C tutorial

A Quick Introduction to C Programming

Lewis Girod
CENS Systems Lab

July 5, 2005

http://lecs.cs.ucla.edu/~girod/talks/c-tutorial.ppt

or,

What I wish I had known about C
during my first summer internship

With extra info in
the NOTES

High Level Question: Why is Software Hard?

Answer(s):
• Complexity: Every conditional (“if”) doubles number of paths
through your code, every bit of state doubles possible states
– Solution: reuse code with functions, avoid duplicate state variables

• Mutability: Software is easy to change.. Great for rapid fixes ..
And rapid breakage .. always one character away from a bug
– Solution: tidy, readable code, easy to understand by inspection.
Avoid code duplication; physically the same  logically the same

• Flexibility: Programming problems can be solved in many
different ways. Few hard constraints  plenty of “rope”.
– Solution: discipline and idioms; don’t use all the rope

Writing and Running Programs

#include <stdio.h>
/* The simplest C Program */
int main(int argc, char **argv)
{
1. Write text of program (source code) using an editor
printf(“Hello Worldn”);
return 0;
such as emacs, save as file e.g. my_program.c
}

2. Run the compiler to convert program from source to
an “executable” or “binary”:
$ gcc –Wall –g my_program.c –o my_program

$ gcc -Wall –g my_program.c –o my_program
tt.c: In function `main':
-Wall –g ?
tt.c:6: parse error before `x'
tt.c:5: parm types given both in parmlist and separately
tt.c:8: `x' undeclared (first use in this function)
tt.c:8: (Each undeclared identifier is reported only once
3-N. Compiler gives errors and warnings; edit source
tt.c:8: for each function it appears in.)
tt.c:10: warning: control reaches end of non-void function
file, fix it, and re-compile
tt.c: At top level:
tt.c:11: parse error before `return'

N. Run it and see if it works 
./?
$ ./my_program
my_program Hello World
What if it doesn’t work?
$▌

C Syntax and Hello World

#include inserts another file. “.h” files are called
“header” files. They contain stuff needed to interface to
libraries and code in other “.c” files. Can your program have
What do the < > more than one .c file?
mean?
This is a comment. The compiler ignores this.

#include <stdio.h> The main() function is always
/* The simplest C Program */ where your program starts
int main(int argc, char **argv) running.

{
Blocks of code (“lexical
printf(“Hello Worldn”); scopes”) are marked by { … }
return 0;
}

Return ‘0’ from this function Print out a message. ‘n’ means “new line”.

A Quick Digression About the Compiler

#include <stdio.h>
Preprocess Compilation occurs in two steps:
{
printf(“Hello Worldn”); “Preprocessing” and “Compiling”
return 0;
} Why ?

__extension__ typedef unsigned long long int __dev_t; In Preprocessing, source code is “expanded” into a
__extension__ typedef
unsigned int
unsigned int
__uid_t;
__gid_t; larger form that is simpler for the compiler to
unsigned long int
unsigned long long int
__ino_t;
__ino64_t;
understand. Any line that starts with ‘#’ is a line
unsigned int
long int
__nlink_t;
__off_t;
that is interpreted by the Preprocessor.
__extension__ typedef long long int __off64_t;
extern void flockfile (FILE *__stream) ;
extern int ftrylockfile (FILE *__stream)
extern void funlockfile (FILE *__stream)
;
;
• Include files are “pasted in” (#include)
{
• Macros are “expanded” (#define)
printf(“Hello Worldn”);
return 0;
• Comments are stripped out ( /* */ , // )
}
• Continued lines are joined ( )
?

my_program The compiler then converts the resulting text into
Compile
binary code the CPU can run directly.

OK, We’re Back.. What is a Function?

A Function is a series of instructions to run. You
pass Arguments to a function and it returns a Value.

“main()” is a Function. It’s only special because it
always gets called first when you run your program.

Return type, or void

Function Arguments
#include <stdio.h>
{ Calling a Function: “printf()” is just
another function, like main(). It’s defined
printf(“Hello Worldn”); for you in a “library”, a collection of
return 0; functions you can call from your program.
}
Returning a value

What is “Memory”?

