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What Causes Emotional and Motivated Behavior? An Introduction to Brain and Behavior Third Edition CHAPTER 12 PowerPoints prepared by: Paul Smaldino, UC Davis, Department of Psychology Bryan Kolb & Ian Q. Whishaw

What Causes Emotional and Motivated Behavior? Identifying the Causes of Behavior Biology, Evolution, and Environment Neuroanatomy of Motivated Behavior Stimulating Emotion Control of Regulatory Behavior Control of Nonregulatory Behavior Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Identifying the Causes of Behavior Emotion Cognitive interpretation of subjective feelings Motivation Behavior that seems purposeful and goal directed Neuroanatomy of Emotion and Motivation Hypothalamus Limbic System Frontal Lobes Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Identifying the Causes of Behavior Behavior for Brain Maintenance Sensory Deprivation Experimental setup in which a subject is allowed only restricted sensory input; subjects generally have a low tolerance for deprivation and may even display hallucinations Hebb and Heron (1950s) After about 4 to 8 hours, subjects became quite distressed; few subjects lasted more than 24 hours Brain has an inherent need for stimulation; one reason that we engage in behavior is to stimulate the brain Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Identifying the Causes of Behavior Drives and Behavior Drive Hypothetical state of arousal that motivates an organism to engage in a particular behavior Drive theories of motivation assume the brain is storing energy for behavior “Flush” model: Once a behavior is started, it will continue until all the energy in its reservoir is gone There are separate stores of energy for different behaviors Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Identifying the Causes of Behavior Neural Circuits and Behavior Researchers have not been able to link drives and brain activity What researchers have found, however, is that behavioral change correlates with changes in hormones and cellular activity Example: A man’s frequency of copulation is correlated with his levels of male hormones, called androgens (male hormones related to level of sexual interest) Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Identifying the Causes of Behavior The Nature of Behavior: Why Cats Kill Birds Why do cats kill birds even though they may be well-fed? One reason is that, to secure survival, the activity of circuits such as the prey-killing circuit have become rewarding in some way: they make the cat “feel good” Ensures that the cat will not go hungry Killing behavior in cats is innate, not learned Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Biology, Evolution, and Environment Evolutionary Influences on Behavior Innate Releasing Mechanism (IRM) Hypothetical mechanism that detects specific sensory stimuli and directs an organism to take a particular action The brain must have a set of norms against which it can match stimuli so as to trigger an appropriate response Although IRMs are prewired into the brain, they can be modified with experience Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Biology, Evolution, and Environment Evolutionary Influences on Behavior Evolutionary Psychology Discipline that seeks to apply principles of natural selection to understand the causes of human behavior Behaviors exist because the neural circuits producing them have been favored through natural selection Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Biology, Evolution, and Environment The Chemical Senses Olfaction Receptors for Smell Olfactory epithelium contains receptor cells and support cells; receptor cells send cilia into the olfactory mucosa Airborne chemicals dissolve in the olfactory mucosa and interact with the cilia Activation of metabotropic receptors leads to the opening of sodium channels and subsequent change in membrane potential Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Biology, Evolution, and Environment The Chemical Senses Olfaction Olfactory Pathways Olfactory cells project to the olfactory bulb, ending in tufts of dendrites called glomeruli In the olfactory bulbs, synapses are formed with mitral cells , which then project to several areas of the forebrain Pyriform cortex, entorhinal cortex, amygdala, hypothalamus, thalamus, and the orbitofrontal cortex Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Biology, Evolution, and Environment The Chemical Senses Olfaction Accessory Olfactory System Pheromone Odorant biochemical released by one animal that acts as a chemosignal and can affect the physiology or behavior of another animal Vomeronasal Organ Special olfactory receptor, made up of small group of receptors that are connected by a duct to the nasal passage and detect pheromones; projects to the amygdala and hypothalamus Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Biology, Evolution, and Environment The Chemical Senses Human Olfactory Processing Lundstrom and colleagues (2008) The brain analyzes common odors and body odors differently Body odors activate structures also activated by visually emotional stimuli Smelling a stranger’s odor activates structures also activated by fearful visual stimuli Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Biology, Evolution, and Environment The Chemical Senses Gustation Receptors for Taste Taste receptors are found within taste buds located throughout the mouth and nasopharynx Five different taste-receptor types Sweet , sour , salty , bitter , and umami Gustatory stimuli interact with microvilli , located on the tips of receptors, to open ion channels and alter the membrane potential Taste buds connect to cranial nerves 7 (facial), 9 (glossopharyngeal) and 10 (vagus) Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Biology, Evolution, and Environment The Chemical Senses Gustation Pathways Cranial nerves 