Fundamentals of

Networking
Introduction to Networking
• Networking refers to the practice of connecting computers and other
devices to share resources, exchange data, and enable
communication. In modern organisations, networking forms the
backbone of all digital operations, from email communication to
large-scale data analytics.
• The scope of networking extends beyond traditional wired
connections and encompasses wireless communication, virtual
networking, and cloud-based interconnectivity.
Introduction to Networking
A network can be classified into several types based on geographical
reach and functionality:
• Local Area Network (LAN): Covers a small geographical area such as a
single building or office.
• Wide Area Network (WAN): Spans large geographical distances and
connects multiple LANs, often through leased telecommunication lines.
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): Serves a city or large campus.
• Personal Area Network (PAN): Short-range connections for personal
devices, such as Bluetooth connections between a laptop and
smartphone.
Need for Networking in Modern
Enterprises
• Resource Sharing: Enables multiple devices to share printers, storage,
and applications.
• Centralized Data Management: Ensures consistency and security of
organizational data.
• Scalability: Allows the network to grow with the organization's needs.
• Collaboration: Facilitates team-based work in real-time, even across
geographies.
Internetworking Concepts
• Internetworking refers to connecting multiple networks into a larger,
cohesive system.
• The term is often associated with devices and technologies that
ensure smooth communication between diverse networks.
Key Devices in Internetworking
• Hub: A basic device that broadcasts incoming data packets to all
connected devices.
• Switch: Operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model and
forwards packets only to the intended recipient.
• Router: Operates at the network layer (Layer 3) and determines the
best path for data packets between networks.
• Firewall: Monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network
traffic based on predefined rules.
Network Topologies
• Star Topology: All devices are connected to a central switch or hub.
• Bus Topology: Devices share a single communication line.
• Ring Topology: Each device connects to exactly two other devices,
forming a ring.
• Mesh Topology: Every device connects to every other device for
maximum redundancy.
OSI Model
• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual
framework that standardises communication functions into seven
distinct layers. Understanding the OSI model is fundamental for
diagnosing network issues, designing infrastructure, and ensuring
interoperability between products from different vendors.
Seven Layers:
• Physical Layer: Deals with the physical medium for data transfer
(cables, connectors).
• Data Link Layer: Handles node-to-node data transfer and error
detection (MAC addresses, switches).
OSI Model
• Network Layer: Determines the path data takes (IP addressing,
routers).
• Transport Layer: Ensures complete data transfer with error recovery
(TCP, UDP).
• Session Layer: Manages sessions between applications.
• Presentation Layer: Formats or translates data for the application
layer (encryption, compression).
• Application Layer: Interface between applications and the network
(HTTP, FTP, SMTP).
 Comparison between OSI and
TCP/IP Models
OSI Layer TCP/IP Layer Example Protocols