Addr Value
Memory is like a big table of numbered
slots where bytes can be stored. 0
1
The number of a slot is its Address. 2
One byte Value can be stored in each slot. 3
72?
4 ‘H’ (72)
Some “logical” data values span more than 5 ‘e’ (101)
one slot, like the character string “Hellon”
6 ‘l’ (108)
A Type names a logical meaning to a span 7 ‘l’ (108)
of memory. Some simple types are: 8 ‘o’ (111)
a single character (1 slot) 9 ‘n’ (10)
char
char [10] an array of 10 characters 10 ‘0’ (0)
int signed 4 byte integer
not always… 11
float 4 byte floating point
int64_t signed 8 byte integer Signed?…
12

What is a Variable?
symbol table?

Symbol Addr Value
A Variable names a place in memory where
you store a Value of a certain Type. 0
1
You first Define a variable by giving it a 2
name and specifying the type, and 3
optionally an initial value declare vs define? x 4 ?
y 5 ‘e’ (101)
char x; Initial value of x is undefined
char y=‘e’; 6
7
The compiler puts them
Initial value 8
somewhere in memory.
9
Name What names are legal? 10

Type is single character (char) 11

extern? static? const?
12

Multi-byte Variables

Different types consume different amounts Symbol Addr Value
of memory. Most architectures store data 0
on “word boundaries”, or even multiples of 1
the size of a primitive data type (int, char) 2
3
char x;
char y=‘e’; x 4 ?
int z = 0x01020304; y 5 ‘e’ (101)
6
0x means the constant is padding
written in hex 7
z 8 4
9 3
An int consumes 4 bytes
10 2
11 1
12

Lexical Scoping (Returns nothing)

void p(char x)
Every Variable is Defined within some scope. {
A Variable cannot be referenced by name char y;
/* p,x */

(a.k.a. Symbol) from outside of that scope. /* p,x,y */
char z;
/* p,x,y,z */
}
Lexical scopes are defined with curly braces { }. /* p */
char z;
/* p,z */
The scope of Function Arguments is the
void q(char a)
complete body of the function. {
char b;
/* p,z,q,a,b */
The scope of Variables defined inside a
{ char b?
function starts at the definition and ends at char c;
the closing brace of the containing block }
/* p,z,q,a,b,c */

legal?
char d;
The scope of Variables defined outside a /* p,z,q,a,b,d (not c) */
function starts at the definition and ends at }

the end of the file. Called “Global” Vars. /* p,z,q */

Expressions and Evaluation

Expressions combine Values using Operators, according to precedence.

1 + 2 * 2  1 + 4  5
(1 + 2) * 2  3 * 2  6

Symbols are evaluated to their Values before being combined.
int x=1;
int y=2;
x + y * y  x + 2 * 2  x + 4  1 + 4  5

Comparison operators are used to compare values.
In C, 0 means “false”, and any other value means “true”.
int x=4;
(x < 5)  (4 < 5)  <true>
(x < 4)  (4 < 4)  0
((x < 5) || (x < 4))  (<true> || (x < 4))  <true>

Not evaluated because
first clause was true

Comparison and Mathematical Operators

== equal to The rules of precedence are clearly
< less than defined but often difficult to remember
<= less than or equal
> greater than or non-intuitive. When in doubt, add
>= greater than or equal parentheses to make it explicit. For
!= not equal
&& logical and
oft-confused cases, the compiler will
|| logical or give you a warning “Suggest parens
! logical not around …” – do it!
+ plus & bitwise and
- minus | bitwise or Beware division:
* mult ^ bitwise xor • If second argument is integer, the
/ divide ~ bitwise not
% modulo << shift left result will be integer (rounded):
>> shift right 5 / 10  0 whereas 5 / 10.0  0.5
• Division by 0 will cause a FPE

Don’t confuse & and &&..
1 & 2  0 whereas 1 && 2  <true>

Assignment Operators

x = y assign y to x x += y assign (x+y) to x
x++ post-increment x x -= y assign (x-y) to x
++x pre-increment x x *= y assign (x*y) to x
x-- post-decrement x x /= y assign (x/y) to x
--x pre-decrement x x %= y assign (x%y) to x

Note the difference between ++x and x++:

int x=5; int x=5;
int y; int y;
y = ++x; y = x++;
/* x == 6, y == 6 */ /* x == 6, y == 5 */

Don’t confuse = and ==! The compiler will warn “suggest parens”.

int x=5; int x=5;
if (x==6) /* false */ if (x=6) /* always true */
{ {
/* ... */ /* x is now 6 */
recommendation
} }
/* x is still 5 */ /* ... */

