfere with the recall. Of earlier memories.
• When earlier memories interfere with recall of the material
2. Decay Theory:
• This assumes that learning leaves a trace on the brains and
that traces not actively and used easily fade away with time.
• Decay theorists stress that we have a limited capacity for
processing information and that rehearsal prevents decay
by keeping the information in the memory.
3. Repressive Theory
• According to Freud forgetting is caused by factors within an
individual such as anxiety and frustration. Freud called this
exclusion of information from awareness.(motivated
forgetting)
• According to this theory some information is important to
us and will be remembered. Some information may cause
us internal pain and anger and is thus likely to be
remembered such information is repressed.
• 4. Consolidation Theory
• Another view of forgetting focuses destruction of memory
trace in its formative stages. Certain conditions recurring
after an experience can eradicate a memory before it
becomes permanent.
• Any event that disrupts normal neural functioning can also
disrupt memory. Drugs& alcohol can result in loss of
memory by interfering with consolidation of the traces.
• In contrast to forgetting, amnesia is severe loss of memory
that may result from different causes like injury to the brain
and strokes, encephalitis, alcoholism, ECT, etc.
• The primary symptom of amnesia is inability to acquire
new information or remember day to day events. This is
anterograde amnesia.
• The second symptoms is inability to remember events that
occurred prior to injury
• Or disease this is called retrograde amnesia
 Note:
 Natural forgetting: This occurs with the lapse of time in a
quite normal way without any intention of forgetting on the
part of an individual.
 Morbid forgetting(abnormal); this occurs when an
individual tires to forget something intentionally
(repression)
• Assignment:
1. State 8 causes of forgetting
• Assignment:
1. State 8 causes of forgetting
2. Outline the tips used to improve memory
retention.
 THINKING

Un like computers animals esp. human beings are not

controlled directly by commands from the environment.
Higher order animals(mammals) esp. Primates do not
respond directly but instead take the stimuli into
consideration along with other inputs and memorized data
and then make the decision as to what action to take.
For example; suppose you have some meat but just before
you start eating you are called to the next room to answer a
phone call, your dog then picks one piece of meant from
• For example; suppose you have some meat but just
before you start eating you are called to the next
room to answer a phone call, your dog then picks
one piece of meant from the plate and eats it. You
shout at the dog angrily letting it to know that
grabbing you meat is bad act of which it can be
punished.
• If this happens again and the dog is
• reprimanded(punished) it is likely to store it on its conscious
that much as its fun to steal, the meat from a plate, the act
has a punishment associated with it and is therefore not
good.
• If these circumstances happen again, the dog won’t
automatically grab the meat instead the stimuli( smell &
sight) of meat will go into the dogs processor i.e brain
where it is combined with other stored information and
other external stimuli ‘’ like is there any one watching”.
• The processor will then result in decision either to steal the
meat or not to steal. The above is an example of thinking.
• Definition. Thinking is the fundamental ability to create
mental images and manipulate those images.
• This is great a evolutionally gift that man has had for long
separating him from the rest of the animal kingdom and
 THOUGHT AS A LANGUAGE OF MIND
 Prepositional thoughts: This is a model of thought
corresponding to sentences we seem to hear in mind.
 Imaginational thought: This is the mode of thought that
corresponds to visual images we seem to see in our mind.
 Motoric thought: This one that corresponds to the
sequence of mental movements.
Thinking includes a wide range of activities. Thinking
includes a wide range of activities:
Neurons communicate with each other thru the electro
chemical process. Every time you think, learn or
communicate a neuron in the brain sends a nerve impulse
• Neurons communicate with each other thru the
electro chemical process. Every time you think, learn
or communicate a neuron in the brain sends a nerve
impulse down its axon, an impulse is fired across the
synaptic gap via a neural transmitter.
• The impulse then travels along the axon of the next neuron
and the process continues. This activity is the process that
creates the intricate pathways of thought.
 Conceptual Net Work
• We don’t store words in the brain in isolation, but in
network of related ideal ( conceptual net work) so any word
will always remind you of any thing or some thing else.
• We link a concept to other concepts that relate to it in a
variety of ways.
• Activation of one concept always activates other concepts
that are related to it.
• The phenomena called spreading activation in other words.
Thinking of one of one concept makes it easier to think of
its related concept as well.
 TYPES OF THINKING
• Thinking is a mental process, usually classified into the
following types.
 Perceptual or Concrete thinking: The basis of this type of
thinking is perception, i.e interpretation of sensation
according to one’s thinking. Its also called concrete thinking
because its carried by the perception of actual thinking as
carried by objects and events. Its basically present in
children.
 Conceptual or Abstract thinking: its is an abstract thinking
where one makes use of concepts, generalised ideas and
 Conceptual or Abstract thinking: its is an abstract
thinking where one makes use of concepts,
generalised ideas and language.
 Reflective or Logical thinking: it’s a type of thinking
that aims at solving logical or complex problems
rather simple problems. There is an insightful
approach in reflective
• thinking. Here relevant facts are arranged in a logical
manner to arrive at a solution.
 Creative thinking: this is a type of thinking that basically
aims at creating something new. It is not established by any
pre-established rules.
 Critical Thinking: this is a higher order well disciplined
thought process, which involves the use of cognitive skills
like interpretation, analysis, having a concept or idea,
synthesis, and evaluation for arriving at an unbiased, valid
and reliable judgment of the gathered data
 LEVELS OF THINKING (Based On Bloom’s Taxonomy).
 Level 1:Gathering Knowledge:
• This consists of acquiring basic pieces of information.
 LEVELS OF THINKING (Based On Bloom’s Taxonomy).
 Level 1:Gathering Knowledge:
• This consists of acquiring basic pieces of information.
Asking children to identify and describe objects
encouraging thinking on this level
 Level 2: Comprehension;
• It entails understanding of facts, and ideas by comparing,
translating and interpretation of descriptions. This involves
looking at the meaning of the knowledge that has been
gathered and drawing conclusions from it. A good question
to encourage this level of thinking might be, e.g the yellow
sponge floats. What about the other sponges?
 Level 3: Application;
• It involves applying acquired knowledge, facts techniques
 Level 3: Application;
• It involves applying acquired knowledge, facts
techniques and rules in different ways. This entails
using what has been learned in new situations.
Asking children to consider newly learned facts as
they build or make something. This can foster this
level of thinking.
 Level 4: Analysing;
• This involves thinking about a whole in terms of its
various
• parts. E.g You can encourage this level of thinking by asking
children what materials could be used for a particular
classroom project. Thus this level of thinking involves
examining & breaking of the data into parts by identifying
motives or causes, and finding evidence to support the
data.
 Level 5: Synthesis;
• This consists of compiling/putting parts together to form a
whole. E.g you can ask children how to use a puzzle array/
building blocks puzzle to create something.
 Level 6: Evaluating;
• This entails making comparisons and judgments. i.e You can
encourage this level of thinking by asking children which of
the materials they used worked best.
 Elements in development of Thought(tools of thinking).
• Images
• Concepts
• Symbols and signs
• Languages
• Brain functions.
 Errors In Thinking
• There are five errors in thinking; i.e
 Partialism: ‘this occurs when the thinker observes the
problem through one perspective. i.e finds one or two factors
influencing a problem and they arrive to a premature
conclusion.
 Adversary Thinking: this is like you are ‘wrong’ and so I
should be ‘right’ type of reasoning. Politicians are the masters
in this type of thinking and they use it to their advantage
 Time scale thinking error: this a type of thinking error,
where the thinker sees the problem from a limited time
frame.
 Initial Judgment: it’s a type of thinking error where the
thinker is very subjective, i.e the thinker approaches an
issue with bias or prejudice.
 Arrogance and conceit: this thinking error is sometimes
called the “village Venus Effect”, i.e the thinker believes
that there is no better solution other than that he has
already found.
• Assignment:
1. Explain the favorable elements in development of correct
• Assignment:
1. Explain the favorable elements in development of
correct thinking.
2. Explain Jean Piaget’s (1896-1980) stages of
cognitive development
 REASONING

