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Science, Technology, Scientific Method,
and Scientific Attitudes
• Since human history, people have been developing interconnected and validated ideas about
the world physical, biological, physiological, and social.
• Those ideas influence successive generations to achieve an increasingly comprehensive and
reliable understanding of the human species and the complexity of the environment.
• This understanding is a result of systematic ways of observing, thinking, experimenting, and
validating.
• These ways are a fundamental aspect of the nature of science
• They also reflect how science tends to differ from other modes of knowing.
• Scientific endeavor becomes successful if it unites science, mathematics, and technology.
• Although each of these human enterprises has a character and history of its own, each is
dependent on and is reinforced by the others.
• Understanding how science works allows us to easily distinguish science from non-science.
• To understand biological evolution, or any other science, it is essential to begin with the
nature of science.
What makes Science?
Some of the characteristics that make science:
1. Science seeks to explain the natural world and its explanations are tested by gathering
evidence through our sense and extension of our senses:
• The basis of any scientific understanding is information derived from observations of
nature. Real materials and observations are the ultimate tests of any concept.
Evidence is the basic stuff of science.
• Dreams, apparitions and hallucinations, may seem real but they do not arise from our
senses, are not even extensions of our senses, and so are not within the scope of
science.
2. Scientific ideas are developed through reasoning:
• Inferences are logical conclusions based on observable facts; a conclusion reached on
the basis of evidence and reasoning.
• Much of what we know from scientific study is based on inferences from data.
• For example, no person has ever seen the inside of an atom, yet we know, by
inference, what is there.
3. Scientific claims are based on testing explanations against observations of natural world.
Those that fail the test are rejected:
• Scientific explanations are evaluated based on evidences generated through
repeated experiments, observations, and rejection or modification of
explanations.
4. Conclusion of science are reliable, although tentative:
• Science is always a work in progress and its conclusions are always tentative in
the sense that all ideas are open to scrutiny and are modified as new evidence
appears.

5. Science is not democratic.
• Scientific ideas are subject to scrutiny from near and far, and are accepted or
rejected on the basis of evidence.
6. Science is non-dogmatic.
• Explanations and conclusions are accepted only to the degree that they are well
founded and continue to stand up to scrutiny.
• Dogmatic: characterized by or given to the expression of opinions very strongly
or positively as if they were facts.
7. Science cannot make moral and aesthetic decision.
• Scientist can infer the relationship of flowering plants from their anatomy, DNA,
and fossils, but they cannot scientifically assert that a sampaguita is prettier than
an orchid.
• Scientist make moral and aesthetic judgments and choices, but such decisions are
obviously not part of science.
8. Science is not always a direct ascent toward the truth.
• In some cases, scientific ideas that dominated a particular time may later be
recognized as inaccurate or incomplete.
• Spontaneous Generation: the outmoded theory that living organisms, rather than
coming from the reproduction of their species, arise from non-living things. Ex.
Dust  Flea
9. Science corrects itself.
• Sometimes it takes years, decades, or even centuries to make the correction of
errors of the past.
• Those past “truths” are often challenged by improved understanding attributed to
new technology or changing perspectives.
TECHNOLOGY
• "science of craft“:
o from Greek τέχνη, techne, "art, skill, cunning of hand"; and
o λογία, -logia, “the application of scientific knowledge”
• for practical purposes, especially for industry and the good life for man.
• It is the collection of techniques, skills, methods, and processes used in
• the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such
as scientific investigation.
• The simplest form of technology is the development and use of basic tools.
• The prehistoric discovery of how to control fire and the later Neolithic
Revolution increased the available sources of food, and the invention of the
wheel helped humans to travel in and control their environment.
• Developments in historic times, including the printing press, the telephone, and
the Internet, have lessened physical barriers to communication and allowed
humans to interact freely on a global scale.
• Technology has helped develop more advanced economies (including today's
global economy) and has allowed the rise of a leisure class.
• However, many technological processes produce unwanted by-products known as
pollution and deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earth's environment.

Innovations have always influenced the values of a society and raised new
questions of the ethics of technology.
• Examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human
productivity, and the challenges of bioethics.
Non-Science and Pseudoscience
Non-science:
• may be defined as an area of knowledge which does not meet the criteria of
science like consistency, observability, testability, and predictability, among
others.
• Non- science topic areas may be very logical, but simply do not fall within the
realm of science.
• These would include any belief system, e.g., religious beliefs, philosophy,
personal opinions or attitudes, a sense of aesthetics, or ethics.
Pseudoscience:
• is a claim, belief, or practice that which is presented is scientific, but in the
ultimate analysis does not adhere to a valid scientific methodology, lacks
supporting evidence or plausibility, cannot be reliably tested, or lacks scientific
status.
• often characterized by the use of vague, exaggerated or unprovable claims, an
over-reliance on confirmation rather than on rigorous attempts at refutation, or a
lack of openness to rationally develop theories.
Scientific Method and Inquiry
a. Fundamentally, the various scientific disciplines rely on evidence, use of
hypotheses and theories, and use of logic.
b. However, scientists differ greatly from one another in what phenomena they
investigate and in how they go about their work.
c. They exchange techniques, information, and concepts.
d. They share understandings about what constitutes an investigation that is
scientifically valid.
e. Scientists anchor their frame of mind on curiosity.
f. They usually accept an explanation based on evidence or proof.
g. To prove their point, they usually consider what is aptly called scientific method
which consists of the following steps:
1. stating the problem;
2. forming a hypothesis;
3. testing the hypothesis;
4. recording and analyzing data;
5. forming a conclusion; and
6. replicating the work.
• When a hypothesis is tested and confirmed again and again and is unlikely to be
disproved by future tests, it may become a theory.
• Scientifically, the word theory means time-tested concept that makes useful and
dependable prediction about the natural world.
• Not all the time an explanation should be always done through an experiment like
what the scientific method would assert.
• There are instances when common sense and logic best explain how an event or
phenomenon came about.