A More Complex Program: pow

#include <stdio.h>
“if” statement #include <inttypes.h>

float pow(float x, uint32_t exp)
/* if evaluated expression is not 0 */ {
if (expression) { /* base case */
/* then execute this block */ Need braces? if (exp == 0) {
} return 1.0;
else { }
/* otherwise execute this block */
X?Y:Z
} /* “recursive” case */
Short-circuit eval? detecting brace errors return x*pow(x, exp – 1);
}

Tracing “pow()”: {
• What does pow(5,0) do? float p;
p = pow(10.0, 5);
• What about pow(5,1)? printf(“p = %fn”, p);
return 0;
• “Induction” }

Challenge: write pow() so it requires log(exp) iterations

The “Stack”

#include <stdio.h>
Recall lexical scoping. If a variable is valid #include <inttypes.h>
“within the scope of a function”, what float pow(float x, uint32_t exp)
happens when you call that function {
/* base case */
recursively? Is there more than one “exp”? if (exp == 0) {
return 1.0; static
}
Yes. Each function call allocates a “stack
/* “recursive” case */ Java?
frame” where Variables within that function’s return x*pow(x, exp – 1);
scope will reside. }

{
float x 5.0
float p;
uint32_t exp 0 Return 1.0 p = pow(5.0, 1);
printf(“p = %fn”, p);
float x 5.0 return 0;
}
uint32_t exp 1 Return 5.0

int argc 1
char **argv 0x2342
float p 5.0
undefined Grows

Iterative pow(): the “while” loop
Other languages?
float pow(float x, uint exp)
Problem: “recursion” eats stack space (in C). {
int i=0;
Each loop must allocate space for arguments float result=1.0;
and local variables, because each new call while (i < exp) {
result = result * x;
creates a new “scope”. i++;
}
return result;
}
Solution: “while” loop.
loop: {
if (condition) { while (condition) {
float p;
statements; statements;
p = pow(10.0, 5);
goto loop; }
} return 0;
}

The “for” loop

The “for” loop is just shorthand for this “while” loop structure.

float pow(float x, uint exp) float pow(float x, uint exp)
{ {
float result=1.0; float result=1.0;
int i; int i;
i=0; for (i=0; (i < exp); i++) {
while (i < exp) { result = result * x;
result = result * x; }
i++; return result;
} }
return result;
} int main(int argc, char **argv)
{
int main(int argc, char **argv) float p;
{ p = pow(10.0, 5);
float p; printf(“p = %fn”, p);
p = pow(10.0, 5); return 0;
printf(“p = %fn”, p); }
return 0;
}

Referencing Data from Other Scopes

So far, all of our examples all of the data values we have
used have been defined in our lexical scope

{
float result=1.0;
int i;
for (i=0; (i < exp); i++) { Nothing in this scope
}
return result;
}

{
float p; Uses any of these variables
p = pow(10.0, 5);
return 0;
}

Can a function modify its arguments?

What if we wanted to implement a function pow_assign() that
modified its argument, so that these are equivalent:
float p = 2.0; float p = 2.0;
/* p is 2.0 here */ /* p is 2.0 here */
p = pow(p, 5); pow_assign(p, 5);
/* p is 32.0 here */ /* p is 32.0 here */

Would this work?

void pow_assign(float x, uint exp)
{
float result=1.0;
int i;
for (i=0; (i < exp); i++) {
}
x = result;
}

NO!

Remember the stack!

void pow_assign(float x, uint exp) Java/C++?
{
float result=1.0; In C, all arguments are
int i;
for (i=0; (i < exp); i++) {
passed as values
}
x = result;
} But, what if the argument is
{
the address of a variable?
float p=2.0;
pow_assign(p, 5);
}

float x 32.0
2.0
uint32_t exp 5
float result 32.0
1.0

float p 2.0 Grows

Passing Addresses

Symbol Addr Value
Recall our model for variables stored 0
in memory 1
2
What if we had a way to find out the
address of a symbol, and a way to 3
reference that memory location by char x 4 ‘H’ (72)
address? char y 5 ‘e’ (101)
address_of(y) == 5 6
memory_at[5] == 101
7
void f(address_of_char p)
{
8
memory_at[p] = memory_at[p] - 32;
}
9
10
char y = 101; /* y is 101 */
f(address_of(y)); /* i.e. f(5) */ 11
/* y is now 101-32 = 69 */
12

“Pointers”

This is exactly how “pointers” work.
A “pointer type”: pointer to char
“address of” or reference operator: &
“memory_at” or dereference operator: *

void f(address_of_char p) void f(char * p)
{ {
memory_at[p] = memory_at[p] - 32; *p = *p - 32;
} }

char y = 101; /* y is 101 */ char y = 101; /* y is 101 */
f(address_of(y)); /* i.e. f(5) */ f(&y); /* i.e. f(5) */
/* y is now 101-32 = 69 */ /* y is now 101-32 = 69 */

Pointers are used in C for many other purposes:
• Passing large objects without copying them
• Accessing dynamically allocated memory
• Referring to functions

Pointer Validity

A Valid pointer is one that points to memory that your program controls.
Using invalid pointers will cause non-deterministic behavior, and will
often cause Linux to kill your process (SEGV or Segmentation Fault).