• Memory associations are not the only means we have of

organizing prepositional thought.
• The kind of organisation of interest manifests it self when
we try to reason. Reasoning is a process of thinking and
drawing conclusions. Reasoning can be deductive or
inductive.
• Deductive reasoning is a process of reasoning from a
general principle to a particular instance e.g Taking a fact
that many Arabs are extremists/racists and you judge any
Arab you see to be extremist.
• Inductive reasoning: This is inferring or reaching to
conclusion by taking a particular instance and you
• Inductive reasoning: This is inferring or reaching to
conclusion by taking a particular instance and you
generalise e.g catching a person belonging to one
tribe in theft and you take all members to be
thieves.
• Many One
Deductive Inductive
• One Many
 CONSCIOUSNESS AND ITS ALTERED
STATES
 CONSCIOUSNES
• Consciousness is ones current awareness of events in the
environment and of bodily sensations , memories and
thoughts. It involves monitoring and controlling our selves
and the environment so that actions are repeated
accurately and we are able to initiate and terminate
cognitive activities.
• We cannot attend to all stimuli that comes to our selves
at a given moment. Our consciousness focuses on some
and ignores others i.e our attention is selective in that
some events always come first e.g you cannot concentrate
on studying when hungry or while experiencing pain.
 SUBCONSCIOUSNESS
• Events that are not a focus of our attention can still have
some influence on consciousness. we register and evaluate
stimuli that we don’t consciously perceive.
• Such stimuli operate at the subconscious level of awareness
e.g hearing you name in a conversation to which you are
not part.
 PRECONSCIOUSNESS
• These are memories that are not part of consciousness at a
given moment , but can be retrieved to the consciousness
when needed.
• These memories are accessible to the consciousness and
are called pre-conscious memories. Eg a sequence in tying
a shoe lace race or procedure in driving a car.
 UN-CONSCIOUSNESS
• Some memories and desires are not accessible to the
consciousness and are assigned to the un consciousness.
• According to Sigmund Freud, painful memories and wishes
are repressed to the unconscious where they continue to
influence our actions indirectly through dreams, irrational
behaviours ,mannerisms ant tongue slips(calling a person
another one’s name.
• “A tongue slip” is an un intentional remark assumed to
reveal hidden impulse.
ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
• Some activities are practiced so often that they become
automatic, such activities no longer require our attention
and thus they require little conscious control. The control
gets dissociated from the consciousness.
 An example of divided consciousness is demonstrated by
multiple personality.
 Multiple existence: This is existence of 2 or more personality
within an individual, each personality has its own name, age,
memories and characteristic behaviour.
• In most cases some personalities have no awareness of the
others. Periods of unexplained memory loss for long time
(hours) are a clue to presence of multiple personality
disorder.
• Here consciousness is divided so sharply. The switch from
one personality to the other is often accompanied by slight
change in body posture and voice tone.
• Multiple personality often develops in response to traumatic
event in child hood. The child copes with a painful problem
by creating another personality to bear the difficulty.
• For example: An individual coughs and in response instead
of getting ashamed/sorry, he gets angry at the people
around him.
• Once individuals discover that creating other personalities
will relieve them from emotional problems, they ought to
create more personalities in the future when confronted by
emotional problems.
 SLEEP AND DREAMS.
• Sleep seems the opposite of wakefulness yet two have
much in common. We think when we sleep, and this is
indicated by dreams, we form memories while
sleeping( because we remember the dreams).
• People asleep are not entirely insensitive some walk in
their sleep, and others decide to wake at a given time and
they do so.
• In sleep, someone is partially aware, thinks, dreams of
memories but just one has the inability to act because he is
physically handicapped.
• Circadian rhythm is a rhythm of activity and inactivity
lasting about 24 hours.
• Decisions to sleep come from within us but not from the
• environment. For example: an individual can sleep even in a
shouting/noisy environment.
• But the decision to wakeup can develop from the
environment, e.g a person can tap and then you wake up.
• Why do we sleep? –The repair and restoration theory, says
the purpose of sleep is to enable the body recover from the
vigorous actions of the day.
• According to the evolutionary and energy conservation
theory of sleep, evolution equipped us with a regular
pattern of sleeping and waking to conserve fuel and
prevents us from walking into danger., thus by sleeping we
decrease our energy.
 SLEEP:
• Sleep is a naturally recurring state of mind and body
characterised by altered state of consciousness relatively
• we decrease our energy.
 SLEEP:
• Sleep is a naturally recurring state of mind and body
characterised by altered state of consciousness
relatively
• inhibited by sensory activity and inhibition of nearly all
voluntary muscles and reduced interaction with the
surrounding. OR
 Sleep is a naturally recurring reversible state of relative
unresponsiveness characterised by altered consciousness
and relatively inhibited sensory activity and voluntary
muscle action
STAGES OF SLEEP & DREAMING
• Sleep is divided into two broadly different phases.
1. D-sleep (De-synchronised sleep)/ REM-sleep (Rapid Eye
Movement Sleep): its also known as the Active sleep or
Paradoxical sleep.
2. S-sleep (Synchronised Sleep), also known as NREM (Non-
Rapid Eye Movement Sleep), Orthodox sleep
• Note: N-Rem is further divided into four stages ranging
from stage1 to stage4.
• As a person falls asleep, the person first passes through
three stages of NREM sleep.
• The EEG (electro encephalogram) recording during waking
state shows alpha waves of 8-12 cycles/sec frequency.
• The onset of sleep is characterised by a disappearance of
the alpha activity.
 1. NREM-stage 1
• Stage 1 of the NREM or dreamless sleep, occurs after you
have decided to sleep and your eyes are closed.
• During this stage which typically lasts between 1 and 10
minutes; you are lightly asleep and you can quickly return
to being fully awake.
 Features Of NREM stage 1 Sleep.
 A person may wake up feeling like they did not sleep at all.
 Your body muscles are not inhibited a bit, i.e eyes roll a
little bit and you may slightly open your eyelids.
 Your breathing slows down
 Your blood pressure and brain temperature increase
 Hypnic jerks are some times experienced when falling
asleep.
 2. NREM-stage 2
• When this stage of sleep starts things get serious. This
stage basically follows stage 1.
• It is characterised by two typical EEG changes, i.e –sleep
spindles( regular spindle shaped waves of 13-15 cycles/sec
frequency, usually last 0.5-2.0 sec, high voltage spikes).
• Features of the NREM stage 2 Sleep
 It lasts about 20minutes.
 Characterised by slowing heart rate and decrease in body
temperature
 Sleeper’s Body reduces activity to prepare to go into deep
sleep
 It becomes harder to wake up the sleeper.
 Sleeper’s brain starts to emit larger waves
 Blood pressure reduces and other metabolic functions slow
down.
• Note: The first two stages of NREM sleep are always
referred to as light sleep.
• We spend most of our sleep in stage 2 of NREM(around
45% of total sleep duration)
 2. NREM- stage 3
• Its is also referred to as the slow wave sleep or the delta
sleep or deep sleep.
• Here persons are less responsive to the outside
environment.
• Essentially cut off from the outside world and unaware of
the sounds or other stimuli.
• It occurs in longer periods during the first half of the night,
particularly during the first two sleep cycles and represents
around 15-20% 0f total adult sleep time.
• Here the EEG is characterised by high voltage 75micro volts,
delta waves of 0.5-0.3cycles/sec.
• Note: Historically, what is now usually described as stage
3 following the guidelines of American Academy of sleep
• Medicine was split into two stages i.e stage 3 and stage 4
depending on the frequency of the delta waves.
• i.e stage 3- Has delta waves below 50% frequency
• stage 4- Has delta waves exceeding 50% frequency
 As well as neural activity, other physical indicators such as
brain temperature, breathing rate, heart rate and blood
pressure are all at their lowest levels during stage 3 &4
sleep.
 Features of the NREM stage 3 sleep
 Dreaming is more common in this stage than in the other
stages of the NREM although not as common.
 However dreams are not vivid and memorable.
 This is al the stage during which Parasomnias like: night
tremors/terrors, bed wetting(sleep enuresis), sleep
• walking, sleep talking and teeth grinding (bruxism) occur.
 Its more difficult to wake a person up during stage 3 of
sleep.
 Information processing and memory consolidation takes
place during this stage(period).
 Children and young adults tend to have more slow wave
stage 3 sleep than adults; and the elderly may experience
little or no stage 3 at all.
 Note:
• Sleep involves 5 stages; 4 of NREM and the 5th called REM.
 REM (Rapid Eye Movement)
• This is the final stage of a standard sleep cycle.
• The first REM sleep lasts about 10minutes and usually
happens after having been asleep at least 90minutes.
• The NREM sleep is followed by the REM sleep which is a
light phase of sleep.
• Note:
• REM sleep is also known as the Paradoxical Sleep. This is
because the brain is very active at this time yet the muscles
are immobilized.
• Although some one is asleep, their brains waves look a lot
like what can be recorded when they are fully awake.
 Features Of The REM Stage Of Sleep.
 Frequent and rapid eye movements.
 , i.e the sleeper’s eyes move in conjunction with the vision
in the dream world. This is known as the scanning process.
 High brain activity characterised by low amplitude and high
frequency.
 Vivid and memorable internally produced sensations.
 Repetitive and illogical thoughts
 Paralysis (motor activity of the extremities is non-existent, i.e
if we were not paralysed at this stage of sleep, our entire
body would be free to follow our eyes in acting out the
dream.
 Qtn: How is paralysis achieved in the REM sleep?
• REM is paralysis is achieved by the REM atonia system which
creates a blockage of the nerve pathway essentially inhibiting
directions to react by the brain from reaching the muscles.
• NOTE: History of sleep
 The connections between REM sleep and dreaming were first
made in 1953 by Dr. Clement as well as his fellow student
Eugene Aserinsky and their teacher Nathaniel Kleitman.
 1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
 SLEEP DISORDERS
• There are various sleep disorders which can be classified
into two divisions, i.e
• Dyssomnias
1. Insomnia
2. Hypersomnia
3. Disorders of sleep wake schedule
• Parasomnias
1. Stage 4 sleep disorders (sleep talking, sleep walking,
bedwetting, night terror/ sleep terrors, teeth grinding)
2. Other sleep disorders ( night nares/ night dream anxieties,
nocturnal angina, nocturnal asthma, nocturnal seizure).
 DYSSOMNIAS
• These are sleep disorders that are characterised by
• disturbances in the amount, quality or timing of sleep.
• The commonest disorders of sleep are:
 Insomnia
• Its also known as the sleep Disorder of Initiation or
Maintenance of sleep. (DIMS).
• Insomnia is a sleep disorder characterised by difficulty in
falling asleep and or staying asleep.
• Insomnia means one or more of the following:
 Difficulty in initiating sleep
 Difficulty in maintaining sleep(remaining asleep):
characterised by frequent awakenings during the night.
 Non restorative sleep where despite an adequate duration
of sleep, there is feeling of not having rested fully (poor
quality of sleep)
 Hypersomnia
• This is also known as the Disorder of excessive Somnolence
(DOES). Hypersomnia means one or more of the following:
1. Excessive day time sleepiness
2. Sleep attacks during day time( falling asleep
unintentionally)
3. ‘Sleep drunkenness’, i.e a person needs much more time
to awaken: and during this period is confused or
disoriented.
 Note: A few important causes of hypersomnia are
discussed below:
• (narcolepsy, sleep apnoea, Kleine-levin syndrome)
 Narcolepsy: this a disorder characterised by the excessive
day time sleepiness, often disturbed night time sleep and
• The hallmark of this disorder is decreased REM Latency.
• In narcolepsy, the REM usually occurs within 10 minutes as
opposed to the normal REM latency of about 90-100
minutes.
• The common age of onset is 15-25yrs of age, with usually a
stable course through out life.
 The classical tetrad of symptoms of narcolepsy
• Frequent sleep attacks or naps
• Cataplexy
• Hypnagogic hallucinations.
• Sleep paralysis
 Sleep Apnoea: This is a condition that is characterised by
presence of repeated sleep apnoea. Apnoea is the
cessation of airflow at the nostrils(and mouth) for 10
• When such people manage to sleep they snore.
• One reason for this is that the brain fails to send a breath
signal to the diaphragm muscles. The other reason could
be that muscles at the top of the throat become too
relaxed allowing the wind pipe to close particularly.
• During sleep apnoea, oxygen levels in blood drop
dramatically leading to secretion of emergency hormones
that make the sleeper awaken to breath again. The sufferer
actually sleeps for less than half of the time sleep in bed.
 Kleine-Levin Syndrome: This is a rare syndrome
characterised by:
• Hypersomnia(usually present), occurring recurrently for
long periods of time.
 Kleine-Levin Syndrome: This is a rare syndrome
characterised by:
• Hypersomnia(usually present), occurring recurrently
for long periods of time.
• Hyperphagia (usually present), with voracious
appetite
• Hypersexuality (associated at times), consisting of sexual
disinhibition, masturbatory activity, and inappropriate sexual
advances.
 Disorders of the Sleep-wake Schedule
• These are characterised by the disturbance in the timing of
sleep when he wishes to, although at other times he is able to
sleep adequately .
• This is due to the mismatch between a person’s circadian
rhythm and the normal sleep-wake schedule demanded by the
environment.
• Aetiology of the sleep-wake disorder.
1. Rapid change of the time zone: this usually occurs during the
international flights which involve crossing many time zones
2. Work-shift from day to night and vice-versa
3. Unusual sleep phases: some persons sleep late at night and
get up late in the morning.
 PARASOMNIAS
• Parasomnias are dysfunctions of episodic nocturnal events
occurring with sleep, sleep stages or partial arousals. Most
parasomnias are common in childhood though they may
persist in adulthood.
 Stage 4 Sleep Disorders.
• These disorders occur during deep sleep, i.e stages 3 & 4 of
the NREM sleep.
• The common stage 4 Parasomnias are:
 Sleep-Walking (somnambulism): the patient carries out
automatic motor activities that range from simple to
complex. He ,may leave the bed, walk about and even leave
the house. Accidents may occur during sleep-walking.
 Sleep-terrors/night terrors (pavor nocturnus): the patient
• suddenly gets up with automatic arousal (tachycardia,
sweating and hyperventilation). He may be difficult to
arouse and rarely recalls the episode on awakening. (in
contrast, nightmares which occur in the REM sleep are
clearly remembered).
 Sleep- related enuresis (bedwetting): this is the repetitive
voiding of urine, either during day or at night while in sleep,
at inappropriate places. Majority of children(80%) with
enuresis have nocturnal bed wetting only.
• The exact cause enuresis is idiopathic(not known).
 Bruxism (teeth grinding): the patient has an involuntary
and forceful grinding of teeth during sleep. The patient is
usually unaware of the episode even when destruction of
the tooth enamel is obvious.
 and forceful grinding of teeth during sleep. The
patient is usually unaware of the episode even when
destruction of the tooth enamel is obvious.
 Sleep-talking (somniloquy): the patient talks during
stage 4
• &3 of sleep but does not remember anything about it in the
morning on awakening.
 Other Sleep Disorders.
1. Night mares (dream anxiety disorder) occur during REM
sleep. They are characterised by fearful dreams occurring
most commonly in the last one-third of sleep. The person
wakes up frightened and remembers the dream vividly.
2. Other sleep disorders include: nocturnal angina,
nocturnal asthma, nocturnal seizures, nocturnal head
banging and familial sleep paralysis.
 PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS
• People use drugs to alter consciousness; to stimulate or
relax, to bring sleep or prevent it and to produce
hallucinations. Such drugs that affect the consciousness are
called psycho active drugs.
• With repeated use the individual becomes physically
dependant on the drug, or psychological dependant on the
drug. Physical dependency(addiction involves tolerance.
 Categories Of Psychoactive Drugs.
1. Depressants: These depress the nervous system, they
include Barbiturates, tranquilizers and alcohol.
2. Opiates: Opium and its derivatives correctively called
opiates diminish physical sensation and capacity to
respond to stimuli by depressing the CNS. They are
1. Opiates: Opium and its derivatives correctively
called opiates diminish physical sensation and
capacity to respond to stimuli by depressing the
CNS. They are
• commonly called narcotics and are widely consumed
because of their ability to alter mood and reduce anxiety.
They include Heroin, Morphine ,Codeine and Pethidine
• 3. Stimulants: In contrast to depressants and opiates this
increases arousal, their immediate effect is that they
increase alertness and decrease in feelings of bore dom.
Their ability to alter mood and decrease self confidence is
the principal reason for their use. Or getting euphoria,
elated or high mood. They affect the CNS by prolonging the
activity of dopamine synapses. They include
Amphetamines, Caffeine and Cocaine.
• 4.Hallucinogens:
• These changes perceptional experiences. They change the
users perception of both his internal and external world.
The user may experience visual, auditory and tactile
• hallucinations. Some of these drugs derived from plants like
cactus and mushrooms, while others are synthesized in the
laboratory like; Lysergic acid
Diethylamide(LSD),Phencyclidine(PCP).LSD is very potent
and causes hallucinations even at low doses.
• The cannabis plant has been harvested for long because its
psychoactive effects. The dried leaves and flowers is the
form used in most countries. The psycho active substance
contained is Tetrahydrocannibinol (THC).It interferes with
the performance of complex tasks. It intensifies with
sensory experiences, distorts perception and impairs
learning and memory.
• After some one has taken a drug repeatedly it s effects
grow weaker unless he increases the doze . This is called
tolerance.
• When the habitual user suddenly stops using the drug he
enters a state of withdrawal characterized by a variety of un
pleasant symptoms .
• He is therefore compelled to use the drug again to reduce
un pleasant withdraw symptoms and is said to be physically
dependant on the drug
PERSONALITY AND PERSONALITY
DISORDERS
SSEKWEYAMA HASHIBU
 Definition: In a lay man’s language or in an ordinary way,
personality refers to a person’s qualities that make him
unique.
 Definition: Personality refers to a pattern of characteristics,
thoughts, feelings and behaviors that persist over time and
situation and distinguish one person from the other.
• It encompasses intelligence, emotions, cognition, motivation,
learning ,abnormality and social interactions.
• Therefore no two people have the same personality. The
study of personality is the most important field, for it
answers questions like “WHO” the person is, “WHY” he or
she does things he or she does, why his behavior seems
some times unusual.
• “Why different people behave different to the same
situation i.e why does the same fire that hardens the egg
• A number of forces shape an individual’s personality
throughout the course of life, these include: the genetic,
environment and cultural influence.
• Many characteristics are passed on to children from
parents and genetic in heritance is very important
determinants of personality.
• Though the genetical factors account for as much as 50%
of variability in many personality characteristics. The
environment to accounts for a higher percentage, i.e
identical twins reared together are just as similar to each
other as those reared apart.
• The highest heritage/heritability is found in measures of
abilities, intelligence, sociability, emotional ability.
• Many people irrespective of the genetic makeup will show
• of abilities, intelligence, sociability, emotional ability.
• Many people irrespective of the genetic makeup will
show the differences in behavior due to the
differences in the
• environment they are in.
• The cultural differences too can account for differences in
our personality characteristics and there is enough
evidence that culture shapes personality traits or
characteristics.
PERSONALITY THEORIES
• What makes one person different from another?
• Greeks thought the body was made of four body fluids;
blood, phlegm or black and yellow bile.
• According the Greek physician, Hippocrates(460-
371BC),there are Four possible personality types:
 Personality Types (According To Hippocrates)
• Sanguine: individuals who had an abundance of blood; they
tended to be cheerful, optimistic and active.
• Phlegmatic: people who are listless, sluggish and tired,
because they had less phlegm.
• Melancholic: People who were always sad, brooding with
melancholic temperaments resulting from too much bile.
• Choleric: People who were easy to excite and also easy to
anger, because of excess yellow bile
 Personality Type(according To Friedman & Rosenman)
 TYPE A PERSONALITY
 These are at risk of developing cardiovascular disease(CVD).
 They are: Aggressive, Usually in a hurry
 Have high levels of competitiveness and ambition
 Live under great pressure
 Demanding of themselves and others