Application, Presentation,
Application HTTP, FTP, DNS
Session

Transport Transport TCP, UDP

Network Internet IP, ICMP

Data Link, Physical Network Access Ethernet, Wi-Fi

 Comparison between OSI and
Sl NoTCP/IP Models
OSI Layer TCP/IP Layer
It’s like a grand blueprint with seven layers.
It’s a bit more straightforward with four
Each layer has a specific job, like handling
1 layers. Still, the concepts are quite similar
physical connections, addressing, or making
to the OSI model.
sure data arrives intact.
It’s like the international guidebook for This is the rockstar everyone loves. It’s the
2 networking. Everyone knows the layers, but go-to model for the actual internet, used by
it’s not as widely implemented in practice. almost every device connecting to the web.
TCP/IP model emerges as the champion for
OSI model is a great conceptual guide, it’s its simplicity, real-world applicability, and
3 the TCP/IP model that gets things done widespread adoption. It’s the language
efficiently. computers speak when they’re surfing the
web, sending emails, or streaming videos.
 TCP/IP Model
• TCP, or Transmission Control Protocol, and IP, or Internet Protocol,
Together, they make up the TCP/IP model, which has a simple job:
moving data from one computer to another.
• This model divides the data into packets from the sender’s side and
recombine all the packets from the receiver end.
• This model is like a well-organized team with four layers, each having
its own role.
Layers of TCP/IP
Layer 1: Link Layer
• The Link Layer is like the physical envelope in the networking world.
• It deals with the physical connection between devices, specifying how
data is framed for transmission over a particular medium, like
Ethernet or Wi-Fi.
• Example: Enveloping the letter for delivery.
Layers of TCP/IP
Layer 2: Internet Layer
• The Internet Layer takes care of addressing and routing.
• Every device connected to the internet has a unique address (IP
address), and the Internet Layer ensures that data is properly routed
from the source to the destination.
• Example: The postal service ensuring your letter reaches the right
city.
Layers of TCP/IP
Layer 3: Transport Layer
• The Transport Layer is responsible for ensuring that the contents of
the letter (data) are delivered reliably.
• It uses protocols like TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) for reliable,
error-checked delivery, or UDP (User Datagram Protocol) for faster,
connectionless delivery.
• Example: Ensuring the safe and accurate delivery of your letter.
Layers of TCP/IP
Layer 4: Application Layer
• The Application Layer deals with the user interface, applications, and
protocols that users interact with directly. This is where web
browsers, email clients, and other applications reside.
• Example: The actual letter content, whether it’s a story, picture, or
request.
Ethernet Technology
Ethernet is the most widely deployed technology for wired networking. It
defines wiring and signaling standards for the physical layer and data link
layer protocols.
• Key Features of Ethernet:
• Frame Structure: Includes source and destination MAC addresses,
EtherType, payload, and error-checking fields.
• CSMA/CD: Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection, a
method to control access to the network medium.
• Speeds: Evolved from 10 Mbps (Ethernet) to 400 Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet
and beyond).
• Duplex Modes: Half-duplex (two-way communication, but one direction at
Wireless Networking
• Wireless networking allows devices to connect without physical
cables, using radio waves or infrared signals.
• Standards:
• 802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ax: Defines different Wi-Fi generations, each offering
improvements in speed, range, and efficiency.
• Frequencies: 2.4 GHz (longer range, lower speed) vs 5 GHz (shorter
range, higher speed).
• Security Protocols:
• WEP: Weak and outdated.
• WPA2: Strong encryption using AES.
• WPA3: The latest standard with stronger encryption and forward
Assignments for Session 1
• Difference between UTP and STP: Explain construction, shielding, and
use cases.
• Write categories of cables: CAT5, CAT5e, CAT6, CAT6a, CAT7, CAT8.
• Meaning of 'e' in CAT5e: Enhanced performance.
• List the seven layers of the OSI Model and their functions.
Introduction to TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP and Internet Protocols
• The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite is
the foundation of modern internet and network communication.
• Unlike the OSI model, which is theoretical, TCP/IP is a practical,
protocol-driven architecture that governs how data is packaged,
addressed, transmitted, routed, and received over networks.
• Developed by the U.S. Department of Defense in the late 1970s,
TCP/IP enabled the interoperability of heterogeneous networks and
later became the global standard for data communications.
 TCP/IP and Internet Protocols
TCP/IP is structured into four layers, each with specific roles:
Corresponding OSI
TCP/IP Layer Functions
Layers

Application, Provides network services to applications

Application
Presentation, Session (HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS)

Transport Transport Ensures reliable data delivery (TCP, UDP)

Handles logical addressing and routing (IP,
Internet Network
ICMP)