Scientific Revolution
Science is as old as the world itself. No one can exactly identify when and where science began. From the
beginning of time, science has existed. It is always interwoven with the society. So, how can science be
defined?
1. Science as an idea: includes ideas, theories, and all available systematic explanations and observations
about the natural and physical world.
2. Science as an intellectual activity: encompasses a systematic and practical study of the natural and
physical world. This process of study involves systematic observation and experimentation.
3. Science as a body of knowledge: a subject or a discipline, a field of study, or a body of knowledge
that deals with the process of learning about the natural and physical world. This is also referred to as
school science.
4. Science as a personal and social activity: explains that science is both knowledge and activities done
by human beings to develop better understanding of the world around them. It is a means to improve
life and to survive in life. It is interwoven with people’s lives.
MAIN PLAYERS IN SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
• Man has embarked in scientific activities in order for him to know and understand everything
around him.
• He has persistently observed and studied the natural and physical world in order to find meanings
and seek answers to many questions.
• He has developed noble ideas, later known as philosophy, to provide alternative or possible
explanations to certain phenomena. He also used religion to rationalize the origins of life and all
life-less forms.
• The Idea of scientific revolution is claimed to have started in the early 16th century up to the 18th
century in Europe, timely with the invention of the printing machine and the blooming intellectual
activities done in various places of learning, and the growing number of scholars in various fields
of human interests.
• It does not mean, however, that science is a foreign idea transported from other areas of the globe.
• History can tell that science, technology, medicine, and mathematics were used by all great
civilizations of the ancient world with their own sophisticated traditions and activities related to
these disciplines.
Scientific revolution
• The period of enlightenment when the developments in the fields of mathematics, physics,
astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed the views of society about nature.
• The developments in these fields of science enabled the people to reflect, rethink, and reexamine
their beliefs and their way of life.
• It ignited vast human interests to rethink how they do science and view scientific processes.
• The golden age for people committed to scholarly life in the sciences but was also a deeply trying
moment for other scientific individuals to be led to their painful death or condemnation from the
religious institutions who tried to preserve their faith, religion, and theological views.
• Some rulers and religious leaders did not accept many of the early works of scientists, but, these
did not stop people especially scientists to satisfy their curiosity of the natural and physical world.
• Significantly developed human beings, transformed society, and influenced the formulation of
scientific ideas.
• It significantly improved the conduct of scientific investigations, experiments, and observations.

Science Ideas
Humans
Developed by Scientific Revolution
Society
Some Intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas
• The dominant theories and ideas during the scientific revolution were shaken and contested by
the scientists who were driven by their curiosity, critical thinking, and creativity to explore the
physical and natural world.
• The scientists’ love for science is driven by their deep passion to know and to discover.
• Scientists are not driven by clamor for honor and publicity.
• They are ordinary people doing extraordinary things.
• Some scientists were never appreciated during their times, some were sentenced to death,
while others were condemned by the church during their time.
• In spite of all the predicaments and challenges they experienced, they never stopped
experimenting, theorizing, and discovering new knowledge and ideas.
Notable scientists:
• These men, are particularly noted as examples that through their ideas, they had shaken the world, such
as observing heavenly bodies or inviting people to test his ideas.
1. Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish Mathematician and Astronomer (1473-1543)
• His ideas were an example of what is presently called as a thought experiment.
• By the time he finished his doctorate degree, he was appointed as canon at Frombork
Cathedral in Poland.
• Despite his duty as a canon, he had plenty of time to sustain his interest in astronomy.
• He was strongly influenced by a book entitled Epitome of the Almagest published in 1496 by
a German author, Johannes Mueller (Regiomontanus).
• This book contains Mueller’s observations of the heavens and some commentary on earlier
works especially that of Ptolemy.
• Nicolaus Copernicus is one of the renaissance men particularly in the field of science.
• He became known in science after some 1,500 years that knowledge about the nature of the
universe had been essentially unchanged since the great days of Ancient Greece to the
Renaissance.
• Greek ancient philosophers of thinkers who did not do anything extensive.
• Copernicus’s idea and model of the universe was essentially complete in the year 1510.
• Not long after that, he circulated a summary of his ideas to his few close friends in a
manuscript called Commentariolus (Little Commentary).
• There was no proof that Copernicus was concerned about the risk of persecution by the
Church if he published his ideas formally.
• Copernicus’ duty as a canon and a doctor affected his time to formally publish his work and
advance his career in astronomy.
• The publication of his book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the
Heavenly Spheres) in the year 1543 is often cited as the start of the scientific revolution.
• In his book, he wanted a model of the universe in which everything moved around a single
center at unvarying rates.
• Copernicus placed the Sun to be the centerpiece of the universe.
• The Earth and all the planets are surrounding or orbiting the Sun each year.
• The Moon, however, would still be seen orbiting the Earth.
• Copernicus’s model of the Earth orbiting around the Sun automatically positioned the planets
into a logical sequence.
SCIENTIFIC
REVOLUTION