 They are: Aggressive, Usually in a hurry
 Have high levels of competitiveness and ambition
 Live under great pressure
 Demanding of themselves and others
 Have an exaggerated sense of time urgency
 Become very irritated at delays or failure to meet their
dead lines.
 TYPE B PERSONALITY
• These individuals tend to be coronary-disease resistant.
 They are: More relaxed, more agreeable
 Have far less sense of time urgency.
 TYPE C PERSONALITY
• These have a cancer-prone personality.
 They are: Highly sociable and nice people
 Very inhibited in expressing negative emotions. Bottling up
such emotions.
 Tend to feel less hopeless in the face of severe stress.
 They are passive and uncomplaining
 • PERSONALITY APPROACHES
• There are four approaches in personality: i.e
 Psychodynamics approach
 Learning approach
 Trait approach
 Phenomenological approach.
 1.Psychodynamic approach:
• This relates personality to the interplay of conflicting forces
within an individual including those that the individual may
not recognize( un conscious). The conflicting forces include:
wishes, rewards, fears, ambitions
• The approach based on the theories of Sigmund Freud and
Carl Jung. Which asserted that behaviour is guided by the
un consciousness.
• ambitions
• The approach based on the theories of Sigmund
Freud and Carl Jung. Which asserted that behaviour
is guided by the un consciousness
• So the approach claims that many of the influences behind
ones personality are hidden and that much of her
behaviour is a result of competing motivation.
 2. Traits Approach:
• This emphasizes that people have consistent personality
that can be measured and studied. It takes into account
traits e.g friendliness, politeness, honesty, words that
people often use to describe others.
• However psychologists often try to make the descriptions
accurate and systematic and specify situations in which
they apply.
• i.e if a girl greets their parents while kneeling down. The
behavior portrayed can be described as being polite.
 3.Learning approach:
• This assumes that the behaviour that constitutes
• The behavior portrayed can be described as being
polite.
 3.Learning approach:
• This assumes that the behaviour that constitutes
• personality are learnt. They can be learnt through
individual experience or as social learning psychologists
• emphasize, they can be learnt by imitation or vicarious
(second hand learning) reinforcement and punishment.
• So though genetics and other biological factors influence
development of personality traits, some specific ones must
be learnt.
• E.g gender roles( pattern of behaviour a person is expected
to display by virtue of sex). Because of people’s experience
and the variation they can have very specialized
characteristics showing a trait in one situation and not in
another.
 4.Humanistic Approach
• This deals with consciousness, values and beliefs including
• situation and not in another.
 4.Humanistic Approach
• This deals with consciousness, values and beliefs
including spiritual experiences and beliefs people
live by and die for.
 According to humanists, personality depends on what
people believe and the way they perceive the world.
 Humanistic psychology emerged in 1950’s as a protest
against behaviorism and psychoanalysis which were
dominant at that time.
 They determined behavior in terms of Determinism and
Reductionism
 Determinism: this is the belief that every behavior has
been aroused for i.e behavior exhibited out of conscious
decisions
 Reductionism: this is an attempt to describe behavior in
terms of each component,
 Humanistics review people as good and striving as
perfectionists. They claim that people make deliberate
conscious decisions about what to do with their lives.
• Humanistics review people as good and striving as
perfectionists. They claim that people make
deliberate conscious decisions about what to do
with their lives
 THE GRAND THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

• This was advanced by Sigmund Freud(1856-1930)