7, 9, and 10 form the main gustatory, the solitary tract, from which two paths emerge Splits at the thalamus and projects to the primary somatosensory cortex and the gustatory cortex of the insula (which then projects to the orbital cortex) Perception of flavor Hypothalamus and amygdala Feeding behavior Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Biology, Evolution, and Environment Environmental Influences on Behavior B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) Suggested a strong role of learning in behavior Reinforcer In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior that it follows Experience shapes behavior by pairing stimuli and rewards Many complex behaviors are learned, and learning takes place in a brain that has been selected for evolutionary adaptations Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Biology, Evolution, and Environment Environmental Influences on Behavior Learned Taste Aversion Acquired association between a specific taste or odor and illness Leads to an aversion to foods having that taste or odor Example: Garcia (1966) Coyotes were killing sheep Poisoned a sheep carcass, made coyotes ill Most coyotes learned never to eat sheep again Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Biology, Evolution, and Environment Environmental Influences on Behavior Preparedness Predisposition to respond to certain stimuli differently than other stimuli Brain is prewired to make certain types of associations but not others Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Biology, Evolution, and Environment Inferring Purpose in Behavior: To Know a Fly When studying the causes of behavior, one must be careful not to infer purpose from an organism’s actions Do not assume that behavior is intentional Example Although a fly may look as if it is behaving with “purpose in mind,” its behaviors are controlled by a series of very simple mechanisms that are not even remotely related to our concept of thought Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Neuroanatomy of Motivated Behavior Critical Structures Hypothalamus and associated pituitary gland Sends information to other brainstem circuits to produce behavior Limbic system Frontal lobes Homeostatic Mechanism Process that maintains critical body functions within a narrow, fixed range Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12 Both project to the hypothalamus

Neuroanatomy of Motivated Behavior Regulatory and Nonregulatory Behavior Regulatory Behavior Behavior motivated to meet the survival needs of the animal Controlled by homeostatic mechanisms, which involve the hypothalamus Examples: Internal body temperature Eating and drinking Salt consumption Waste elimination Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Neuroanatomy of Motivated Behavior Regulatory and Nonregulatory Behavior Nonregulatory Behavior Behavior unnecessary to meet the basic survival needs of the animal Not controlled by homeostatic mechanisms Most involve the frontal lobes more than the hypothalamus Strongly influenced by external stimuli Examples: Sexual behavior, parental behavior, aggression, food preference, curiosity, and reading Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Neuroanatomy of Motivated Behavior The Regulatory Function of the Hypothalamic Circuit Involvement in Hormone Secretions A principal function is to control the pituitary gland Pituitary Gland Endocrine gland attached to the bottom of the hypothalamus Its secretions control the activities of many other endocrine glands Known to be associated with biological rhythms Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Neuroanatomy of Motivated Behavior The Regulatory Function of the Hypothalamic Circuit Involvement in Hormone Secretions Three regions of the hypothalamus Lateral Region Medial Region Paraventricular Region Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Neuroanatomy of Motivated Behavior The Regulatory Function of the Hypothalamic Circuit Involvement in Hormone Secretions Lateral Region Contains nuclei and nerve tracts that connect the lower brainstem to the forebrain Medial Forebrain Bundle (MFB) Tract that connects structures in the brainstem with various parts of the limbic system Forms the activating projections form the brainstem to the basal ganglia and frontal cortex Dopamine-containing fibers are involved in reward and therefore contribute to many motivated behaviors Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Neuroanatomy of Motivated Behavior The Regulatory Function of the Hypothalamic Circuit Involvement in Hormone Secretions Posterior Pituitary Neural tissue; continuation of the hypothalamus Anterior Pituitary Glandular tissue; synthesizes various hormones Releasing Hormones Peptides that are released by the hypothalamus and act to increase or decrease the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Neuroanatomy of Motivated Behavior The Regulatory Function of the Hypothalamic Circuit Factors involved in controlling hypothalamic hormone-related activity Feedback Loops Control the amount of hormone that is released Neural Regulation Other brain regions (e.g., limbic system and frontal lobes) influence hormone release Experiential Responses Experience can alter the structure and function of hypothalamic neurons Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Neuroanatomy of Motivated Behavior The Regulatory Function of the Hypothalamic Circuit Involvement in Generating Behavior Electrical stimulation of different nuclei in the hypothalamus will produce goal-directed behaviors, such as: Eating and drinking Digging Displaying fear Predatory or attack behavior Reproductive behavior Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12 Indistinguishable from normally occurring behaviors