2. Charles Darwin, English Naturalist, Geologist and Biologist (1809–1882)
• famous for his theory of evolution
• He changed our concept of the world’s creation and its evolution.
• He was described as a genius who came from a line of intellectually gifted and wealthy family.
• He developed his interest in natural history during his time as a student at Shrewsbury School.
• He would spend time taking long walks to observe his surroundings while collecting
specimens and he pored over books in his father’s library.
• He went to the best schools but was observed to be a mediocre student.
• He struggled in his study in medicine and ministry, which his father had imposed to him.
• His life changed when one of his professors recommended him to join a five-year voyage
through the HMS Beagle on the Islands of Galapagos.
• Darwin published his book The Origin of Species in the year 1859, which is considered as
one of the most important works in scientific literature.
• He showed overwhelming evidences to substantiate his theory on how species evolved over
time and presented traits and adaptation that differentiate species.
• His extraordinary observational skills as a scientist dealt on plants, animals, humans, and many
other aspects of life.
• His book, The Descent of Man, was so impressive yet very controversial.
• He introduced the idea of all organic life, including human beings in a privileged position of
having been created by God.
• Darwin’s theory of evolution scientifically questioned this view.
• Darwin made major contributions to two fields of science: evolutionary biology and
philosophy of science.
• He was remarkable in his courage to challenge religious and unscientific ideas that are deemed
to be prominent during those days.
• His unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more value to evidence-based science.
• Darwin provided a different framework for doing scientific activities - marked by observation
and experiment.
3. Sigmund Freud, Austrian neurologist and Founder of Psychoanalysis (1856–1939)
• Freud (born as Sigismund Schlomo Freud) is a famous figure in the field of psychology.
• He was described as a towering literary figure and a very talented communicator who did his
share to raise the consciousness of the civilized world in psychological matters.
• Freud made a significant contribution to science through the development of the method of
psychoanalysis, to gather reliable data to study human’s inner life.
• Psychoanalysis is a scientific way to study the human mind and neurotic illness.
• Freud is not a traditional thinker.
• His method of psychoanalysis was proven to be effective in understanding some neurological
conditions that were not understood by medicine at that time.
• His method was unorthodox- focusing on human sexuality and the evil nature of man.
• To some, they found his ideas not easy especially in his explanations of human sexuality.
• Freud was born in a much later period from the scientific revolution but his contribution to
knowledge can be seen in many aspects that include art, literature, philosophy, politics, and
psychotherapy.
• He was not just the Father of Psychoanalysis, but also one of cocaine’s leading medical
advocates.
• His favorite test subject was himself.

Intellectual Revolutions That Defined Society
Scientific Revolution: CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE
Development of Science in Mesoamerica
• Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America from Southern Mexico up to the boarder of
South America.
• The region is rich in culture and knowledge prior to the arrival of its European colonizers.
• Some of the famous ancient civilizations that developed in this area include the Olmecs, Zapotecs,
Teotihuacanos, Mayas, and Aztecs.
• These cultures developed complex societies, reached high levels of technological evolution, built
monumental constructions, and shared many cultural concepts.
The Maya civilization
• Lasted for approximately 2,000 years.
• The people are known for their works in astronomy.
• They incorporated their advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples and
other religious structures.
• This allows them to use their temples for astronomical observation.
a. For example, the pyramid at Chichen Itza in Mexico is situated at the
location of the Sun during the spring and fall equinoxes.
b. La Piramide, known as the Temple of Kukulcan, is a Mesoamerican step pyramid
that dominates the center of the Chichen Itza archaeological site in the Mexican state of Yucatan.
• The Mayans have advanced knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies as evidenced by their
predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles in planting and harvesting.
• They measured time using two complicated calendar systems that were very useful for planning their
activities and in observing their religious rituals and cultural celebrations.
• They developed the technology for growing different crops and building elaborate cities using ordinary
machineries and tools.
• They built hydraulics system with sophisticated waterways to supply water to different communities.
• They used various tools and adapted themselves to innovations especially in the arts.
• They loom for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from mineral called mica.
• They are also believed to be one of the first people to produce rubber products 3,000 years before
Goodyear received its patent in the year 1844.
• Considered one of the most scientifically advanced societies in Mesoamerica, they were one of the
world’s first civilizations to use a writing system known as the Mayan hieroglyphics.
• They were also skilled in mathematics and created a number system based on the numeral 20.
• They independently developed the concept of zero and positional value, even before the Romans did.
Mayan Numerical System Mayan Calendar