• His personality theory is the most comprehensive, far
reaching and out standing whose impact extend beyond
psychology.
• He worked with Josef Breuer a psychiatrist while treating a
woman and together they found that recalling of past
experiences produces release of pent up emotional tension
(catharsis) there by healing the illness.
• He called the unconscious part of the mind the repository
of memories, emotions and thoughts many of which are
illogical and affect our behaviour even though we can’t talk
• He called the unconscious part of the mind the
repository of memories, emotions and thoughts
many of which are illogical and affect our behaviour
even though we can’t talk about
• Psycho analysis is the process of bringing them to the
conscious.
Personality structure according to Freud Sigmund
• Freud believed that personality is made up of three major
systems, i.e the
1. ID,
2. Ego
3. Super ego.
• With each having its own function but the three interact to
govern personality.
The Id
• This is the most primitive part of personality and is present
at birth. It consists of the basic biological drives i.e The
 The Id
• This is the most primitive part of personality and is
present at birth. It consists of the basic biological
drives i.e The need for eating, drinking, eliminating
wastes avoiding pain,
• gaining sexual pleasure and aggression.
• He believed that the sexual and aggressive drives are the
most important determinants of personality.
 The Id seeks immediate gratification of these impulses and
operates on pleasure principal. In regard to sex ,the Id says
“ if it feels good, why not have it, here and now…….”
 It endeavors to obtain pleasure and to avoid pain regardless
of the circumstances.
 It does not care about the existing law, social customs or
norms and the needs of others.
Ego
• This emerges in early infancy and operates on the reality
principal. It ensures that the Id’s desires are satisfied in
accordance with reality.
• It redirects the Id‘s demands so that they are discharged on
appropriate objects at the right time and place .It
mediates the Id’s demands and demands of the super ego
and is therefore the executive of personality.
• In regard to Ego e.g. the Ego says” not now”, later. As for
aggression, suppose that your fellow student annoys you to
the point of feeling like slapping him. Your Ego would
encourage you to tell him his mistake instead of punching
him in the nose.
Super ego
• This appears in late infancy. It contains values, and
directions of society as interpreted to children by parents
 Super ego
• This appears in late infancy. It contains values, and
directions of society as interpreted to children by
parents and enforced by rewards and punishment
imposed on a child.
• The super ego has two subsystems; i.e the
 Conscience
 Ego-ideal.
• The conscience consists of things people must not do and is
acquired through parental punishments.
• The ego ideal consists of things that are encouraged in our
society through parental rewards, i.e rules and standards
for good behaviors. E.g obeying rules that are approved by
parental or authoritative figures.
• The super ego represents the ideal(what I ought to do
rather than real) and is for perfection rather than pleasure.
• It is the conscience that makes us feel guilty for doing or
thinking wrong and the ego which makes us feel good for
doing or thinking right.
• A person over dominated by his or her super ego seems too
• It is the conscience that makes us feel guilty for doing
or thinking wrong and the ego which makes us feel
good for doing or thinking right.
• A person over dominated by his or her super ego
seems too moralistic and unable to be comfortable
with pleasure.
• In regard to sex, the superego says “Not now, wait until you
are married or let me prudently present my suggestion for
sex to this cute girl”.
• These three systems are often in opposition, the ego
postpones gratification, the id wants immediately and
superego battles with both the id and ego because
behaviour often lacks the moral code but in a well
integrated personality the ego, remains in firm but flexible
control.
• Those who are dominated by superego are usually up right
and self conscious but too demanding on others and very
judgmental.
 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT(FREUD)
• Freud believed that during the 1st years of life the
individual progresses through several developmental stages
of personality , he called them because the pleasure
seeking impulses of the id focuses on a particular area of
the body and activities connected to that area.
• The body parts concerned were the mouth, the anus, and
other body zones.
• Freud proposed that we have a psycho-sexual energy,
which he called libido a Latin word meaning “Desire”.
• As the child grows, certain body parts become focus of
pleasure according to different stages. These stages are:
oral stage, Anal stage, phallic stage, latency and genital
stage.
 PSYCHO-SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
• For Freud, childhood experiences shape our personalities
and behavior as adults. Sigmund Freud viewed
development as discontinuous; he believed that each of us
must pass through a series of stage during childhood, and
that if we lack nurturing and parenting during a stage, we
may become stuck in ,or fixated on, that stage.
 Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Stages Of Development
 Oral stage (0-1 year)
 Anal stage (1-3 years)
 Phallic stage (3-6 years)
 Latency stage (6-12 years)
 Genital stage. ( 12 years and above)
1. Oral stage (0-1 yr): during this stage the mouth is the
 Phallic stage (3-6 years)
 Latency stage (6-12 years)
 Genital stage. ( 12 years and above)
1. Oral stage (0-1 yr): during this stage the mouth is
the
• pleasure centre for development. Freud believed that this is
why infants are born with a suckling reflex and desire their
mothers breast. If a child’s oral needs are not met in
infancy, they develop negative attitudes like nail biting,
thumb sucking to meet this basic need.
• 2. Anal stage (1-3yrs): during this stage, toddlers and pre-
school aged children begin to experiment with urine and
feces. The control they learn to exert over their bodily
functions is manifested in toilet training. Improper
resolution of this stage, such as toilet training can result in a
child who is uptight and overly obsessed with order.
• 3. Phallic stage (3-6yrs): During this stage, preschoolers
take pleasure in their genitals and, according to Freud,
begin to struggle with sexual desires and towards the
• 3. Phallic stage (3-6yrs): During this stage,
preschoolers take pleasure in their genitals and,
according to Freud, begin to struggle with sexual
desires and towards the opposite sex parent. i.e
Oedipus complex( boy’s desire for
• his mother and his urge to replace his father he is seen as a
rival for the mother’s attention. At the same time the boy is
afraid that his father will punish him fir feelings, so he
experiences castration anxiety.
• The Electra complex, later proposed by Freud's protégé
Carl Jung involves a girl’s desire for her fathers attention
and wish to take her mother’s place.
• 4. Latency stage (6-12yrs): During this stage, sexual
instincts subside, and children and children begin to further
develop the superego, or conscience. Children begin to
behave in morally acceptable ways and adopt the values of
their parents and other important adults
• 5. Genital stage (12 years & above):
• During this stage, sexual impulses re-emerge. If other
stages have been successfully met, adolescents engage in
• 5. Genital stage (12 years & above):
• During this stage, sexual impulses re-emerge. If other
stages have been successfully met, adolescents
engage
• appropriate sexual behavior, which may lead to marriage
and childbirth.
MENTAL DEFENSE MECHANISMS
• Defense mechanisms: According to Freud, the mind is a
battle field between drives,(the id), the constraints imposed
by reality on gratification of these impulses(the ego) and
the norms of society(the super ego)
• This constant infighting generates what Freud called
“neurotic anxiety” Hence a need to defend against them.
• There are many defense mechanisms namely:
• 1.Denial: This is refusal to believe information that proves
anxiety. It’s an assertion that the information is incorrect.
E.g some one with a serious problem of alcohol insists “I
am not an alcoholic”. Some one tested HIV +ve insisting
that its negative.
• 1.Denial: This is refusal to believe information that
proves anxiety. It’s an assertion that the information
is incorrect. E.g some one with a serious problem of
alcohol insists “I am not an alcoholic”. Some one
tested HIV +ve insisting that its negative.
• 2.Repression: This is the rejection of un acceptable
thoughts, desires and memories to the un conscious eg. A
woman seeing some one beaten to death, and she is later
unable to remember what she saw. An incident that you
forcefully/intentionally forget because you do not want it
to influence your behavior in the future.
• 3.Rationalization: Here people attempt to prove that their
actions are rational and justifiable and thus worth of
approval. Eg a student who wants to watch a move instead
of studying says” more studying won’t do me any good
because even those who study hard fail.
• 4. Displacement: Here one diverts the feelings and
thoughts to another more acceptable substitute e.g a man
angry with the boss may real want to kick him, but because
it may be dangerous to kick him he gets home and backs
• 5. Projection: This is the attribution of ones undesirable
characteristic to another people or minimizing the un
desirable in one self and exaggerating them in others e.g a
student who fails the exam may blame the teacher for
being a bad teacher though the rest passed.
 Another example: Some one who secretly enjoys
pornography might accuse others people of enjoying it too
much. Here people don’t necessarily deny the fault but
want to suggest that it’s wide spread.
 i.e projection involves attributing one’s undesirable
characteristics as usual and exaggerates them in others.
• 6. Regression: This is an effort to avoid anxiety of facing
one’s current role in life by returning to a more juvenile
level of functioning eg a wife may go home to her mother
every time she and the husband have a quarrel.
 Or A student may console himself with sweets when
disappointed by a girl friend repeating the behaviour leant
when the mother gave him sweets to make him feel better
every after a disappointment.
• 7.Sublimation:This is the transformation of sexual or
aggressive energy into culturally accepted and admirable
behaviour e.g an a aggressive person may channel his
energies into playing football. Freud viewed this as the only
completely health defense mechanism.
 Another example: here an individual might be pissed off at
home, instead of beating the wife he rather transforms his
anger into splitting of firewood.
 8.Reaction formation: Here we deny unacceptance
impulses and give strong expression of their opposite. In
this way the conscious motive masks the unconscious one.
• A mother who feels angry and rejected towards her child
checks many times to see if the child is fine during the
night and worries excessively about the child’s safety on
the way to and from school.
• Another example: here an individual is denied a
microphone while at the function, instead of showing the
behavior of being irritated by what happened, he rather
thanks the people around with a smile.
• 9. Intellectualization: This involves dealing with
intensifying problems as interesting events which can be
explained irrationally and which have no anxiety content
attached to them .
• Eg A man who has just seen a bank robbery in which five
people near him were shot dead talks about how
interesting it was to observe the variety of ways people
• Fixation; is a defense mechanism by which a person
develops an excessive attachment to another person object
or behavior that was appropriate only at an earlier stage of
development. Eg person with oral fixation continue to
receive pleasure from, talking, biting, drinking, eating and
other oral functions.
CARL JUNG
• At the turn of the 20th century, during these decisive years,
a young Swiss psychiatrist named Carl Jung had been
following Freud’s writings and had sent him copies of his
articles and his first book, the 1907 Psychology of
Dementia Praecox, he upheld the Freudian psychodynamic
viewpoint, although with some reservations.
• Carl Jung's contributions in psychodynamic psychology
include:
• some reservations.
• Carl Jung's contributions in psychodynamic
psychology include:
• The self is composed of the ego, the personal unconscious,
the collective unconscious.
• Jung differed from Freud Sigmund and he did not consider
sexual instinct as the main factor in personality. Neither did
he believe that personality almost formed in early
childhood.
• He claimed that the middle age is even more important in
personality development and he conceived/viewed
personality as consisting of 3 parts.
 Ego conscious
 Personnel conscious
 Collective conscious.
• He saw Ego as; conscious-competent personality which
comes out with daily activity.
• He saw Ego as; conscious-competent personality
which comes out with daily activity.
• He believed that we have Personal Unconscious that;
develop but result over individual experiences and are
therefore unique to each individual
• He thought that universal experiences of mankind through
out the evolution are transmitted to each individual
generation after generation through the Collective
Unconscious. This is how he accounted for similarity of
certain myths, dreams, symbols, and beliefs. i.e behaving in
a way without knowing why the behave like that. e.g
 Belief: in some societies women do not eat chicken but
there are no justifiable reasons for behaving like that.
 Dreams: when you dream a cow chasing you, it means
you are going to face problems.
 Symbols: when you see the rainbow, you know that the
small god (jaja mukasa) has drained the rain.
• The collective unconscious contains the archetypes which
manifest in ways particular to each individual.
• An archetype: is a primitive mental image inherited from the
earliest human ancestors and supposed to represent in the
collective unconscious.
• Jung also distinguished between the Anima (feminine
archetype in men) and Animus (masculine archetype in
women).
• According to Jung, a psychologically health person whether
male or female must maintain a balance between femininity
and masculinity.
 Carl Jung's theory of introvert and Extrovert personalities.
• Carl Jung’s perspective on personality is quite unique and
insightful, he wrote that: “ what appears to be random
behavior is actually the result of differences in the way
1. Extroverts: he believed that extroverts are socially
outgoing and pay more attention to the environment.
They are socially active, and more aware of what is going
on around them. I.e they like to be part of group[s,
communities and probable places where they get a
chance to interact.
2. Introverts: he believed that they are socially reserved and
[pay more attention to their private mental experiences.
They are comfortable living alone. They fear interacting or