There are two general causes for these errors: How should pointers be initialized?
• Program errors that set the pointer value to a strange number
• Use of a pointer that was at one time valid, but later became invalid

Will ptr be valid or invalid?

char * get_pointer()
{
char x=0;
return &x;
}

{
char * ptr = get_pointer();
*ptr = 12; /* valid? */
}

Answer: Invalid!

A pointer to a variable allocated on the stack becomes invalid when
that variable goes out of scope and the stack frame is “popped”. The
pointer will point to an area of the memory that may later get reused
and rewritten.

char * get_pointer()
{
char x=0;
return &x;
} But now, ptr points to a
{
location that’s no longer in
char * ptr = get_pointer(); use, and will be reused the
*ptr = 12; /* valid? */
other_function(); next time a function is called!
}

101 int x
charaverage Return 101
456603
12
0

100 char * ptr 101
? Grows

More on Types

We’ve seen a few types at this point: char, int, float, char *

Types are important because:
• They allow your program to impose logical structure on memory
• They help the compiler tell when you’re making a mistake

In the next slides we will discuss:
• How to create logical layouts of different types (structs)
• How to use arrays
• How to parse C type names (there is a logic to it!)
• How to create new types using typedef

Structures
Packing?
struct: a way to compose existing types into a structure

#include <sys/time.h> struct timeval is defined in this header
/* declare the struct */
struct my_struct { structs define a layout of typed fields
int counter;
float average;
struct timeval timestamp;
structs can contain other structs
uint in_use:1;
uint8_t data[0]; fields can specify specific bit widths
}; Why?

/* define an instance of my_struct */ A newly-defined structure is initialized
struct my_struct x = {
in_use: 1, using this syntax. All unset fields are 0.
timestamp: {
tv_sec: 200
}
};
x.counter = 1; Fields are accessed using ‘.’ notation.
x.average = sum / (float)(x.counter);

struct my_struct * ptr = &x; A pointer to a struct. Fields are accessed
ptr->counter = 2;
(*ptr).counter = 3; /* equiv. */
using ‘->’ notation, or (*ptr).counter

Arrays

Arrays in C are composed of a particular type, laid out in memory in a
repeating pattern. Array elements are accessed by stepping forward
in memory from the base of the array by a multiple of the element size.

/* define an array of 10 chars */ Brackets specify the count of elements.
char x[5] = {‘t’,’e’,’s’,’t’,’0’};
Initial values optionally set in braces.
/* accessing element 0 */
x[0] = ‘T’;
Arrays in C are 0-indexed (here, 0..9)
/* pointer arithmetic to get elt 3 */
char elt3 = *(x+3); /* x[3] */ x[3] == *(x+3) == ‘t’ (NOT ‘s’!)
/* x[0] evaluates to the first element;
* x evaluates to the address of the What’s the difference Symbol Addr Value
* first element, or &(x[0]) */ between char x[] and
char *x? char x [0] 100 ‘t’
/* 0-indexed for loop idiom */
#define COUNT 10 char x [1] 101 ‘e’
char y[COUNT];
int i;
For loop that iterates char x [2] 102 ‘s’
for (i=0; i<COUNT; i++) { from 0 to COUNT-1. char x [3] 103 ‘t’
/* process y[i] */
printf(“%cn”, y[i]);
Memorize it! char x [4] 104 ‘0’
}

How to Parse and Define C Types

At this point we have seen a few basic types, arrays, pointer types,
and structures. So far we’ve glossed over how types are named.

int x; /* int; */ typedef int T;
int *x; /* pointer to int; */ typedef int *T;
int x[10]; /* array of ints; */ typedef int T[10];
typedef defines
int *x[10]; /* array of pointers to int; */ typedef int *T[10]; a new type
int (*x)[10]; /* pointer to array of ints; */ typedef int (*T)[10];