The Inca civilization
• Is also famous in Mesoamerica.
• The Incas made advanced scientific ideas considering their limitations as an old civilization.
• They developed the following scientific ideas and tools for everyday life:
1. roads paved with stones;
2. stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;
3. irrigation system/technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all
land types;
4. calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and
preparation for planting;
5. the first suspension bridge;
6. quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; and
7. Inca textiles since cloth were one of the specially prized artistic achievements.
The Aztec civilization
• Made substantial contribution to science and technology and to the society as a whole.
• Aztec Empire in 1519. The Aztec civilization flourished and dominated central Mexico in the post-classic
period from 1300-1521. Aztec culture was organized into city-states some of which joined to form
alliances, political confederations, or empires.
Pyramid of the Sun: The Teotihuacan pyramids are some of the largest of their kind in the
Americas. Ancient Teotihuacanos constructed the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the
Moon in the year 100 C.E., centuries before the Aztec had arrived in Teotihuacan. These marvels
still stand at an incredible height of around 65 meters (213 feet) and 43 meters (141 feet)
Some of their contributions are:
1. Mandatory education. The Aztec puts value on education; that is why their children are mandated
to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or age. It is an early form of universal or
inclusive education.
2. Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. In the Mayan culture,
they used it as currency. The Aztec valued the cacao beans highly and made it as part of their
tribute to their gods.
3. Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that could prevent
muscle spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery.
4. Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the land was divided
into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.
5. Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities rituals, and planting season.
6. Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.
7. Gardens in the lake. Aztec managed it by creating floating gardens known as chinampas, then they
farmed them intensively. These ingenious creations were built up from the lake bed by piling
layers of mud, decaying vegetation and reeds.
Quipus, or talking knots, were
record-keeping devices for
ancient Andean civilizations.

Development of Science in Asia
• Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many ancient civilizations.
• It is a host to many cultural, economic, scientific, and political activities of all ages.
• In the field of science, technology, and mathematics, great civilizations have stood out:
• India, China, and the Middle East civilizations.
• These civilizations were incomparable in terms of their contributions to the development of knowledge
during their time.
India
• India is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and fortified by huge mountains in its northern
boarders.
• The Indian creatively developed manufacturing iron and metallurgical works.
• Their iron steel is considered to be the best and held with high regards in the whole of Roman Empire.
• India is also famous in medicine. For example, Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine that originated
in ancient India before 2500 BC, is still practiced as a form of alternative medicine.
• They discovered medicinal properties of plants and developed medicines for various illnesses.
• Some ancient texts, like the Susruta Samhita, describe different surgical and other medical procedures
famous in Ancient India.
• Ancient India is notable in the field of astronomy especially developing theories on the configuration of the
universe, the spherical self-supporting Earth, and the year of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30 days each.
• Ancient India is also known for its mathematics - the earliest traces of evidence found in the Indian
subcontinent, the Indus Valley Civilization.
• The people of this civilization tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy and
designed a ruler, the Mohenjodaro ruler.
• Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476-550 AD), in his Aryabhatiya, introduced a number
of trigonometric functions, tables, and techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra.
• In 628 AD, another Indian, Brahmagupta, suggested that gravity was a force of attraction, and clearly
explained the use of zero as both a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used
universally throughout the world.
China
• China is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in medicine, astronomy, Science,
mathematics, arts, philosophy, and music.
• Chinese civilizations have greatly influenced many of its neighbor countries like Korea, Japan, Philippines,
Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, and other countries that belong to the old Silk Road.
• The Chinese are known for traditional medicines, their products of centuries of experiences and discovery
of various medical properties and uses of different plants and animals to cure human illness.
• An example is the practice of acupuncture.
• In terms of technology, the Chinese are known to develop many tools. Among their famous
discoveries/inventions were the compass, papermaking, gunpowder, and printing tools that became known
in the west only by the end of the Middle Ages.
• They invented other tools like the iron plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller.
• They developed a design of different models of bridges, invented the first seismological detector, and
developed a dry dock facility.
• In the field of astronomy, the Chinese made significant records on supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and
comets, which were carefully recorded and preserved to understand better the heavenly bodies and their
effects to our world.
• They observed the heavenly bodies to understand weather changes and seasons that may affect their daily
activities.
• They also used lunar calendars.

• The Chinese are well-known in seismology that made them more prepared in times of natural calamities.
They also made overwhelming contributions in mathematics, logic, philosophy, and medicine. However,
cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into modern science. It may have
been due to the religious and philosophical framework of Chinese intellectuals that made them unable to
accept the ideas of laws of nature.
Middle East Countries
• The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims. With the spread of Islam in the 7th to 8th
centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship (called the Golden Age of Islam) lasted until the 13th century.
• The common language of Arabic, access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, and their proximity to
India were contributory to the intellectualization of the Muslims and provided their scholars knowledge to
create innovations and develop new ideas.
• But contrary to the Greeks, Muslim scientists placed greater value on science experiments rather than plain-
thought experiments.
• This led to the development of the scientific method in the Muslim world, and made significant
improvements by using experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a
generally empirical orientation.
• A Muslim scientist, named Ibn al-Haytham, is also regarded as the “Father of Optics”, especially for his
empirical proof of the intromission theory of light.
• In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of
the algorithm while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his
publications.
• What is now known as the Arabic Numeral System originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians
made several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation.
• Muslim chemists and alchemists also had important role in the foundation of modern chemistry. In
particular, some scholars considered Jabir ibn Hayyan to be the “Father of Chemistry”.
• In the field of medicine, Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first
physician to conduct clinical trials.
• His two most notable works in medicine, the Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, were used as
standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe during the 17th century. Among his many
contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases and the introduction of
clinical pharmacology.
Al-jbr
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