even talking in public.
 CARL ROGERS
• Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a humanistic psychologist who
agreed with the main assumptions of Abraham Maslow, but
he added that for a person to grow, they need an
environment that provides them with
genuineness(openness and disclosure), acceptance (being
seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy
(being listened to and understood).
 Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goals,
wishes, an desires in life. When or rather if they did so, self
actualization took place. This was one of the most vital
contributions by Carl Rogers to psychology, and for a person
to reach their potential a number of factors must be
satisfied. Without these, relationships and healthy
personalities will
 psychology, and for a person to reach their potential
a number of factors must be satisfied. Without these,
relationships and healthy personalities will
• not develop as they would.
 Self actualisation
• “The organism has one basic tendency and striving to
actualize, maintain and enhance the experiencing
organism”
 Rogers believed that human have one basic motive, that is
the tendency to self actualise.-i.e fulfill one’s potential and
achieve the highest level of human beingness we can. And
this can only be happen if their environment is good.
 Rogers believed that people are inherently good and
creative. They become destructive only when a poor self
concept or external constraints override the valuing
process.
 Carl Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self
actualisation they must be in a state of congruence, i.e a
• state of coincidence in a person’s ideal self and actual
experience. Therefore this means that self actualisation
occurs when the ideal self is congruent with the actual
behavior (self image).
 The fully functioning Person
• In many ways Rogers regarded the Fully Functioning Person
as an ideal and one that people do not ultimately achieve.
• Rogers then identified five characteristics of the fully
functioning person.
 Open to experience: both positive and negative emotions
accepted. Negative feelings are not denied, but worked
through .
 Existential Living: in touch with different experiences as they
occur in life, avoiding prejudging and preconceptions. Being
able to live and accept the present fully, not always looking
• Trust feelings: feeling, instincts and reactions are paid
attention to and trusted. People’s own decisions are right
ones, and we should trust our selves to make right
decisions.
• Creativity: creative thinking and risk taking are features of
person's life. A person does not play safe all the time. This
involves the ability to adjust and change and seek new
experiences.
• Fulfilled life: a person is happy and always looking for new
challenges and experiences.
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
• Central to Roger’s personality theory is the notion of self-
concept. This is defined as the organised, consistent set of
perceptions and beliefs about oneself. The self is the
humanistic term for who we really are as a person.
• According to Rogers(1959), we want to feel, experience and
behave in ways which are consistent with our self-image
and which reflect what we would like to be.
• A person is said to be in a state of incongruence if their
ideal self is different from their self image or current state.
• The Humanistic approach sates that the self is composed
of concepts unique to our selves. The self concept includes
three component;
1. Positive regard and Self-worth: Carl Rogers viewed the
child as having two basic needs, i.e positive regard from
other people and self worth. Self worth (self esteem
comprise of what we think about ourselves.
2. Self image: how we see ourselves, which is very important
to good psychological health. This includes influence of
our body on inner personality.
1. regard from other people and self worth. Self
worth (self esteem comprise of what we think
about ourselves.
2. Self image: how we see ourselves, which is very
important to good psychological health. This
includes influence of our body on inner personality
• 3. Ideal self: this is the person who we think we would like
to be. It consists of our goal and ambitions in life.
 Conditional positive regard
• This is where a positive regard, praise and approval, depend
upon the child i.e for example behaving in ways a parent
thinks is right.
 Unconditional positive regard
• This is where parents, significant others accept and love the
person for what he or she is.
 ABRAHAM MASLOW
 Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy Of Needs.
• Maslow’s hierarch of needs is a theory in psychology
proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper: “ A
Theory of Human Motivation.”
• He proposed that people have a hierarchy of needs and the
highest of which is self actualisation.
• To determine the characteristic of a self actualised person
he made a list of people whom in his opinion had achieved
their full potential.
• Maslow’s theory was fully expressed in his 1954 book
“Motivation and Personality”. This hierarchy remains a very
popular frame work in higher psychology instruction.
 According to him, self actualized personality show the
following:
• very popular frame work in higher psychology
instruction.
 According to him, self actualized personality show
the following
 Accurate perception of reality
 Independence
 Ability to help the others.
• According to Maslow’s hierarchy, behavior is governed
according to the hierarchy of needs, i.e “from the most
necessary to those that receive attention only when others
are met”.
• To him the most basic are the physiological needs; like
water, food, shelter, clothing, etc and those take priority
over others.
• Once people have satisfied all their physiological needs,
they seem to satisfy their psychological needs; like love and
belonging, personal security, emotional security.
• Maslow’s hierarchy I often displayed as a pyramid.
• Note: Like Carl Rogers, Maslow emphasized the importance
of self-actualization , which is a process of growing and
developing as a person in order to achieve individual
potential.
 Physiological Needs
• The basic physiological needs are those things that are vital
to our survival. Some examples include; food, water,
clothing, sexual reproduction.
 Security and safety needs:
• These are basically psychological needs and they
contribute largely to the behaviors of individuals. These
basically include; financial security, health and wellness,
physical safety-(against war, accidents, family violence,
childhood abuse), economic safety-(inflation and
unemployment).
 Social needs (social belonging)
• The social needs in the Maslow’s hierarchy include things
such as; love, acceptance and belonging, i.e friendship,
romantic attachments, family, social groups, community
groups, churches and religious organizations.
• According to him; Humans need a sense of belonging and
acceptance in among the social groups.
 Self esteem.
• At this level in Maslow's hierarchy is the need for status,
appreciation and respect, from others. All humans have the
needs to feel respected and this includes the need to have
self esteem. The activities with in the society give an
individual a sense of contribution or value- superiority
complex. Inferiority complex may result from imbalances
during this level.
 Self Actualization
• This is the peak level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs . This
level refers to what a person’s full potential is and the
realisation of the potential.
• Its characterised by the quotation “ what can be, he must
be’. Maslow explained this referring o the need people
have to achieve their full potential.
• Note: Self actualizing people are self aware, concerned
with personal growth, les concerned with opinions of
others, and interested in fulfilling their potential.
• PYRAMID OF AGRAHAM MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF
NEEDS.
 ALFRED ADLER’S PERSONALITY THEORY
• Adler’s personality theory was created by Alfred Adler
(1870-1937). Adler caller this theory individual psychology
because he believed that people were unique and that no
theory created before his applied to all people.
• He originally followed Freud’s teaching but left after a
disagreement of Freud's theory which says that the drive of
human behavior is sex.
• Adler’s personality theory states that the drive for human
behavior is the need to overcome the feelings of inferiority.
• An inferiority complex brings an exaggerated feeling of
inferiority on the sufferer and they will feel less motivated
to strive for superiority.
 Alfred Adler then devised four different psychological
types that described people basing on their energy levels.
 Adler’s psychological types.
1. Ruling type: refers to those who will push others in order
to gain superiority. These have a lot of energy causing
them to push others out of their way. They include;
bullies, alcoholics, sadists, etc.
2. Learning type: these are dependent on others to help
them with life difficulties. When overwhelmed they
develop phobias, obsessions, anxiety, etc.
3. Avoiding type: these are people who survive by avoiding
life’s hard experiences, i.e they usually want to live in their
own world. They rarely interact with others.
4. Socially useful type: This is a socially healthy person. They
take interest in interacting with others.
• Adler’s theory is based on the strive for superiority and the
feelings of inferiority.
 MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY DEVELOMENT
• Over the years psychologists have devised/planned a
variety of tests to measure both normal and abnormal
personalities. Some of these are based on simple pencil and
paper personalities.
 Below are some of the important projective techniques.
 Minnesota Multiphase Personality
 Rorschach Ink Blot test
 Thematic Apperception Test
 Tantoplione Test
 Incomplete Sentence Technique
 Picture association Test
 Word association Test
 Play Technique
 PERSONALITY DISORDERS.
• A personality disorder is a mental disorder where an
individual has a pervasive and rigid pattern of behavior ,
thinking and functioning that persists through out life.
• A person with a personality disorder has impaired
functioning and poor interpersonal relationship.
 Aetiology/origin of the problem.
• Biological theories include genetic factors, electro-
psychological abnormalities seen in the
electroencephalogram (EEG)
 Classification of personality disorders
• Personality disorders are classified into three clusters
 Cluster A: paranoid , schizoid, schizotypal
 Cluster B: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic
 Cluster A (suspicious)
 Paranoid personality disorder: these individuals are
mistrustful and suspicious. They tend to be cold, aloof and
hostile. Their patterns of thinking are rigid and have
difficulty in dealing with criticism. i.e watch others closely
looking for sings of betrayal or hostility, difficult to trust
others.
 Schizoid personality disorder: these individuals keep to
themselves. they prefer their own company and preserve
solidarity. Prefer to be alone, have little interest in sex or
intimacy, uninterested in forming close relationships with
other people.
 Schizotypal personality disorder: isolation and aloofness
are characteristics of schizophrenics. odd behaviors and
thinking patterns may be displayed, i.e using unusual words
 Schizotypal personality disorder: isolation and
aloofness are characteristics of schizophrenics. odd
behaviors and thinking patterns may be displayed, i.e
using unusual words
• or phrases. Find making close relationships a bit difficult,
believe in ways others find eccentric. Believe they can read
minds or that they have powers such as sixth sense.
 Cluster B (emotional and impulsive)
 Antisocial personality disorder: these may be at least 18
years old. This disorder is characterised by lack of remorse.
Behaviors include; deceitfulness,. Irresponsibility,
aggressiveness, inability or lack of interest in holding down
a job, history of arrests for criminal activities, feel no sense
of guilt when they mistreat others, behave dangerously and
sometimes illegally.
 Borderline personality Disorder: this disorder is marked by
instability in the interpersonal relationships. Emotions are
manifested by intense anger, an intolerance to being alone,
mood fluctuations and irritability. Life styles are
• characterised by living from one life style to the next. During
crisis, self destructive behavior is often exhibited (shown) in
form of self mutilation and multiple suicide attempts. There
may be history of childhood abuse.
• Have suicidal thoughts and self harming behavior, find it hard
to make and keep stable relationships, get very angry and
struggle to control their anger.
 Histrionic personality disorder: these individuals are
superficial charming but their emotions are shallow and
volatile. They are dramatic, attention seeking and suggesting.
Their interactions, with others are often characterised by
inappropriate, seductive and proactive behavior. Get a
reputation over being dramatic and overemotional, feel
dependent on approval of others, are easily influenced by
others, flirt or behave proactively to remain the centre of
attraction, feel that they have to entertain people.
 Narcissistic personality disorder: an increased self esteem
and a sense of importance predominant. As these people
view the world as revolving around themselves, they are
pre-occupied with issues such as power, success, beauty,
being considered as special. Take advantage of others
people, resent other people’s success, put their needs
above other people’s. they crave to be admired and they
have a sense of entitlement, interpersonal relationships are
characterised by exploitation and lack of feelings for others.
• Manipulation of loved ones, friends and even health
workers is a common behavior.
 Cluster C (anxious)
 Avoidant (anxious) personality disorder: these individuals
are shy and lack self esteem and are introverted. They fear
rejection and embarrassment & they avoid situations or
• interpersonal relationships which may lead to those
outcomes. Social activities therefore remain minimal
despite their desire for them.
• Feel lonely and isolated from others, feel inferior to others,
worry so much about being found put and rejected, avoid
relationships, friendships, and intimacy because of fear for
rejection.
 Dependent personality disorder: submissiveness and self
doubt lead to clinging behaviors and fears of separation
from those they are reliant on. There is difficulty in
assuming responsibility for major areas of their life.
• They constantly seek for approval and they even fear to
take care of themselves. Have low self confidence, they are
too submissive and passive, feel too weak and unable to
make decisions on their own.
 Obsessive compulsive personality disorder: these
individuals need to keep everything in order and under
control (perfectionist and inflexible). They are reluctant to
spend money on themselves or others, have a tendency to
hang onto items with no obvious value, expect
catastrophes if things are not perfect, think theirs is the
best way of making things happen.

