Basics of RF

Introduction
This presentation serves as an overview of the
parameters and considerations a designer would
use to select a low-power wireless (LPW) solution..

Technology beyond the Dreams™ Copyright © 2006 Pantech Solutions Pvt Ltd.

Agenda
• RF Definitions

• Radio Modulation Schemes

• Radio Frequency Spectrum

• Stack Considerations

• Network Types


RF Power Definitions
• dBm – power referred to 1 mW

PdBm=10log(P/1mW)
0dBm = 1mW
20 dBm = 100mW
30 dBm = 1W

Example:
-110dBm = 1E-11mW = 0.00001nW
Power = V2/R:
50 W load : -110dBm is 0.7uV

• Rule of thumb:

6dB increase => twice the range
3dB increase => roughly doubles
the dbm power

dBm to Watt
• About dBm and W
– Voltage Ratio aV = 20 log (P2/P1) [aV] = dB

– Power Ratio aP = 10 log (P2/P1) [aP] = dB

– Voltage Level V„ = 20 log (V/1µV) [V„] = dBµV

– Power Level P„ = 10 log (P/1mW)[P„] = dBm

• Example: 25mW is the maximum allowed radiated
(transmitted) power in the EU SRD band
– P„ = 10 log (25mW/1mW) = 10 * 1.39794 dBm ~ 14 dBm


dBm Typicals


Radio Performance
Definitions
• Packet Error Rate (PER)
The percentage (%) of packets not received successfully
• Sensitivity
Lowest input power with acceptable link quality (typically 1% PER)
• Deviation/separation
Frequency offset between a logic ‘0’ and ‘1’ using FSK modulation
• Blocking/selectivity
How well a chip works in an environment with interference.


Wireless Communication Systems Transmitter

Low Frequency
Information Signal
(Intelligence)

Modulator Amplifier

High Frequency
Carrier

Communication
Channel

Receiver

Demodulator Output
Amplifier Amplifier
(detector) transducer


Modulation Methods
• Starting point: We have a low frequency signal and want to send it at a
high frequency

• Modulation: The process of superimposing a low frequency signal onto
a high frequency carrier signal

• Three modulation schemes available:
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM): the amplitude of the carrier varies in accordance to
the information signal
2. Frequency Modulation (FM): the frequency of the carrier varies in accordance to
the information signal
3. Phase Modulation (PM): the phase of the carrier varies in accordance to the
information signal


Digital Modulation – ASK
The modulation of digital signals is known as Shift Keying

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK/OOK):
– Pros: simple, duty cycling (FCC), lower transmit current
– Cons: susceptible to noise, wide spectrum noise
• Rise and fall rates of the carrier's amplitude can be adjusted to reduce the spectrum noise at low to medium
data rates. This is called Shaped OOK
– Common Use: Many legacy wireless systems
carrier

0 1 0 1
digital

OOK ASK
data

0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
Signal Space Diagram
• Each axis represents a „symbol‟
modulation

• OOK has two basis functions: sinusoid & no sinusoid
OOK

• OOK has two symbols: carrier & no carrier
• Distance between symbols predicts BER


Digital Modulation - FSK
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):
– Pros: Less susceptible to noise Frequency deviation

– Cons: Theoretically requires larger bandwidth/bit Frequency separation
= 2 x df
than ASK
– Popular in modern systems
– Gaussian FSK (GFSK) has better spectral density Fc-df
DIO=low
fc Fc+df
DIO=high
Frequency

than 2-FSK modulation, i.e. more bandwidth efficient
FSK modulation
data carrier carrier
digital freq2 freq1

0

1

Signal Space Diagram / Signal Constellation
FSK
mod

• Each basis function is „orthogonal‟


Phase Shift Keying (PSK):
Digital Modulation - PSK
– Pros:
• Less susceptible to noise
• Bandwidth efficient
– Cons: Require synchronization in frequency and phase complicates receivers and
transmitter
digital freq2 freq1

0 1

PSK
mod



Digital Modulation - MSK
Minimum Shift Keying (MSK):
– Pros: Difference in Frequency is Half the bit rate
– Very bandwidth efficient
– Reduced Spectrum noise
– Cons: Require synchronization in frequency and phase  complicates receivers and
transmitter
digital freq2 freq1

0 1

MSK

mod



Digital Modulation – QPSK/OQPSK
2
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying AC

– Pros: Symbol represents two bits of data
2
10 01
AC
– Cons: Phase in the signal can jump as much as 180O 2
causing out of band noise 1
Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
– Pros: Offsetting the signal limits the phase jump to no 11 00
more than 90O
Example: IEEE 802.15.4 / ZigBee

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-shift_keying


Preamble
The Preamble is a pattern of repeated 1’s and 0’s

4 bytes / 8 bytes
• Which can be used by Receiver to pull Received Signal Strength
Information (RSSI)
– To trigger a Carrier Sense Flag
– To qualify Sync Word to protect from false triggers

• An extended preamble can be sent by sending an STX with no data in the
TX Buffer (or by not triggering the DMA in the SoCs)

• For data rates less than 500kb/s, a 4 byte Preamble is recommended, at
500kb/s, 8 bytes is recommended


Clock and Data Recovery
• Data is asynchronous, no clock signal is transmitted.
• Clock is recovered (trained) with the Sync Word.