Defines hardware addressing and data

Network Access Data Link, Physical
transmission methods (Ethernet, Wi-Fi)
Role of IP in Networking
• The Internet Protocol (IP) is responsible for addressing and routing
data packets so they can travel across interconnected networks and
reach the correct destination.
IPv4 Addressing
• IPv4 uses a 32-bit addressing scheme, typically expressed in dotted
decimal format (e.g., 192.168.1.1). IPv4 supports approximately 4.3
billion unique addresses but faces exhaustion due to global internet
growth.
IPv4 address classes
• Class A: 1.0.0.0 to 126.0.0.0 (large networks)
• Class B: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.0.0 (medium networks)
• Class C: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.0 (small networks)
• Class D: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 (multicast)
• Class E: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255 (experimental)
• Loop Back Address : 127.0.0.0
IPv6 Addressing
• IPv6 is a 128-bit addressing system designed to overcome IPv4 exhaustion,
capable of supporting 3.4 × 10^38 addresses. It uses hexadecimal
representation separated by colons
Example : 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
Advantages of IPv6:
• Larger address space.
• Simplified header format.
• Improved security through mandatory IPsec support.
• Better support for mobile and IoT devices.
• Any packet sent to ::1 stays inside the host.
TCP – Transmission Control
Protocol
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that ensures reliable
communication between applications.
Key features:
• Three-way handshake for connection establishment.
• Error detection and retransmission.
• Ordered data delivery.
• Advantages: Reliable, ordered, and error-checked transmission.
• Disadvantages: Higher overhead, slower than UDP.
UDP – User Datagram Protocol
UDP is a connectionless protocol used for fast, lightweight
communication.
Key features:
• No connection setup.
• No guaranteed delivery or ordering.
• Suitable for real-time applications like VoIP, online gaming, and
video streaming.
• Advantages: Low latency, minimal overhead.
• Disadvantages: No reliability or flow control.
TCP vs UDP Comparison
Feature TCP UDP

Connection Type Connection-oriented Connectionless

Reliability Guaranteed Not guaranteed

Speed Slower Faster

Web browsing, email,

Use Cases Streaming, VoIP, DNS
file transfer
DNS – The Domain Name System
DNS is the "phonebook of the internet," converting human-
readable domain names (e.g., example.com) into IP addresses
that machines can understand.
Process of DNS Resolution:
• User enters a domain name.
• DNS resolver queries root server.
• Query proceeds to TLD (Top-Level Domain) server.
• Authoritative server returns IP address.
• Browser connects to the target server.
DNS Record Types
• A Record: Maps a domain to an IPv4 address.
• AAAA Record: Maps a domain to an IPv6 address.
• MX Record: Specifies mail server for domain.
• CNAME Record: Alias for another domain.
HTTP/HTTPS Protocols
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used for
transmitting hypermedia documents, primarily HTML. HTTPS
adds TLS encryption for security.
Advantages of HTTPS:
• Data confidentiality.
• Data integrity.
• Authentication of the server.
Assignments for Session 2
• Define IP and its two major versions.
• Compare TCP and UDP in a table with at least five features.
• Write the steps of the TCP three-way handshake.
• Explain DNS and list five DNS record types.
IP Subnetting & Variable Length
Subnet Masking (VLSM)
• Subnetting is the process of dividing a single IP network into multiple
smaller, more manageable sub-networks (subnets). This helps
optimize IP address usage, improve network performance, and
enhance security by segmenting traffic.
• In IPv4, subnetting is accomplished by manipulating the subnet mask,
which determines how many bits of the IP address represent the
network portion and how many bits represent the host portion.
IP Subnetting
Example:
• IP Address: 192.168.1.10
• Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0 (or /24 in CIDR notation)
• Network Portion: First 24 bits (192.168.1)
• Host Portion: Last 8 bits (.10)
Why Subnetting is Important
• Efficient IP Utilization – Prevents wastage of IP addresses.
• Network Performance – Reduces broadcast domain size.
• Security – Isolates departments or user groups.
• Simplified Management – Easier to monitor and troubleshoot.
Understanding the Subnet Mask
• The subnet mask is a 32-bit number that indicates which part of
the IP address is the network and which part is the host.
Decimal Binary
255.0.0.0 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
255.255.0.0 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
255.255.255.0 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
• CIDR Notation: Instead of writing the full mask, we write /n where n is the
number of bits in the network portion.
• Example: /24 means the first 24 bits are network bits (mask = 255.255.255.0).
Determining Network and Host
Portions
• For an IP 192.168.5.85 /24:
• Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
• Network Portion: 192.168.5
• Host Portion: 85
• For an IP 10.128.240.50 /30:
• Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.252
• Network Portion: 10.128.240.48
• Usable Hosts: 2 (50 is one of them)
Subnetting Step-by-Step
Let’s say we have a network 192.168.1.0/24 and we want to create
smaller networks.
• Step 1 – Determine Required Hosts per Subnet
Formula:
Number of Hosts = (2^HostBits) – 2
(The subtraction accounts for network & broadcast addresses)
• Step 2 – Find the New Subnet Mask
Reduce the number of host bits until the formula meets the host
requirement.
• Step 3 – Determine the Increment
The increment tells us the range of each subnet.
Subnetting Example
• We have 192.168.1.0/24 and we need:
• Subnet 1: 28 hosts
• Subnet 2: 52 hosts
• Subnet 3: 15 hosts
• Subnet 4: 5 hosts
 Subnetting Solution
Subnet 1: Needs 28 hosts → Nearest power of 2 is 32 → Host bits = 5 → Mask
= /27
• Range: 192.168.1.0 – 192.168.1.31
Subnet 2: Needs 52 hosts → Nearest power of 2 is 64 → Host bits = 6 → Mask
= /26
• Range: 192.168.1.32 – 192.168.1.95
Subnet 3: Needs 15 hosts → Nearest power of 2 is 16 → Host bits = 4 → Mask
= /28
• Range: 192.168.1.96 – 192.168.1.111
Subnet 4: Needs 5 hosts → Nearest power of 2 is 8 → Host bits = 3 → Mask = /29
• Range: 192.168.1.112 – 192.168.1.119
Variable Length Subnet Masking
(VLSM)
• VLSM allows different subnets to have different subnet
masks, maximizing IP address usage.
• Advantages of VLSM:
• No address wastage for small subnets.
• Flexibility in network design.
• Better efficiency for complex enterprise networks.
Practice Problem
• Given: 172.16.0.0/24