• Note: obsessive compulsive personality disorder is separate

from the obsessive compulsive disorder, which describes a
form of behavior rather than a type of personality.
INTELLIGENCE AND ITS
MEASURES
SSEKWEYAMA HASHIBU
 INTELLIGENCE AND ITSMEASUMENT
• Intelligence is the ability to act purposely, think rationally
and deal effectively with the environment.
• In other words it reflects how well an individual can
function. It was devised by the first American school of
psychology called Functionalism which stressed the
importance of adaptive functioning in everyday life.
• In deed intelligent people tend to function better.
• Four (4) theories have been put forward by psychologists to
explain intelligence:
 1. Charles Spearman in his psychometric approach.
• The measurement of intelligence found that to perform
 1. Charles Spearman in his psychometric approach.
• The measurement of intelligence found that to
perform well on any test of mental ability people
need a General ability ”g”.
• However each task requires use of Specific ability ”S” in
addition to general ability. Thus intelligence consists of
general ability plus an unknown number of specific abilities;
such as mechanical, arithmetical, musical, logical, drama,
etc
• These specific abilities develop independently. He called
this the “monarch theory” of intelligence.
 2. Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
• Another psychologist Raymond Cartel accepted Spearman’s
approach but gave the a modification according to him,
the “g” factor has two components, Fluid intelligence and
Crystallized intelligence.
• Thus intelligence can be compared with water. Fluid water
can take any shape but ice crystals are rigid .So fluid
intelligence is power of reasoning and using information i.e.
• Thus intelligence can be compared with water. Fluid
water can take any shape but ice crystals are
rigid .So fluid intelligence is power of reasoning and
using information i.e.
• It is the basic reasoning ability that can be applied to any
problem including the un familiar ones.
• Whereas crystalized intelligence consists of acquired skills
and knowledge and application of that knowledge to only
specific problems.
 3. Gardener’s theory.
• Related to Spearman’s approach is Gardener’s theory of
multiple intelligence which claims that people have
numerous forms of intelligence there by distinguishing
different abilities. People have a variety of abilities and
almost no one is strong in all abilities or weak in all abilities.
• According to Gardener, there are seven types of intelligence
each of which is developed too different degree in different
persons, i.e
 Linguistic intelligence
• According to Gardener, there are seven types of
intelligence each of which is developed too different
degree in different persons, i.e
 Linguistic intelligence
 Logical mathematics
 Spatial (ability to judge positions of objects)
 Musical
 Bodily kinesthetic
 Intrapersonal
 interpersonal
 4.Triarchic theory.
• In contrast to Spearman’s monarchic theory, Sternberg
looks at three aspects of intelligence.;
• The cognitive process, a situation that requires intelligence
and how intelligence relates to the external world.
• The cognitive involves learning the necessary information,
planning and approach to solve the problem and combining
knowledge with the plan to actually solve the problem.
• Second aspect emphasises; that it is important to
distinguish noble situations from repeated ones because
they require different responses.
• The third aspect emphasizes that; an intelligent person
either adapts to the environment or tries to improve the
environment If these fail he escapes to a better one.
INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT (IQ) TESTS.
• IQ TESTS
• Intelligence Quotient tests measure an individuals probable
performance in school and similar settings. The term
Quotient dates from the time IQ was determined by
dividing mental age by chronological age i.e
• IQ = M.A x 100
C.A
• determined by dividing mental age by chronological
age i.e
• IQ = M.A x 100
C.A
• This testing was devised by two French psychologists: Alfred
Binet and Simon Theophile and modified by English Stanford
psychologist to give Stanford –Binet Test
• The test contains items that range in difficulty i.e from very
simple ones to harder ones and is designated as “ age 8”
will be answered by almost all 8 year olds and very few of
those below eight(8) years. A subject is given items
designated for his her age and the mean IQ IS 100.
THE WECHSLER TESTS
• Two IQ tests devised by David Wechsler are WISC( Wechsler
intelligence scale for children) & Wechsler adult intelligence
scale(WAIS)
• WISC is given to children up to 16 years. The two produce
the same average of 100. Like Stanford Binet the test are
administered to one individual at a time by a qualified
• The scores are in two categories verbal and performance
each of the 12 parts starts with the simplest questions and
progresses with difficult ones.
• Six of the 12 parts are performance items. Which call for
non verbal answers whereas the other six have verbal items
that require spoken or written answers
• However Wechsler test face a lot of criticism one of which
is that they tend to be culture specific and un fair to people
who can’t speak English very well.
RAVENS PROGRESSIVE MATRICES
• Because Wechsler tests call for specific information and
comprehension of the English language, psychologists have
devised a fair test: progressive matrices devised by John
Raven. These matrices measure abstract reasoning and
have very easy instructions they don’t call for verbal or
• psychologists have devised a fair test: progressive
matrices devised by John Raven. These matrices
measure abstract reasoning and have very easy
instructions they don’t call for verbal or
• specific information.
THE SCHOLASTIC ASSESSMENT TEST(SAT)
• This is designed to measure student’s likelihood to do well
in college i.e it predicts college performance. Other tests
include aptitude tests which measure the ability to
perform a task and achievement tests which measure how
much one has acquired after learning.
 Qualities Of A Good Test
 Standardized
 Reliability
 Validity
• For a test to be good, it has to be standardized, Reliable
and Valid.
• Standardization: is the process of establishing rules for
 – Reliability: Refers to repeatability of the scores. The test
must be consistent in measuring what it measures in
that if the same people are tested twice with the same
test the scores should not differ greatly.
– Validity: This refers to how well the test measures what
it is intended to measure. Validity has types
– i) Content validity: A test has high content validity if the
items represent the information the test is meant to
measure
– ii) Contrast validity: This is the correspondence of the
tests measurements to a theoretical contrast
• Iii)Predictive validity: This is the ability of a tests score to
predict real world performance
• N.B: Generation by generation people have been getting
better and better at whatever the IQ test measure. This
• Iii)Predictive validity: This is the ability of a tests
score to predict real world performance
• N.B: Generation by generation people have been
getting better and better at whatever the IQ test
measure. This tendency is called “Flynn effect
 EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE
• Another controversial issue regarding intelligence is
classification and education of people who fall at either
extreme of the range of intelligence is classification and
education of people who fail at either extreme of the range
of intelligence.
• To be classified as mentally retarded, a person must have as
I.Q below 70 and difficulties in performing everyday life
evident in childhood.
 There are 4 categories of mental retardation
1. mild mental retardation (50-70)
2. Moderate mental retardation (35-49)
3. Severe Mental Retardation (20-34)
4. Profound mental retardation (below 20)
• To be classified as mentally gifted , an individual has to have
an I.Q above 130 and it constitutes/ demonstrates unusual
ability in one area such as Art, Music, Mathematics.
MOTIVATION AND ATTITUDE
SSEKWEYAMA HASHIBU
 MOTIVATION
• This is a process that initiates, directs and sustains behaviour
satisfying, physiological and psychological needs.
• Highly motivated people persist with a to reach their goal
behaviour or even alter the behaviour.
• They frequently set up some goals that they will need to
achieve on the way to their final goal.
 Theories of motivation
 Instinctive Theory:
• Here motivation is regarded as an energy. According to Lorenz
Conrad, animals engage in instinctive acts when specific
energies reach a critical level. Eg animals mating at particular
season such as frogs and dogs. He believed that if one
response is blocked the energy will activate another. An
instinct is an inborn unlearned fixed behaviour that is
 Drive Theory
• Here motivation is described as a drive i.e a state of un rest
or irritation that energizes one behaviour after another till
one of them removes the irritation. E.g we eat to reduce
hunger, urinate to remove pain that urges us to pass out.
 Homeostasis theory
• This rests on the assumptions of maintenance of an
optimum level of biological conditions within an organism.
It recognizes that we are motivated to seek a state of
equilibrium and not to reduce all the stimuli to zero. Our
behaviour often anticipates future needs e.g you may take
a heavy breakfast even though you are not hungry just
because you know you will be too busy to take lunch.
 Incentive theory
• This theory relies on the external stimuli to pull us towards
• certain actions/behaviors. The distinction between a drive
and an incentive is not clear.
• Most motivated behaviours are controlled by a
combination of incentives and drives. E.g you may eat food
because you hungry(drive) and because you see an
appealing dish/food( incentive). How much you eat
depends on the strength of the drive and the appeal of the
dish depends on the incentive.
Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation
• Intrinsic motivation is motivation to engage in an act for its
own sake.
• An extrinsic motivation on the other hand is based on the
reinforcement and punishment the act may bring. Eg eating
because you are hungry is an intrinsic motivation and
eating to please the cook is an extrinsic motivation
• When people are given more extrinsic motivation than
necessary their intrinsic motivation declines. This
phenomena is called over justification effect
• In such a situation: a Hajji may eat food from all the four
hajjats and finally loses the hunger thus loses the intrinsic
motivation.
 Another way of classifying motivation is by categorizing it
as either primary or secondary.
 Primary motivation such as the search for food and water
are automatic in built processes.
 Secondary motivation develops as a result of specific
learning experiences presumably because the secondary
motivation in the past lead to satisfaction of a primary
motivation. Therefore secondary motivations are learnt
because they satisfy primary motivations.
 SOCIAL MOTIVES
• These are learned motives that involve other people e.g
achievements, need for power and human aggression.
• The need for achievement is a motive to accomplish things
and to be successful in performing tasks. People high in the
need for achievement prefer to work on moderately
challenging and risky tasks, when their performance can be
compared with performance of others. They are persistent
in their work and life situations where they have control
over the outcome.
Power Motivation
• This is the source of motives in which the goals are to
influence, control, persuade and enhance ones reputation
in the eyes of other people.
• The behaviour expression of power motivation, takes many
forms like repulsive , aggressive or competitive behaviours.
• Among men it also takes the form of drinking and sexual
domination over women.
• A special form of power motivation termed as
Machiavellianism is characteristic of people who express
their power motivation by exploiting others in deceptive
• Deceptive- making you believe something that is not true
• It's deceptive - from the outside the building looks small,
but inside it's quite big. ), and unscrupulous ways.-
behaving in a way that is dishonest or unfair in order to get
what you want an unscrupulous financial adviser.
Human Aggression
• Human aggression though it has a biological basis; it is
• primarily under the control of social factors. Aggression can
be instrumental or hostile. Instrumental aggression is
aimed at satisfying some need but not hurting people.
• Hostile aggression is the behaviour whose goal is aimed at
harming another human being.
• Among the environmental and social causes of human
aggression are intense frustration, insult, un pleasant
environmental conditions etc.
• Aggression can be learned through social learning, classical
conditioning and instrumental/ operant conditioning.
• Punishment, catharsis( he process of releasing strong
emotions through a particular activity or experience, such
as writing or theatre, which helps you to understand those
emotions and presence of a non aggressive model may
serve to lessen the aggressive behaviour.
 ATTITUDE
• Attitudes are learnt evaluative responses directed at
specific people or objects. They are relatively enduring and
influence our behaviour towards the objects.
• An attitude is evaluative and involves a like or a dislike.
Attitudes are directed at some targets un like emotions.
Emotions come and go but attitudes are relatively more
stable. They mediate and influence our behaviour
• An attitude has three components:
i) Cognitive component: This involves thoughts and beliefs
about the object.
ii) Emotional component: These are feelings towards the
object.
iii) Behaviour component: This is the predisposition to act in
• a specific way towards the object.
• Some attitudes may be influenced by genetic factors but
most socially significant attitudes are leant e.g as an infant
you were un concerned about abortion and pollution, but
now you probably have attitudes about these topics.
Attitude Formation
• We learn attitudes through conditioning and observation:
 1. Classical conditioning & attitude formation
• Classical conditioning may be particularly important in
forming attitude towards things and people especially
when we don’t have a lot of prior knowledge about them.
E.g if newspapers and TV programmes frequently associate
members of certain ethnic group with violent crimes we
may come to show conditioned fear whenever we see
members of this group.
• Further more, attitudes that are classically conditioned to
specific objects can generalize to similar objects, e.g a
woman abused by three men in her life will associate these
men with pain and stress and may develop negative
attitudes towards men in general.
 2. Operant conditioning & attitude formation
• The basic principle of operant conditioning is that when a
voluntary response is followed by a reinforcement, the
probability of future occurrence of that response is
increased.
• From this perspective, attitude can be revealed as voluntary
responses that shift depending on our history of
reinforcement.
• Operant conditioning can help establish important real life
attitude. As you grew up, your parents probably rewarded
• you for expressing proper religious attitude.
 3. Observational Learning& attitude Formation
• Certain forms of learning can take place just by watching
others behave that way. E.g children may learn to be
aggressive by observing their friends fight or watching
violent TV shows.
• In addition to learning aggression, children who watch
media violence may develop more tolerant attitude
towards aggression.
• 4. Cognitive Dissonance
• When we hold particular attitudes we would like our
behaviour to match with the attitudes. When our
behaviours are inconsistent with our attitude we develop a
state of unpleasant tension which may pause a threat to
our self esteem. This is called Cognitive dissonance.
• The dissonance can be reduced by:
 Changing the attitude to match the behaviour
 Changing the behaviour to match the attitude.
 Developing anew attitude or excuse to make the behaviour
justifiable.
PERCEPTION AND ATTENDING

SSEKWEYAMA HASHIBU
 PERCEPTION
• When we look around we see shapes, figures, shadows,
bank ground area of light etc.
• Our knowledge of these objects and their relative location
is extensive and gives an idea of what they feel like even if
you have not touched them.
• We don’t perceive an object as increasing in size as you
approach it though the image it casts on the Retina gets
larger.
• All perception begins with a stimulus, information is
transmitted in the brain when its organized and
interpreted.
• It is the organization and interpretation of the sensory
experience that we term as perception. The direct effect of
• stimulation of receptor cells by stimulus is referred to as
sensation
• Our five senses provide us with important information about
the outside world. Perception is a rapid automatic and
conscious process i.e we don’t see an object and then
perceive it. We are presented with a finished product and
not details of the process.
ATTENDING
• The process of attending is a readiness to perceive. It’s an
active process and most times we perceive only those aspects
of the environ meant to which we attend.
Factors that influence our attention
 1.State of the perceiver.
• Attending is based on the interest & motivation and it arises
through past experience as well as present stimulation. When
• food.
 2. Perceptual set
• A person can attend with specific expectancy in mind.
Perceptual set is a readiness to perceive, and in certain
manner. Example a husband who is expecting an important
phone call will hear the phone ring in the night while the
wife may not. She is instead more likely to hear the baby
cry.
 3. Stimulus characteristics.
• We can respond to only few of the many stimuli of which
we are exposed. We attend to stimuli that are in
accordance with our lives and expectation. We are
motivated by some internal factors however the stimulus
may catch our attention not because of our needs or
internal factors but because it is unique characteristics.
• 4.Intensity
• By intensity , we mean strength of the stimuli. Advertisers
attempt to capture our attention by using high intensity
stimulus eg the tune on Radio changes in loudness when a
commercial plays.
• The best location for a visual stimulus is directly in front of
the eye, the upper position receives more attention than
the lower .
• Colored is more attention getting than plane black & white.
Elements of the visual scene can combine in different
ways(various) to produce different forms.
 Gestalt psychologist observed that several principles of
grouping can predict the combination of these elements
• These principals can be referred to as laws of grouping.
 THE LAWS OF GROUPING
 1.The law of proximity
• This states that elements that are closest together will be
perceived as belonging together.
• E.g. . . . .
. . . . . . . .
.. . . . . . . . . . .
.. . . . . . . . . . .
.. . . . . . . . . . .
 2. The law of similarity:
• This states that elements that look similar will be perceived as
part of the same form
• XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
• XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
• XXXXXXXX XXXXXXX
 3.Law of closure:
• This states that our visual system often supplies missing
information and closes the outline of an incomplete figure.
•