Development of Science in Africa
• Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources.
• Science also emerged in it long before the Europeans colonized it.
• The history of science and mathematics show that similar to other
ancient civilizations, the early civilizations in Africa are also knowledge producers.
• The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed immensely and made significant advances in the field of
astronomy, mathematics and medicine.
• For example, the development of geometry was a product of necessity to preserve the layout and ownership
of farmlands of the Egyptians
living along the Nile River.
• The rules of geometry were developed and used
to build rectilinear structures, such as the post of
lintel architecture of Egypt.
• These early science activities in Egypt were
developed to improve the quality of life of the
Egyptians especially in building their early homes
and cities.
• The great structures of the Egyptian pyramids and the early dams built to divert water from the Nile River
are some proofs of their advanced civilization.
• Egypt (considered a transcontinental country) was known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as the
medieval forerunner of chemistry.
• The Egyptians tried to study human anatomy and pharmacology,
and applied important components such as examination, diagnosis,
treatment, and prognosis for the treatment of diseases.
• These components displayed strong parallels to the basic empirical method of
studying science.
• Astronomy was famous in the African region.
• For instance, documents show that Africans used three types of calendars: lunar, solar, and stellar, or a
combination of the three.
• Metallurgy was also known in the African regions during the ancient times.
• North Africa and the Nile Valley imported iron technology from the Near East region that enabled them to
benefit from the developments during the Bronze Age until the Iron Age.
• They invented metal tools used in their homes, in agriculture, and in building their magnificent
architectures.
• Mathematics was also known to be prominent in the life of early people in the African continent.
• The Lebombo Bone from the mountains between Swaziland and South Africa, which may have been a tool
for multiplication, division, and simple mathematical calculation or a six-month lunar calendar, is
considered to be the oldest known mathematical artifact dated from 35,000 BCE.
• The Ishango bone, discovered at the "Fisherman Settlement" of Ishango in the Democratic Republic of
Congo, is a bone tool and possible mathematical device that dates to the Upper Paleolithic era

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND NATION-BUILDING
Brief Historical Background of Science and Technology in the Philippines
• S&T in the Philippines started way back before the country gained its
• independence from the American colonizers.
• Before the coming of the Spanish colonizers, the early inhabitants of the
archipelago had their own culture and traditions.
• They had their own belief system and indigenous knowledge system that
• keeps them organized and sustained their lives and communities for many
years.
• Science, in pre-Spanish Philippines, is embedded in the way of life of the
people. Scientific knowledge is observed in the way they plant their crops that provide them food, in
taking care of animals to help them in their daily tasks, and food production.
• Science is observed in the way they interpret the movement of
heavenly bodies to predict seasons and climates, and in
organizing days into months and years.
• They used science in preparing the soil for agriculture purposes
and like any other ancient cultures, they discovered the
medicinal uses of plants.
• Technology is used by people in building houses, irrigations, and in developing tools that they can use
in everyday life.
• They developed tools for planting, hunting, cooking, and fishing; for fighting their enemies during war
or tribal conflicts; and for transportation, both on land and on waterways.
• They also developed technologies in creating musical instruments.
• The different archeological artifacts discovered in different parts of the
country also prove that the metal age also had a significant influence
on the lives of early Filipinos.
• The sophisticated designs of gold and silver jewelry, ceramic and
metal tools proved that their technological ideas helped in the
development of different tools.
• Also, trading with China, Indonesia, Japan, and
other nearby countries have influenced their lives
by providing different opportunities for
cultural and technological exchange.