C type names are parsed by starting at the type name and working
outwards according to the rules of precedence:

x is
an array of
pointers to
int *x[10]; int Arrays are the primary
source of confusion. When
x is in doubt, use extra parens to
int (*x)[10];
a pointer to clarify the expression.
an array of
int

Function Types

For more details:
The other confusing form is the function type. $ man qsort
For example, qsort: (a sort function in the standard library)
void qsort(void *base, size_t nmemb, size_t size, The last argument is a
int (*compar)(const void *, const void *));
comparison function
/* function matching this type: */
int cmp_function(const void *x, const void *y);
const means the function
/* typedef defining this type: */ is not allowed to modify
typedef int (*cmp_type) (const void *, const void *); memory via this pointer.
/* rewrite qsort prototype using our typedef */
void qsort(void *base, size_t nmemb, size_t size, cmp_type compar);

size_t is an unsigned int

void * is a pointer to memory of unknown type.

Dynamic Memory Allocation

So far all of our examples have allocated variables statically by
defining them in our program. This allocates them in the stack.

But, what if we want to allocate variables based on user input or other
dynamic inputs, at run-time? This requires dynamic allocation.

sizeof() reports the size of a type in bytes For details:
int * alloc_ints(size_t requested_count) $ man calloc
{ calloc() allocates memory
int * big_array;
for N elements of size k
big_array = (int *)calloc(requested_count, sizeof(int));
if (big_array == NULL) {
printf(“can’t allocate %d ints: %mn”, requested_count); Returns NULL if can’t alloc
return NULL;
} %m ? Emstar tips

/* now big_array[0] .. big_array[requested_count-1] are It’s OK to return this pointer.
* valid and zeroed. */
return big_array; It will remain valid until it is
} freed with free()

Caveats with Dynamic Memory

Dynamic memory is useful. But it has several caveats:

Whereas the stack is automatically reclaimed, dynamic allocations must be
tracked and free()’d when they are no longer needed. With every
allocation, be sure to plan how that memory will get freed. Losing track of
memory is called a “memory leak”. Reference counting

Whereas the compiler enforces that reclaimed stack space can no longer
be reached, it is easy to accidentally keep a pointer to dynamic memory
that has been freed. Whenever you free memory you must be certain that
you will not try to use it again. It is safest to erase any pointers to it.

Because dynamic memory always uses pointers, there is generally no way
for the compiler to statically verify usage of dynamic memory. This means
that errors that are detectable with static allocation are not with dynamic

Some Common Errors and Hints

sizeof() can take a variable reference in place of a type name. This gurantees the right
allocation, but don’t accidentally allocate the sizeof() the pointer instead of the object!

/* allocating a struct with malloc() */ malloc() allocates n bytes
struct my_struct *s = NULL;
s = (struct my_struct *)malloc(sizeof(*s)); /* NOT sizeof(s)!! */
if (s == NULL) { Why?
printf(stderr, “no memory!”); Always check for NULL.. Even if you just exit(1).
exit(1);
}
malloc() does not zero the memory,
memset(s, 0, sizeof(*s)); so you should memset() it to 0.
/* another way to initialize an alloc’d structure: */
struct my_struct init = {
counter: 1,
average: 2.5,
in_use: 1
};

/* memmove(dst, src, size) (note, arg order like assignment) */
memmove(s, &init, sizeof(init));
memmove is preferred because it is
/* when you are done with it, free it! */ safe for shifting buffers
free(s); Why?
s = NULL;
Use pointers as implied in-use flags!

Macros

Macros can be a useful way to customize your interface to C and
make your code easier to read and less redundant. However, when
possible, use a static inline function instead. What’s the difference between a
macro and a static inline function?

Macros and static inline functions must be included in any file that
uses them, usually via a header file. Common uses for macros:
More on C
/* Macros are used to define constants */ constants?
#define FUDGE_FACTOR 45.6 Float constants must have a decimal
#define MSEC_PER_SEC 1000 point, else they are type int
#define INPUT_FILENAME “my_input_file”
enums
/* Macros are used to do constant arithmetic */
Why?
#define TIMER_VAL (2*MSEC_PER_SEC) Put expressions in parens.
/* Macros are used to capture information from the compiler */
#define DBG(args...)
do { Multi-line macros need
fprintf(stderr, “%s:%s:%d: “,
__FUNCTION__, __FILE__, __LINENO__); args… grabs rest of args
fprintf(stderr, args...);
} while (0) Why?
Enclose multi-statement macros in do{}while(0)
/* ex. DBG(“error: %d”, errno); */

Macros and Readability

Sometimes macros can be used to improve code readability… but
make sure what’s going on is obvious.