• Two separate figures are perceived as a triangle

 4. The law of good continuity.
• A line tends to be perceived as continuing in its established
direction.
• Stimuli that appear to form a continuous pattern are
perceived as a whole. They make an obvious figure. E is
more likely to be perceived as S continuing to F then G
 PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY
• We often continue to have the same perceptual
experiences even as sensory data changes. Perceptual
constancy refers to this tendency to perceive objects as
relatively stable and un changing despite changing sensory
information without this we would find the world very
confusing.
• Once we have formed stable perception of an object we
can recognize it from almost all positions at almost any
distance under any illumination.
• A white house is perceived as white by day or night and
from any angle .Memory and experience play an important
role in perceptual constancy.
 Individual differences in perception
• People differ in the way they perceive sensory inputs to
give rise to what they perceive. This may be due to:
 1. Perceptual learning.
• This is an increase in the ability to extract explanation from
the environment as a result of experience or practice with
the stimuli coming from it( environment). Each one of us
has learnt to emphasize some sensory in put and to ignore
others.
• People trained in various occupations can make perceptual
distinctions that the un trained can't make .Experience is
the best teacher of these skills and they can never be learnt
from books.
 2.Set
• This refers to the idea that we may be ready or primed for
• certain sensory in put. Such experiences vary from person
to person and are a factor in both the selection of sensory
in puts to focus attention to and in organisation of the in
put.
 3. Motives& needs
• Individual differences in motives and needs affect
perception. We attend to & organize sensory in puts in
ways that much our needs
• Projective tests capitalize on this.
 4.Perceptual cognitive styles
• The general processing strategies that characterize different
people are known as perceptual cognitive styles. One
dimension along which people vary in perceptual cognitive
styles is the degree to which their perception and other
aspects of their behavior are flexible or rigid.
• People whose perceptions are at flexible end of the flexible
—rigid continuum have a wide focus of attention and are
less affected by interfering influences and less dominated
by internal needs and motives than those with rigid
perception
• Flexible------------------------------Rigid/ constricted
COUNSELLING AND GUIDANCE

SSEKWEYAMA HASHIBU
 COUNSELLING AND GUIDANCE
• Guidance and counselling:, concept and principles of
counselling, indications for counselling, qualities of a good
counselor, the counselling process.
• Guidance: help and advice about how to do something or
about how to deal with problems connected with your
work, education, or personal relationships ss and the
counselling skills.
• Counselling: Is the job or process of listening to someone
and giving them advice about their problems
• Counselling is a helping relationship to help a person help
himself or herself out of a difficult situation.
• Definition: Counselling is a process , where by one person
listens to the other in order to help him /her to work
through or resolve specific problem.
• OR Counselling is a helping relationship between a helper
and a client, where by the client is assisted to gain insight
into his / her problem and works towards coping /
resolving with the problem.
• OR . Counselling is a process of enabling distressed people,
recognize their feelings , define their problems and helping
them find their own solutions or begin to resolve their
dilemma.
• In summary counseling is about creating anew perspective
and change may be inside the individual about a situation
or that change may be in behaviour e.g giving up drinking
alcohol or the change may be in the environment e.g
setting up support groups.
• Counselling is a process and it takes time
• Counselling involves having a dialogue with a person
• Counselling involves helping the person share out his or
her problems and expressing his or her concerns.
• Counselling involves exploring all the possible plan of
action
• Counselling involves guiding a person through various
possibilities.
• Counselling is not advising& not suggesting for a person
what to do
 AIMS OF COUNSELLING
• Counseling aims at helping people to:
• 1.Understand their situations more clearly
• 2.Identify a range of options for improving the situation
• 1.Understand their situations more clearly
• 2.Identify a range of options for improving the
situation
• 3 Make their own decisions and work on them
• 4. Make choices which fit their values, their feelings
and needs.
• 5 Cope better with the problem
• 6. Develop life skills and coping strategies to deal with
eventual/similar problems and be bold enough to discuss
their issues with a partner or friend.
• 7. Provide support for others while preserving their own
strength
 APPROACHES TO COUNSELING
 Psychological
 Psychodynamic
 Behavior
 Cognitive
 Humanistic
 Gestalt
 Goals Of Counselling
• To help a person make an informed decision about hi/her
concern
• To achieve the counselling goal
 Why Is Counselling Important
• Helps clients to make informed decisions
• Helps client to make appropriate planning\
• Helps clients to cope with difficult situations
• To enable a client get continuation support e.g HIV
infection situation which is chronic.
 Who Should Counselling?
• Some is good in counselling with basic skills such as:
 Active listening
 Paraphrasing
 Reflecting
 Summarising
 Some one with good communication skills and positive
attitude
 Some one who is presentable.
 some one with interest and time to help a person with a
problem.
 QUALITIES OF AGOOD COUNSELOR
• 1.Empathetic
• 2.Being an active listener
• 3.Being knowledgeable
• 4.Being courageous
• 5Being observant
• 6.Being objective and impartial
 4.Being courageous
5Being observant
6.Being objective and impartial

• 7.Exemplary
• 8. Having patience
• 9.Evaluates ones own thought, behavior and practice
• 10.Enjoying working with people
• 11.Pleasant personality:
 Basic Principles Of Counseling
 1.The client knows what is best for him/ her:
• We all perceive the world differently as we all had
personal histories that influence or affect our views.
• Through out our lives we develop a variety of coping
strategies and ways of managing that we use when
troubled by personal problems.
• According to client- centered counseling if given the
space and time we are the judges of what is right for
us.
• We can listen to other people but in the end we as
individuals have to decide our own courses of action
 2.Interpretation by the counselor is likely to be in accurate
and is best avoided.
• To interpret is to offer the client an explanation of his
thinking, feeling and action.
• Interpretation is useful as it can help us clarify and offer a
frame work on which the client may make future decisions.
However, they are best left to the client to make.
• Since we all live in different perceptual worlds, another
person’s interpretations of my thinking, feeling or actions is
likely to be best on that person’s experiences.
• Very often interpretation are put together with moral
injunctions like ‘oughts'’ and ‘ and shoulds’ and as a result
such interpretation turns into moralistic advice that may
• lead the client to feel guilty or rejecting the advice as it
does not fit in with his own belief or value systems.
 3. Advice is rarely helpful
• Advice is rarely directly asked for and rarely appropriate.
• A counselor who offers a lot of advice is asking for a client
to become dependent and when the advice turns out to be
wrong the counselor- client relationship degenerates.
• However, there are exceptions where giving advice could be
appropriate e.g advice about caring for wounds, taking
medication or health education.
• But in areas of personal problems, giving advice is rarely
appropriate.
 4.The client occupies a different personal world from that
of the counselor and vice versa.
• But in areas of personal problems, giving advice is
rarely appropriate.
 4.The client occupies a different personal world
from that of the counselor and vice versa.
• The fact that we have had varied experiences, have
different belief and value system, means that we
• perceive the world through different frames of reference.
• We tend to act according to our particular beliefs about
how the world is.
• So it is important for the counselor to realize her own
belief system may not be shared by the client and the client
may not see the world the way he she does.
• This realization forms the basis of development of empathy
in the relationship.
• Initially therefore the counselor has to explore her own
belief and value systems. Thereafter he/she can attempt
to enter and share the personal world of the client.
• Initially therefore the counselor has to explore her
own belief and value systems. Thereafter he/she
can attempt to enter and share the personal world
of the client.
 5.Listening is the basis of the counseling
relationship
• Listening involves giving up completely to the other person
in order to fully understand them.
• To really listen to another person is the most caring act of
all and takes skill and practice.
• We cannot listen properly if we are constantly judging what
we hear.
• We must learn to set aside our own beliefs and values and
to suspend judgments.
• We must develop the ability to listen to the changing flow
of the client’s verbalizations and not to rush to pull them
back to a particular topic.
• What the client is talking about is what is important.
• Listening is a process of offering free floating attention of
accepting, totally the other person’s story, accepting that
• What the client is talking about is what is important.
• Listening is a process of offering free floating
attention of accepting, totally the other person’s
story, accepting that their version of how the world
may be different but just as
• valid as our own.
• We need to listen to metaphors, the descriptions, the
value judgments and the words that the client uses: they
are all indicators of their personal world. So are facial
expressions, body movement, eye contacts and other
aspects of non verbal communication.
 6. Counseling technique should not be overused:
• Many techniques are taught in counseling but the
counselor should be careful not to over use them as
he/she may be perceived as being artificial, cold or even un
caring.
• Much attention may be to techniques and compromises
listening and communication. Techniques such as use of
questions, reflections summary, probing etc are very
important
• however must be used discretely and the human side of
the counselor must show through the techniques at all
times
 7. Counseling can be learned.
• All individuals are capable of developing their listening skills
and their ability to communicate clearly with other people
and these are the basis of counseling.
• The skills can be learned through personal experience and
lots of practice, which may be gained in learning workshops
for the development of counseling skills and through actual
process of doing counselling.
 Indications For Counseling
 Chronic illness
 New challenging situations
 Family planning
 Couple counseling
 Pre treatment counseling
 Substance abuse
THE PROCESS OF COUNSELING
• Introduction
• Each counselee is unique, with problems, attitude, values,
expectations and experience that are un like any other.
The counselor must, there fore approach each individual a
little differently. The course of counseling will vary from
person to person
• There are several steps or phrases in every counseling
relationship. Some of these steps may be repeated several
times as problems are considered and reconsidered.
 1.Connecting:
• This involves initiating , building and maintaining a
relationship. Between the counselor and counselee. The
counselor listens attentively and shows sincere concern and
caring as the counselee begins to share feelings, concerns
or problems.
 2. Exploring:
• Counselees need to tell their stories i.e revealing details of
problem situations, missed opportunities and frustrating
experiences.
• This is the time when counselee are encouraged to share
their feelings, talk about their thoughts, and describe their
• actions.
• The counselor listens attentively asks periodic probing
questions and responds with respect, empathy and
sensitivity.
• This exploration of the issues enables building of rapport
and promotes a clear understanding of the problem
situation.
 3. Planning.
• With time the counselee begins to see the problem in
different light and discussion moves toward goals and
actions that help to find solutions. How could the
counselee change? Are there things that can be done to
make matters better?
• Must some things be accepted because they can not
change? Are there actions to be taken, attitudes to be
• changed, goals to be reached , and / or skills to be learned?
• Together, the counselor and counselee develop plans for
taking actions
• 4.Progressing:
• After deciding what needs to be done, the counselees
must be encouraged to start moving toward their goals .
The counselor gives support, direction, encouragement and
sometimes gentle probing.
• Some times the counselee will take action and experiences
failure.
• The counselor then helps the counselee evaluate what
went wrong and together they re- plan.
• 5. Stopping
• Counseling does not last forever. Time has to come when
• the problem solving relationship has to end. Often there is
summarizing what has been learned and /or accomplished
• There may be discussion of ways in which the counselee
can be able to cope more effectively with future problems
the door is left open for future counseling contacts if they
are ever needed.
 Questions to consider before counseling
• 1. Am I the appropriate person to counsel?
• 2.Have I the time to counsel?
• 3.Have I the client’s permission to counsel?
• 4. Where will the counseling take place?
 Qualities of a good counselor
 Empathetic and understanding: the ability to emotionally
and cognitively experience the world from another persons
perspectives and help them cope and be able to stand up
on their own feet as soon as possible.
 Genuine/sincerity: the ability and willingness to be open,
real and consistent in the relationship with the client. To be
prepared to give time and attention and to be real, a
person is not just some one in a professional role.
 Unconditioned positive regard
• The ability to communicate with the client with out blame
or negative feelings, expelling all fear from the clients and
making them that they are adapted to the way they are and
wanted despite the weakness they may feel.
• If a counselor respects the client, this conveys love, care,
• break down resistance from a client and brings about
healing.
 Emotional stability and maturity
• A counselor should be a mature person who can handle his
or her problems effectively: is aware of his or her own
feelings and motives, free from unnecessarily anxiety and
insecurity so that the help they offer can be objective,
unbiased, wise & supportive .
 Warmth: showing a true welcoming posture, expression
and readiness to offer.
 Knowledgeable: a counselor should be well trained and
equipped with basic skills such as:
• Active listening, clarifying, paraphrasing, reflection,
Summarising.
 GENERAL TIPS ON COUNSELLING
• Remain calm even when the client is upset, angry and
crying during counselling. If you are completely overtaken
by emotions, don’t deny it, but stop a bit and explain.
• Show interest in the client as a person
• Show some understanding for what a person has to say.
• Focus on the most important problem if any.
• Listen for the cause of the problem.
• Accept the client’s feelings and whatever they are.
• Help clients talk about their feelings.
 WHAT COUNSELLORS SHOULD NOT DO.
• Interrupting the person/client while s/he is taking.
• Arguing with the client about their views or feelings
• Passing judgment onto the client
• Giving advise unless requested (rather give information).
• Never jump to conclusions
• Moralize, preach or patronize
• Giving unwanted assurances
• Finding out the client’s motivations, fears and anxiety.
• Try to solve all the clients to take responsibility for the
client.
EMOTIONS, STRESS AND HEALTH