• All these ancient practices in S&T are considered now as indigenous science or folk science.
• When the Spaniards colonized the country, they brought with them their own culture and practices.
• They established schools for boys and girls and introduced the concept of subjects and disciplines.
• It was the beginning of formal science and technology
in the country, known now as school of science and
technology.
• Learning of science in school focuses on understanding
different concepts related to the human body, plants,
animals, and heavenly bodies.
• Technology focuses on using developing house tools used
in everyday life.
• Life during the Spanish era slowly became modernized,
adapting some Western technology and their ways of life.
• The Filipinos developed ways to replicate the technology
brought by the Spaniards using indigenous materials.
• Medicine and advanced science were introduced in formal
colleges and universities established by the Catholic orders.
• The galleon trade has brought additional technology and
development in the Philippines.
• Although it is only beneficial for the Spaniards, these trades allowed other ideas, crops, tools, cultural
practices, technology and western practices to reach the country.
• Some Filipino students who were able to study in Europe also contributed in the advancement of
medicine, engineering, arts, music and literature in the country.
• The Philippines, being one of the centers of global trade in the Southeast Asia during that time, was
considered to be one of the most developed places in the region.
• Although the country is blessed with these developments, the superstitious beliefs of the people and the
Catholic doctrines and practices during the Spanish era halted the growth of science in the country.
• The Americans have more influence in the development of S&T in the Philippines compared to the
Spaniards.
• They established the public education system and improved the engineering works and the health
conditions of the people.
• They established a modern research university, the University of the Philippines, and created more
public hospitals than the former colonial master.
• The mineral resources of the country were explored and exploited during the American times.
• Transportation and communication systems were improved, though not accessible throughout the
country.
• The Americans did everything to “Americanize” the Philippines.
• They reorganized the learning of science and introduced it in
public and private schools.
• In basic education, science education focuses on nature studies
and science and sanitation, until it became a subject formally
known as “Science”.
• The teaching of science in higher education has also greatly improved and modernized.
• Researches were done to control malaria, cholera, and tuberculosis and other tropical diseases.
• The American scholars also introduced new knowledge and technology in the country.
• The Protestant church missions in different places in the country also brought hospitals and schools to
far-flung areas. Little by little, these efforts built a strong foundation for S & T in the country.
• World War II, however, destabilized the development of the country in many ways.
• Institutions, public facilities, and houses and lives were destroyed.
• The country had a difficult time to rebuild the ruins of the war.

• The human spirit to survive and to rebuild the country may be strong but the capacity of the country to
rebuild was limited.
• The reparation funds focused on building some institutions and public facilities like schools, hospitals,
and transportation systems.
• The reparation money from Japan was also concentrated on building highways and in providing
technological training and human resource development in the country.
• Since the establishment of the new republic, the whole nation has been focusing its limited resources to
improve its S&T capability.
• It has explored the use of Overseas Development Allocations
(ODA) from different countries to help the country improve its
S&T productivity and capability.
• Human resource development focused on producing more
engineers, scientists, technology experts, doctors, and other
professionals.
• The development of S & T in the Philippines, based on its brief history, is shaped by several factors
and influences.
• Like in the history of science in other countries, it is always shaped by human and social activities,
both internal and external.
• Science and technology (S&T) may have significant impact on the lives of the people and in the
development of the Philippine society.
• However, improving the quality of science education still
remains a big challenge in the country.
• School science from basic education to graduate
education is improving slowly, and there are only few
students enrolling in S & T courses.

Government Policies on Science and Technology (S&T)
The Philippine government introduced and implemented several programs, projects, and policies to boost the
area of S&T.
The goal is to prepare the whole country and its people to meet the demands of a technologically driven world
and capacitate the people to live in a world driven by science.
In response to the ASEAN 2015 Agenda, the government through the Department of Science and Technology
(DOST) and with the expertise of the National Research Council of the Philippines (NRCP), the Philippines was
prepared to meet the ASEAN 2015 Goals.
As a result, to improve the competitiveness of the Philippines in the ASEAN Region, NRCP recommended the
following policies and programs, clustered into four, namely:
1. Social Sciences, Humanities, Education, International Policies and Governance
a. Integrating ASEAN awareness in basic education without adding to the curriculum.
b. Emphasizing teaching in mother tongue.
c. Developing school infrastructure and providing for ICT broadband.
d. Local food security.
2. Physics, Engineering and Industrial Research. Earth and Space Sciences, and Mathematics
a. Emphasizing degrees, licenses, and employment opportunities.
b. Outright grants for peer monitoring.
c. Review of R.A. 9184
d. Harnessing science and technology as an independent mover of development.
3. Medical. Chemical, and Pharmaceutical Sciences
a. Ensuring compliance of drug-manufacturing firms with ASEAN- harmonized standards by
full implementation of the Food and Drug Administration
b. Creating an education council dedicated to standardization of pharmaceutical services and
care
c. Empowering food and drug agencies to conduct evidence-based research as pool of
information
d. Allocating two percent of the GDP to research
e. Legislating a law supporting human genome projects
4. Biological Sciences, Agriculture, and Forestry
a. Protecting and conserving biodiversity by full implementation of existing laws
b. Use of biosafety and standard model by ASEAN countries
c. Promoting indigenous knowledge systems and indigenous people’s conservation
d. Formulation of common food and safety standards
There are also other existing programs supported by the Philippine Government through the DOST. Some of
these projects are the following:

1. Providing funds for basic research and patents related to S&T. The government funds basic
and applied researches. Funding of these research and projects are also from the Overseas
Development Aid (ODA) from different countries.
2. Providing scholarships for undergraduate and graduate students in the field of S&T. This in
line with the country’s needs to produce more doctoral graduates in the fields of S&T, and
produce more research in these fields, including engineering (Saloma, 2015).
3. Establishing more branches of the Philippine Science High School System for training young
Filipinos in the field of science and technology.
4. Creating science and technology parks to encourage academe and industry partnerships.
5. Balik-Scientist Program to encourage Filipino scientists abroad to come home and work in the
Philippines or conduct research and projects in collaboration with Philippine-based scientists.
6. Developing science and technology parks in academic campuses to encourage academe and
industry partnerships.
7. The establishment of the National Science Complex and National Engineering Complex
within the University of the Philippines campus in Diliman. These aimed to develop more
science and technology and engineering manpower resources needed by the country. They
also aimed to produce more researches in these fields.
The Philippine-American Academy of Science and Engineering (PAASE) identified several capacity-building
programs such as:
1. Establishment of national centers of excellence Manpower and institutional development programs,
such as the Engineering and Science Education Program (ESEP) to produce more PhD graduates in
science and engineering
2. Establishment of regional centers to support specific industries that will lead the country in different
research and development areas
3. Establishment of S&T business centers to assist, advise, and incubate technopreneurship ventures
4. Strengthening science education at an early stage through the Philippine Science High School system.
In the field of education, several science-related programs and projects were created to develop the scientific
literacy in the country.
1. Special science classes were organized and special science elementary schools were established in
different regions. Aside from these, science and mathematics in basic education were continuously
improved. The current K to 12 education program included Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics (STEM) as one of its major tracks in the senior high school program to encourage more
students to enroll in science-related fields in college.
2. The Commission on Higher Education, lately, launched its Philippine California Advanced Research
Institutes (PICARI) Project to allow several higher education institutions in the Philippines and some
US-based laboratories, research institutes, and universities to work on research and projects related to
science, agriculture, engineering, health, and technology. This project is hoped to strengthen the STEM
competitiveness of the country.
3. The many other areas and fields that the country is looking forward to embark various researches and
projects include the following:
1. Use of alternative and safe energy
2. Harnessing mineral resources
3. Finding cure for various diseases and illness
4. Climate change and Global warming
5. Increasing food production
6. Preservation of natural resources

7. Coping with natural disasters and calamities
8. Infrastructure development
Famous Filipinos in the Field of Science
1. Ramon Cabanos Barba – Outstanding research on tissue culture in the Philippine mangoes.
2. Josefino Cacas Comiso – works on observing the characteristics of Antarctica by using satellite images.
3. Jose Bejar Cruz Jr. – known internationally in the field of electrical engineering; was elected as officer
of the famous Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
4. Lourdes Jansuy Cruz – notable research on sea snail venom
5. Fabian Millar Dayrit – research in herbal medicine
6. Rafael Dineros Guerrero III – research on tilapia culture
7. Enrique Mapua Ostrea Jr. – investing the meconium drug testing
8. Lilian Formalejo Patena – research on plant biotechnology
9. Mari-Jo Panganiban Ruiz – outstanding educator and graph theorist
10. Gregory Ligot Tangonan – research in the field of communications technology
11. Caesar A. Saloma – internationally renowned in physics
12. Edgardo Gomez – in marine science
13. William Padolina – in chemistry and president of National Academy of Science and Technology
(NAST) – Philippines
14. Angel Alcala – in marine science
• School science is filled with names of foreign scientists: Einstein, Galileo Galilei, Newton, Faraday,
Darwin, and many other Western scientists.
• Filipino scientists are rarely heard of being discussed in science classes.
• Filipino scientists who have made significant contributions in Philippine science are also famous
abroad especially in different science disciplines: agriculture, mathematics, physics, medicine, marine
science, chemistry, engineering, and biology.
• These are outstanding Filipino scientists who significantly upgraded Philippine science.
• There are other more scientists in the Philippines who are not mentioned in the list.

• Yet, the Philippines still need more scientists and engineers, and there is a need to support scientific
research in the country.
• The University of the Philippines-Los Baños is a science paradise for agriculture, forestry, plant and
animal sciences, and veterinary science. It has produced numerous scientists and various researches in
the fields mentioned.
• The University of the Philippines Visayas is also a national center for marine science, fisheries, and
other related sciences.
• The University of the Philippines-Manila is a center of excellence and has produced many researchers,
doctors, health professionals, and scientists in the area of medical and public health.
• The University of the Philippines-Diliman also has established a national science and engineering
complex to develop more research and produce more scientists and engineers in the country.
• The government must find ways to establish more research laboratories and research institutes.
• There is also a need to find ways how their researches are disseminated to the public.
• Many of these Filipino scientists are products of good school science.
• It means they were taught and inspired by great teachers.
• Their interest in science started to manifest during their childhood years.
• Their natural environment ignited their curiosity to learn more about the natural and physical
environment.
• Schools and the laboratories where they studied and worked nurtured this.
• Many Filipino scientists, whether they are in the country or abroad, always excel in their job.
• The Filipino spirit in their souls has never faded.
• They continue to bring honor to the country. They make ordinary things in an extraordinary way.
• They are always at par with other scientists in spite of the limited facilities we have here in the country.