Requirements:
• 1st subnet: 100 hosts
• 2nd subnet: 50 hosts
• 3rd subnet: 25 hosts
• 4th subnet: 10 hosts
Assignment: Determine the subnet masks, ranges, and broadcast
addresses for each subnet.
 Common Subnet Masks Table
CIDR Subnet Mask Usable Hosts
/30 255.255.255.252 2
/29 255.255.255.248 6
/28 255.255.255.240 14
/27 255.255.255.224 30
/26 255.255.255.192 62
/25 255.255.255.128 126
/24 255.255.255.0 254
Assignments for Session 3
• Define subnetting and list three benefits.
• Determine network and host portions for:
• 192.168.5.85 /24
• 10.128.240.50 /30
• Divide 192.168.10.0/24 into:
• 40 hosts
• 20 hosts
• 5 hosts
• Explain VLSM and its advantages.
• Fill in a table of CIDR notations and corresponding subnet masks.
 IP Address 10.128.240.50
CIDR Subnet Network Broadcast ID Usable host range Gateway IP
mask ID

255.255.25 10.128.2 10.128.240.5 10.128.240.49 –

/30 5.252 40.48 1 10.128.240.50 (2 hosts) 10.128.240.49

/29 255.255.25 10.128.2 10.128.240.5 10.128.240.49 – 10.128.240.49

5.248 40.48 5 10.128.240.54 (6 hosts)

/28 255.255.25 10.128.2 10.128.240.6 10.128.240.49 – 10.128.240.49

5.240 40.48 3 10.128.240.62 (14 hosts)
 Calculation for Network ID
1. Write down the IP address and subnet mask
• IP: 10.128.240.50
• Subnet Mask (for /29): 255.255.255.248
2. Network stays the same Id because the IP falls in that block for all three masks.
IP: 00001010.10000000.11110000.00110010
Subnet Mask: 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111000
Result: 00001010.10000000.11110000.00110000
3. If the IP address is 10.128.240.65, the network ID would be:
/28 → 10.128.240.64
/29 → 10.128.240.64
/30 → 10.128.240.64 for 64–67 range, 10.128.240.68 for 68–71 range, etc.
4. Network Range : 0, 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, 64, 72, 80, 88, 96, 104, 112, 120, 128,
136, 144, 152, 160, 168, 176, 184, 192, 200, 208, 216, 224, 232, 240, 248