Received Data Train

1111 0000 1111 0000 11 00 11 00 1 0 1 0
Expected Sync Word

4 clocks 2 clocks 1 clock

Recovered Clock Bit Time
• Sync Word is 2 Bytes Programmable & can be repeated
– default 0xD391: 1101001110010001
• An 8 bit Sync Word can be accomplished by Extending the
Preamble with the Sync MSB

Electromagnetic Spectrum
SOUND RADIO LIGHT HARMFUL RADIATION

VHF = VERY HIGH FREQUENCY 2.4 GHz 4G CELLULAR
UHF = ULTRA HIGH FREQUENCY ISM band 56-100 GHz
SHF = SUPER HIGH FREQUENCY ISM bands UWB
EHF = EXTRA HIGH FREQUENCY 315-915 MHz
3.1-10.6 GHz

Source: JSC.MIL


Regulations ISM/SRD Bands


The “World-Wide” 2.4 GHz ISM Band
The 2400–2483.5 MHz band is available for license-free operation in
most countries

• 2.4 GHz Pros
– Same solution for all markets without SW/HW alterations
– Large bandwidth (83.5MHz) available, allows many separate channels and high
datarates
– 100% duty cycle is possible
– More compact antenna solution than below 1 GHz

• 2.4 GHz Cons
– Shorter range than a sub 1 GHz solution (same output power)
– Many possible interferers are present in the band


2.4 GHz ISM-band devices
• Due to the world-wide availability of the 2.4GHz ISM band it is getting more
crowded day by day
• Devices such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, ZigBee, cordless phones, microwave
ovens, wireless game pads, toys, PC peripherals, wireless audio devices
occupy the 2.4 GHz frequency band
Power

802.11b/g Microwave Cordless Frequency
oven Source: Eliezer & Michael, TI


WiFi Channels in the
2.4GHz Space

Taken from: http://www.moonblinkwifi.com/2point4freq.cfm


802.15.4 versus 802.15.4


Bluetooth versus 802.11


Sub 1GHz ISM Bands
• The ISM bands under 1 GHz are not world-wide

• Limitations vary a lot from region to region and getting a full
overview is not an easy task
– Sub 1GHz Pros
• Better range than 2.4 GHz with the same output power and current consumption
(assuming a good antenna – not easy for a limited space)

– Sub 1GHz Cons
• Since different bands are used in different markets it is necessary with custom
solutions for each market
• More limitations to output power, data rate, bandwidth etc. than the 2.4 GHz
• Duty cycle restrictions in some regions
• Interferers are present in most bands


Sub 1GHz ISM bands
• 902-928 MHz is the main frequency band
• The 260-470 MHz range is also available, but with more limitations

• The 902-928 MHz band is covered by FCC CFR 47, part 15

• Sharing of the bandwidth is done in the same way as for 2.4 GHz:
• Higher output power is allowed if you spread your transmitted power and don’t
occupy one channel all the timeFCC CFR 47 part 15.247 covers wideband
modulation
• Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) with ≥50 channels are allowed up
to 1 W, FHSS with 25-49 channels up to 0.25 W
• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) and other digital modulation formats
with bandwidth above 500 kHz are allowed up to 1W

• FCC CFR 47 part 15.249
• ”Single channel systems” can only transmit with ~0.75 mW output power


Short-Range Wireless Comparison
Range

1000m Proprietary Low Power Radio
•Gaming
•PC Peripherals
•Audio
100m ZigBee/802.15.4 •Meter Reading
•Building Mgmt.
• Building Automation •Automotive
• Residential Control
• Industrial
• Tracking
10m • Sensors Wi-Fi/802.11
• Home Automation / Security
•PC Networking
• Meter Reading •Headsets •Home Networking
•PC Peripherals •Video Distribution
UWB
•PDA/Phone •Wireless USB
•Video/audio links
1m

Data Rate
1k 10k 100k 1M 10M
(bps)
Different Value Drivers for Different Applications


Typical Decision Parameters
Highest Data Rate
• WLAN/UWB (Video)
• Bluetooth (Audio)
• CC430/SimpliciTI (High Speed UART)
• Zigbee/802.15.4

Highest Battery Life
• CC430/SimpliciTI (Alkaline)
• Zigbee/802.15.4 (Alkaline/Li-Ion)
• Bluetooth (Li-Ion)
• WLAN/UWB (Line powered/Li-Ion)

Longest Range (Radio Only, not boosted)
• CC430/SimpliciTI (433MHz)
• Bluetooth Class 1
• WLAN
• Zigbee 802.15.4
• Bluetooth Class 2

Stack
Considerations

App

MAC
Physical

Low Power Wireless
Networks

Point to Point Star Network Multihop – Mesh and cluster
tree Networks
Proprietary or
IEEE 802.15.4 Proprietary or ZigBee or based on ZigBee
PHY + MAC IEEE 802.15.4 technology
PHY+ MAC


Network Types

SimpliciTI
802.15.4
RemoTI

Proprietary
SimpliciTI
802.15.4

Point to Point
(Peer to Peer) Data path Star


Network Types: Mesh
Coordinator
Router
End Device

Re-Connect
Data path
Mesh

Mesh Network
• Pros
– Self healing
– Easily extendable through
multiple hops
– End devices can be battery
operated
– Easy to deploy
– Can be ZigBee certified
• Cons
– Router nodes needs to be mains
powered
• Example
ZigBee Coordinator – Lighting applications
ZigBee Router
ZigBee End Device – Building Automation


Table routing (simplified) -
Mesh
• Requesting device
– Sends Route Request
4
1 3 • Routing device(s)
0 – Adds link cost depending on LQI
4 7
6 – Selects request with lowest link
S D cost
0 2
– Forwards the Route Request
6 9 – Stores the information
4
• Requested device
– Selects lowest link cost
In this example the selected route will be: S- – Sends Route Response
1-3-D (link cost 7)
• Routing device(s)
– Uses stored information to route
the response back


For more details
– www.pantechsolutions.net
– http://www.slideshare.net/pantechsolutions
– http://www.scribd.com/pantechsolutions
– http://www.youtube.com/pantechsolutions


Basics of RF

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