SSEKWEYAMA HASHIBU
 EMOTIONS
• Much of our motivations to act is funded by our emotional
state. Our emotions may lead us to cry, laugh, shy away or
even engage in some other behaviors common in human
experience.
• By definition:
 Emotion is the complexity of feelings involving
psychological arousal and cognitive appraisal of a situation .
 Emotion is also an outward expression of a feeling/state.
 Alternatively, an emotion is a positive or negative
experience that is associated with a particular pattern of
physiological activity
• Emotions prepare us to respond adaptively and to a
number of situations.
• Emotions enable us to communicate our feelings and
intentions more effectively than just words.
• We normally describe emotions in terms of feeling states,
for example: feeling happy, angry, embarrassed, afraid, etc;
but psychologists studied emotions according to their
components.
 Physical component
 Cognitive component
 Behavioral component
PHYSICAL COMPONENT
• This is a physiological arousal; The internal body state that
accompanies the emotions. Without the physiological
• arousal, we could not feel the emotion in its intensity. That
is to say; the emotions give rise to many physiological
processes in cardiovascular system and produce increased
blood pressure, changes in sexual urge, nervous system
activities such as increase in blood sugar levels, increased
rate of respiration, dilatation of pupils, changes of
frequency in brain waves, decrease in the GI tract action.
COGNITIVE COMPONENT
• This is the way we perceive a stimulus. That is to say: a
situation and perception determine the specific emotion
we feel.
• E.g if you are at home alone at night and the wind is hitting
a tree branch on your roof, you may become nervous,
fearful, scared and you might perceive the knocking as a
thief breaking into the house.
 BEHAVIORAL COMPONENT
• This is an outward expression of a component. This
component involves facial expressions, postural/body
posture, gestures and vocal responses.
• All of which convey the emotions we feel within. Some of
the facial expressions that accompany our emotions are
innate (inborn) and some are influenced by our cultures.
• The component process principle of emotions says that;
“Removal of a stimulus that causes our emotions causes a
swing to the opposite emotion”.
• The knowledge of emotions is a basis behind detecting lies
by use of a polygraph (lie-detector). Its known that people
get nervous when they are telling lies but if they tell the
truth they are calm.
 THEORIES OF EMOTION
• There are 4 theories of emotions, and these include:
James-Lange theory
Cannon-Bard theory
Schachter -Singer theory

JAMES-LANGE THEORY
• This was proposed by William James(1884 and Carl
Lange(1885). Which suggests that
• “Different patterns of arousal in the autonomic nervous
system (ANS) produce different emotions and that the
physiological arousal appears before the emotions is
perceived”.
• Example:
• According to this theory, “when a growling dog approaches
you, your heart begins to pump faster and you run, you
therefore perceive the physiological arousal first and your
behavior of running starts but as an emotion of fear”.
CANNON BARD THEORY
• Proposed by Walter Cannon(1927) and Phillip Bard(1934).
• According to Cannon1927, we often feel an emotion before
we notice a physiological state of our body.
• He argued that we would not be able to experience certain
fear if we had to wait for a particular pattern of
physiological reaction.
• Cannon’s work was endorsed by Phillip Bard in 1934 and
their theory endorses a chain of events.
• Thus the Cannon-Bard theory states that,
• “emotion occurs when the thalamus in the brain sends
signals simultaneously to the cortex(creating the
conscious experience of emotion) and to the autonomic
nervous system(creating visceral arousal)”.
• i.e from thalamus to the cerebral cortex which gives a
cautious mental experience of emotions and down though
the ANS to the body organs that produce a physiological
state.
• Many theorists agree with this theory that emotions
originate in sub cortical brain structures and assert that
people do not discern their emotions from different
patterns of autonomic activation.
 SCHACHTER-SINGER THEORY
• Schachter concluded that the earlier theories left out a
critical component. i.e our own cognitive interpretation of
why we have been aroused.
• Schachter and Singer proposed a two factor theory
suggesting that both James Lange and Cannon were partly
right .
• According to their theory two things must happen in order to
feel the emotions.
• “ first, a person must experience a physiological arousal.
Second, there must be a cognitive interpretation of a
physiological arousal so that a person can label it a specific
emotion”.
• Therefore according to this theory, the true emotion can
occur if we are physically aroused and we can find a reason
• He proposed that when you experience visceral
arousal, you search your environment for an
explanation.
– e.g. if you are stuck in a jam, you will probably label
your arousal as anger, celebrating your birthday, you will
label the arousal as happiness.
• Although this theory has received vast support many
studies have refuted it due to the fact that situations can’t
mold emotions in just any way at any time and in searching
to explain arousal individuals don’t limit themselves to the
immediate situation.
 STRESS
• Definition: This refers to the physical or psychological strain
lasting a long time and threatens the ability of a person to
cope with a given situation.
• Various events that cause stress are referred to as stressors.
Some stressors produce a temporary stress while others
produce chronic health problems, physical handicap,
poverty, etc.
 Sources Of Stress
 Choice
• Sometimes conflicting motives can be a source of stress
when we must take a choice between two desirable
alternatives, which may result into stress.
• For example:
 Approach- approach conflict; whether to continue with a
nice job or interrupt it to go for further studies.
 Avoidance-avoidance conflict: we must choose between
two undesirable alternatives e.g you want to avoid going to
school at the same time you want to avoid doing house
work when you stay home.
 Approach-avoidance conflict: it includes both the desirable
and undesirable features at the same time. For example;
wanting to take a wonderful vacation but having to empty
your savings account to do so.
 Unpredictability and lack of control
• Our physical and psychological well being are basically
influenced by the degree we feel a sense of control over
our lives.
• We are less subjected to stress when we have the power to
do something about it or when we exercise the power or
not.
• E.g If you lose one of your dear one to death, you will have
the stress and no power over it.
• Another example: if you had the power to remove
President Museveni from power/presidency when he
orders for the beating and torture of your favourite singer
Bobi Wine. That is; it would not stress you if you had the
ability to remove him from presidency but now that you
can not it will have to stress you.
 Catastrophic events
• Environmental, social, body and emotional stressors are a
fact of life to most people. But some people also
experience catastrophic events like earthquakes, floods,
• wars, fires, accidents, genocides, violent riots and
displacements.
• As victims begin to travel, shock is replaced by generalised
anxiety, characterised by recurrent nightmares and they
feel a compulsive need to retell the story of the event over
and over with hope to recover through retelling the story.
• This results into Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
which is a prolonged severe stress reaction to a
catastrophic event. The disorder may show up immediately
or months after the experience.
REACTIONS TO STRESS
 Depression or reduced responsiveness (it happens when a
person feels nothing seems to make a difference).
 Aggression and anger
 Apathy
 Regression
 Repression
 Restlessness and tension
 Fantasy (illusional thinking and dreams of your wishes and
what you want to be).
BODY REACTIONS TO STRESS.
 General Adaptation Syndrome
• When a person is experiencing stress, the body responds by
initiating various responses including dumping a variety of
chemicals into our body stream.
• This gives a momentum boost to do whatever is needed for
survival. If left unchecked however, the person can have a
heart attack or stroke. Many people start drinking alcohol,
• they get depressed, and find it difficult to sleep or eat.
• Definition: General adaptation Syndrome (GAS) is a term
used to describe the body’s short term and long term
effects to stress.
• Stressors in humans include examples such as starvation,
severe weather, being hit buy a car.
• Originally as described by HANS (1907-1982) an Austrian
physician. GAS was described as a 3 stage reaction to
stress. Namely:
 Alarm Reaction
 Stage of Adaptation or Stage of Resistance
 Stage of Exhaustion
 Alarm Reaction
• During this first stage , there is an immediate reaction to a
• stress. The body releases adrenaline and a variety of some
other psychological mechanisms to combat the stress and
stay in control.
• Humans exhibit a “fight or fright” response in the initial
phase of stress which prepares the body for the physical
reactions (activities). However this initial response also
decreases the effectiveness of the immune system.
 Stage Of Resistance/Adaptation
• During this phase, if the stress continues the body adapts to
the stressors. Changes at main levels take place in order to
reduce the effect of the stress. Over use by the body’s
defense mechanism at this stage eventually leads to
cardiovascular diseases.
 Stage Of Exhaustion
• At this stage the stress ahs continued for some time and
the body’s resistance to the stress may gradually reduced
or may collapse quickly.
• Generally this means that the immune system and the
body’s ability to resist diseases may almost be totally
eliminated.
• Patients who experience to long term stress may succumb
to heart attack or severe depression. The body experiences
adrenaline exhaustion thus the blood sugar levels decrease
leading to decreased stress tollness, progressive mental
and physical exhaustion, illness or collapse.
• Example; a person with stressful job, may experience long
term stress, high blood pressure and finally a heart attack.
 HEALTH
 SICK ROLE
• It is a term used in medical psychology concerning, the
social aspects of falling ill and the privileges and obligations
that accompany it.
• This concept was created by an American psychologist
called Parsons in 1951. Parsons was a functionalist
psychologist who urged that being sick means that the
sufferer enters a role of “Sanctioned Deviance”.
• This is because from a Functionalist psychologist, a sick
individual is nota productive member of the society.
• Therefore the deviance needs to be arrested/policed which
is the role of medical professionals.
• The general idea is that the person who has fallen sick is
• not only physically ill but now adheres to the specifically
patterned social role of being sick.
• ‘Being Sick’ is not simply a state of ‘Fact’ or ‘Condition’, it
contains within its self customary rights and obligations
based on the social norms that surround it. The theory
outlined 2 rights of a sick person and 2 obligations.
RIGHTS OF A SICK PERSON
1. The sick person is exempted from normal social roles
2. A sick person is not responsible for his or her condition.
OBLIGATIONS OF A SICK PERSON
3. The sick person should try to get well, i.e try to exercise,
ask for food, reject the medication if irritating, ask for
drinks.
4. Sick person should seek technically competent help and
 There are three (3) versions of sick role
 Conditional
 Unconditional legitimate
 Illegitimate role (condition that is stigmatized by others e.g
HIV, epilepsy, etc.)
CRITICISM OF SICK ROLE
 Rejecting of the sick role
• This model assumes that the individual voluntarily accepts
the sick role
• The individual may not comply with the expectations of the
sick role, may not to give out social obligations, resists on
dependency, avoid public sick role since the sickness is
stigmatized.
• Individual may not accept passive (assisted to do
 Chronic illness
• This model only fits acute illnesses/severe illnesses, such
as- measles, appendicitis
• It does not fit chronic/long term/ permanent illnesses
easily since getting well is not an expectation- such as
blindness
 Doctor –patient sick role
• This model assumes ideal patient and ideal doctor roles
• Differential treatment of patient and differential patient
doctor relationship variations depend on the social class,
gender and ethnicity.
• Going to the doctor to consult is usually the last resort as a
lay people first consult people around them,