Neuroanatomy of Motivated Behavior The Organizing Function of the Limbic Circuit The primitive limbic cortex comprises: Cingulate gyrus Hippocampal formation Hippocampus Distinctive three-layered subcortical structure of the limbic system lying in the medial temporal region of the temporal lobe Plays a role in species-specific behaviors, memory, and spatial navigation Vulnerable to the effects of stress Parahippocampal cortex Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Organization of the Limbic Circuit Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12 Organization of the Limbic Circuit

Neuroanatomy of Motivated Behavior The Organizing Function of the Limbic Circuit Amygdala Almond-shaped collection of nuclei located within the limbic system Plays a role in emotional and species-specific behaviors Receives input from all sensory systems Many neurons respond to more than one sensory modality (multimodal) Sends projections primarily to the hypothalamus and brainstem Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Neuroanatomy of Motivated Behavior The Executive Function of the Frontal Lobes The Frontal Lobe Has Three Main Regions Motor Cortex Controls fine movements Premotor Cortex Selection of appropriate movement sequences Prefrontal Cortex Involved in specifying the goals toward which movement should be made Dorsolateral and inferior regions Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Neuroanatomy of Motivated Behavior The Executive Function of the Frontal Lobes Prefrontal Cortex Receives connections from the amygdala, the dorsomedial thalamus, the posterior parietal (sensory association) cortex, and the dopaminergic cells of the ventral tegmental area Dopaminergic input influences how prefrontal neurons react to stimuli, especially emotionally arousing stimuli Inferior region projects to the amygdala and the hypothalamus: Influences autonomic nervous system Dorsolateral region projects to the posterior parietal cortex, the cingulate cortex, the basal ganglia, and the premotor cortex: Influences movement and memory Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Stimulating Emotion Explanations for Emotion Three Components of Emotion Autonomic Response (e.g., increased heart rate) Hypothalamus and associated structures Subjective Feelings (e.g., fear) Amygdala and parts of frontal lobes Cognitions (e.g., thoughts about the experience) Cerebral cortex Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Stimulating Emotion Explanations for Emotion James-Lange View of Emotion Physiological changes produced by the autonomic nervous system come first, and the brain interprets these changes as an emotion Evidence: Intensity of emotions in individuals with spinal cord damage depends upon the level at which the spinal cord is severed Somatic Marker Hypothesis (Damasio, 1999) Posits that “marker” signals arising from emotions and feelings act to guide behavior and decision making, usually an unconscious process Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Stimulating Emotion The Amygdala and Emotional Behavior Involved in species-specific behaviors and emotion Influences autonomic and hormonal responses via connections with the hypothalamus Influences conscious awareness of the consequences of events and objects via connections with the prefrontal cortex Kl ü ver-Bucy Syndrome Behavioral syndrome, characterized especially by hypersexuality, that results from bilateral injury to the temporal lobe Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Stimulating Emotion The Amygdala and Emotional Behavior Kl ü ver-Bucy Syndrome Symptoms in monkeys Tameness and loss of fear Indiscriminate dietary behavior Greatly increased autoerotic, homosexual, and heterosexual activity with inappropriate object choice Tendency to attend to and react to every visual stimulus Tendency to examine all objects by mouth Visual agnosia (inability to recognize objects) Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Stimulating Emotion The Prefrontal Cortex and Emotional Behavior Damage to the prefrontal cortex has severe effects on social and emotional behavior Inability to experience and express their own emotions and to recognize the emotional expression of others Apathy and loss of initiative or drive Inability to plan and organize, leading to poor decision-making Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Stimulating Emotion Emotional Disorders Depression Abnormal regulation of feelings of sadness and happiness Although the cause is unknown, there is a genetic component Biological abnormality About 70% of depressed people respond to antidepressants, many of which increase synaptic levels of noradrenaline and serotonin Limbic and prefrontal regions may be involved Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Stimulating Emotion Emotional Disorders Generalized Anxiety Disorder Persistently high levels of anxiety often accompanied by maladaptive behaviors to reduce anxiety; thought to be caused by chronic stress Phobia Clearly defined dreaded object or greatly feared situation Panic Disorder Recurrent attacks of intense terror that come on without warning and without apparent relation to external circumstances Most common treatment are the benzodiazepines, which augment GABA’s inhibitory effect Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Control of Regulatory Behavior Controlling Eating Eating disorders entail being either overweight or underweight Obesity Excessive accumulation of body fat Anorexia Nervosa Exaggerated concern with being overweight that leads to inadequate food intake and often excessive exercising; can lead to severe weight loss and even starvation Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Control of Regulatory Behavior Controlling Eating The Digestive System Mouth, stomach, intestine, gall bladder, pancreas, and anus Three types of nutrients are extracted, each of which is a specialized form of energy reserve: Lipids (fats) Amino acids (building blocks of proteins) Glucose (sugar) Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Control of Regulatory Behavior Controlling Eating Hypothalamus Aphagia Failure to eat; may be due to an unwillingness to eat or to motor difficulties, especially with swallowing; observed following lesions to the lateral hypothalamus Hyperphagia Disorder in which an animal overeats, leading to significant weight gain; observed following lesions to the ventromedial hypothalamus or the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Control of Regulatory Behavior Controlling Eating Cognitive Factors Amygdala Projects to the hypothalamus; damage alters food preferences and abolishes taste-aversion learning Inferior Prefrontal Cortex Receives input from the olfactory bulb; damage may result in decreased eating because of diminished sensory responses to food odor and perhaps taste Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Control of Regulatory Behavior Controlling Drinking Two Kinds of Thirst Osmotic Thirst Results from an increased concentration of chemicals, known as solutes , in body fluids Drink water to restore ideal solute concentrations Hypovolumic Thirst Produced by a loss of overall fluid volume from the body Drink fluids, other than water, to restore nutrients Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Control of Nonregulatory Behavior Effects of Sex Hormones on the Brain Organizing Effects of Sex Hormones Sexual Dimorphism Differential development of brain areas in the two sexes Influenced by gonadal hormones (testosterone, estradiol) Estradiol masculinizes the male brain Aromatase converts testosterone to estradiol Alpha fetoprotein prevents estrogen from entering neurons Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Control of Nonregulatory Behavior Effects of Sex Hormones on the Brain Activating Effects of Sex Hormones Adult female sexual behavior varies across the estrous cycle High estrogen levels are associated with sexual receptivity Rats: high estrogen is also associated with more dendritic spines on neurons in the hippocampus In adult males, testosterone levels influence the motivation to seek sexual behavior and the production of copulatory behavior Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Control of Nonregulatory Behavior The Hypothalamus, the Amygdala, and Sexual Behavior Ventromedial Hypothalamus Controls female mating posture (lordosis) Preoptic Area of the Medial Hypothalamus Controls copulatory behavior in males, but not sexual motivation Amygdala: Controls sexual motivation in males and possibly in females, as well (outside of their estrous cycle) Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Control of Nonregulatory Behavior Sexual Orientation, Sexual Identity, and Brain Organization Sexual Orientation A person’s sexual attraction either to the opposite sex or to the same sex or to both sexes Sexual Identity A person’s feeling either male or female Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Control of Nonregulatory Behavior Sexual Orientation, Sexual Identity, and Brain Organization Sex-Related Differences in Hypothalamus Compared with heterosexual females, in heterosexual males, the Preoptic area contains twice as many neurons Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis is 2.5 times larger INAH3 region is 2 times larger Suprachiasmic nucleus contains twice as many neurons The hypothalamus of homosexual males differs from those in both males and females, suggesting a “third sex” with respect to hypothalamic structure Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Control of Nonregulatory Behavior Sexual Orientation, Sexual Identity, and Brain Organization Genetic Basis? Hamer and colleagues (1993) In a sample of 114 homosexual males, there was a higher-than-average incidence of male homosexuality on the maternal side of the men’s families but not on the paternal side Potential involvement of the X chromosome But, genes specify proteins, not sexual behavior Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Control of Nonregulatory Behavior Cognitive Influences on Sexual Behavior In addition to the amygdala and hypothalamus, the cortex must also have a role in controlling sexual behavior However, the role of the cortex in sexual behavior is poorly understood Damage to the frontal lobes can result in a loss of inhibition about sexual behavior or a loss of libido (sexual interest) Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Reward Reward may be a mechanism that evolved to help increase the adaptive fitness both of the entire species and of individual members of a species Maintain contact with some stimuli but not others Olds and Milner (1954) Rats will press a bar to self-administer electrical stimulation to specific sites in the brain (intracranial self-stimulation) Lateral hypothalamus and medial forebrain bundle are especially effective (part of mesolimbic dopamine system) Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Reward Evidence that mesolimbic system is involved in reward Dopamine is released during intracranial self-stimulation Drugs that enhance dopamine release increase self-stimulation, whereas drugs that decrease dopamine decrease self-stimulation Levels of dopamine increase when animals engage in behaviors such as feeding and sexual activity Highly addictive drugs such as nicotine and cocaine increase the level of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

Reward Reward has two independent processes: wanting (incentive) and liking (evaluation of pleasure) Usually, wanting and liking occur together but this is not always the case Robinson and Berridge (2008) Wanting and liking have separable neural systems Wanting: Involves dopamine Liking: Involves opioid and benzodiazepine-GABA systems Kolb & Whishaw, An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, Third Edition - Chapter 12

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