/* often best to define these types of macro right where they are used */
#define CASE(str) if (strncasecmp(arg, str, strlen(str)) == 0)

void parse_command(char *arg)
void parse_command(char *arg)
{
{
CASE(“help”) {
if (strncasecmp(arg, “help”, strlen(“help”)) {
/* print help */
/* print help */
}
}
CASE(“quit”) {
if (strncasecmp(arg, “quit”, strlen(“quit”)) {
exit(0);
exit(0);
}
}
}
}
/* and un-define them after use */
#undef CASE

Macros can be used to generate static inline functions. This is like a C
version of a C++ template. See emstar/libmisc/include/queue.h for an
example of this technique.

Using “goto”

Some schools of thought frown upon goto, but goto has its place. A
good philosophy is, always write code in the most expressive and clear
way possible. If that involves using goto, then goto is not bad.

An example is jumping to an error case from inside complex logic.
The alternative is deeply nested and confusing “if” statements, which
are hard to read, maintain, and verify. Often additional logic and state
variables must be added, just to avoid goto.

goto try_again;
goto fail;

Unrolling a Failed Initialization using goto

state_t *initialize()
{ state_t *initialize()
/* allocate state struct */ {
state_t *s = g_new0(state_t, 1); /* allocate state struct */
if (s) { state_t *s = g_new0(state_t, 1);
/* allocate sub-structure */ if (s == NULL) goto free0;
s->sub = g_new0(sub_t, 1);
if (s->sub) { /* allocate sub-structure */
/* open file */ s->sub = g_new0(sub_t, 1);
s->sub->fd = if (s->sub == NULL) goto free1;
open(“/dev/null”, O_RDONLY);
if (s->sub->fd >= 0) { /* open file */
/* success! */ s->sub->fd =
} open(“/dev/null”, O_RDONLY);
else { if (s->sub->fd < 0) goto free2;
free(s->sub);
free(s); /* success! */
s = NULL; return s;
}
} free2:
else { free(s->sub);
/* failed! */ free1:
free(s); free(s);
s = NULL; free0:
} return NULL;
} }
return s;
}

High Level Question: Why is Software Hard?

Answer(s):
– Solution: reuse code paths, avoid duplicate state variables


• Flexibility: Programming problems can be solved in many
different ways. Few hard constraints  plenty of “rope”.
– Solution: discipline and idioms; don’t use all the rope

Addressing Complexity


reuse code paths
On receive_packet:
if queue full, drop packet
else push packet, call run_queue On input, change our state as needed, and
On transmit_complete:
call Run_queue. In all cases, Run_queue
state=idle, call run_queue handles taking the next step…
Run_queue:
if state==idle && !queue empty
pop packet off queue
start transmit, state = busy

Addressing Complexity


avoid duplicate state variables
int transmit_busy; msg_t *packet_on_deck;
msg_t *packet_on_deck;
int start_transmit(msg_t *packet)
int start_transmit(msg_t *packet) {
{ if (packet_on_deck != NULL) return -1;
if (transmit_busy) return -1;
/* start transmit */
/* start transmit */ packet_on_deck = packet;
packet_on_deck = packet;
transmit_busy = 1; /* ... */
return 0;
/* ... */ }
return 0;
} Why return -1?

Addressing Mutability


Tidy code.. Indenting, good formatting, comments, meaningful variable and
function names. Version control.. Learn how to use CVS

Avoid duplication of anything that’s logically identical.

struct pkt_hdr {
int source; struct pkt_hdr {
int dest; int source;
int length; int dest; Otherwise when
int length;
};
struct pkt { };
one changes, you
int source; struct pkt { have to find and fix
struct pkt_hdr hdr;
int dest;
int length; uint8_t payload[100];
all the other places
uint8_t payload[100]; };
};

Solutions to the pow() challenge question

Recursive Iterative

{
float result; float pow(float x, uint exp)
{
/* base case */ float result = 1.0;
if (exp == 0)
return 1.0; int bit;
for (bit = sizeof(exp)*8-1;
/* x^(2*a) == x^a * x^a */ bit >= 0; bit--) {
result = pow(x, exp >> 1); result *= result;
result = result * result; if (exp & (1 << bit))
result *= x;
/* x^(2*a+1) == x^(2*a) * x */ }
if (exp & 1)
result = result * x; return result;
}
return result;
}

Which is better? Why?

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