The Concept of Science Education
• Science education focuses on teaching, learning, and understanding science.
• Teaching science involves developing ways on how to effectively teach science.
• This means exploring pedagogical theories and models in helping teachers teach scientific concepts and
processes effectively.
• Learning science is helping the students understand and love science.
• Understanding science implies developing and applying science-process skills and using science
literacy in understanding the natural world and activities in everyday life.
• The importance of utilizing the natural environment to teach students is stressed. Nature must furnish
its physical stimuli to provide wealth of meaning through social activities and thinking. Science is
going to be one of the most important school subjects in the future.
• Science education is justified by the vast amount of scientific knowledge developed in this area that
prepares citizens in an S&T driven world.
• It provides skills and knowledge needed by a person to live in the age of science and to develop a
citizenry that meets the goals of science in the society.
• It is the schools’ immense responsibility to develop science culture.
Science Education in Basic and Tertiary Education
• In basic education, science education helps students learn important concepts and facts that are related
to everyday life including important skills such as process skills, critical thinking skills, and life skills
that are needed to cope with daily life activities.
• It develops positive attitudes such as; the love for knowledge, passion for innovative things, curiosity to
study about nature, and creativity.
• It develops a strong foundation for studying science and for considering science related careers in the
future.
• In tertiary education, science education deals with developing students’ understanding and appreciation
of science ideas and scientific woks.
• This is done through offering basic science courses in the General Education Curriculum.
• Science education in the tertiary level also focuses on the preparation of science teachers, scientists,
engineers, and other professionals in various science related fields such as engineering, agriculture,
medicine, and health sciences.
• The state provides scholarships to encourage more students to pursue science courses.

Science Schools in the Philippines
• One outstanding program for science education supported by the government is the establishment of
science schools in various parts of the country.
Philippine Science High School Systems (PSHSS)
• This is a government program for gifted students in the Philippines.
• It is a service institute of the Department of Science and Technology
(DOST) whose mandate is to offer free scholarship basic for secondary
course with special emphasis on subjects pertaining its students for a
science career (Republic Act No. 3661).
• The school maintains a dormitory for all its students.
Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) Project
• The Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) Project is in pursuance to DepEd Order No. 73 s.
2008, and DepEd Order No. 51 s. 2010.
• This project started in June 2007 with 57 identified elementary schools that participated or were
identified as science elementary schools in the country.
• Since its inception, the number has grown to more than 60 schools nationwide and this is now its sixth
year of implementation.
• The SSES Project aims to develop Filipino children equipped with scientific and technological
knowledge, skills, and values.
Its mission is to:
1. Provide a learning environment to science-inclined children through a special
curriculum that recognizes the multiple intelligences of the learners;
2. Promote the development of lifelong learning skills; and
3. Foster the holistic development of the learners.
• The subject Science and Health is taught in Grade 1 with a longer time compared to other subjects:
1. 70 minutes for Grades 1 to III and
2. 80 minutes for Grades IV to VI.
Manila Science High School
• Established on October 1, 1963 as the Manila Science High School (MSHS), it is the first science high
school in the Philippines.
• The curriculum of the school puts more emphasis on science and mathematics.
• MSHS aims to produce scientists with soul.
• The school administers an entrance exam, the Manila Science High School Admission Test (MSAT),
for students who wish to enroll.
The MSAT has five parts:
• aptitude in science,
• aptitude in mathematics,
• problem-solving test in science,
• problem-solving test in mathematics, and
• proficiency in English.
•
Central Visayan Institute Foundation
• It is the home and pioneer of the prominent school-based innovation known as the Dynamic Learning
Program (DLP).
• The DLP is a synthesis of classical and modern pedagogical theories adapted to foster the highest level
of learning, creativity, and productivity.
• The school takes pride in its Research Center for Theoretical Physics (RCTP) established in 1992.

INDIGENOUS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES
Indigenous Knowledge System
• The lessons they learned are intimately interwoven with their culture and their environment.
• These lessons comprise good values and life stories of people in their daily life struggles.
• Their views about their nature and their reflections on their experiences in daily life are evident in their
stories, poems and songs.
SOME EXAMPLES OF Indigenous TALENTS THAT ARE TAUGHT AND PRACTICED BY THE
INDIGENOUS PEOPLE:
1. Predicting weather conditions and seasons using knowledge in observing animal’s behavior and
celestial bodies;
2. Using herbal medicine;
3. Preserving foods;
4. Classifying plants and animals into families and groups based on cultural properties;
5. Preserving and selecting good seeds for planting;
6. Preserving and selecting good seeds for planting;
7. Using indigenous technology in daily lives;
8. Building local irrigation systems;
9. Classifying different types of soil for planting based on cultural properties;
10. Producing wines and juices from tropical fruits; and,
11. Keeping the custom of growing plants and vegetables in the yard.
Indigenous Science
• Indigenous science is part of indigenous knowledge system practiced by different groups of people and
early civilizations.
• It includes complex arrays of knowledge, expertise, practices and representations that guide human
societies in their enumerable interactions with the natural milieu; agriculture, medicine, naming and
explaining natural phenomena, and strategies for coping with changing environments. It is collectively
lived in and experienced by the people of a given culture.
Traditional farming practices in
Sarangani Province, the Philippines.
A, Blaan and T’boli botne (makeshift
wooden altar); B, Blaan amlah or
planting ceremony; C, Blaan women
during harvest ( tuke fali ); D, Blaan fol
(storage hut); E, Rice panicles stored in
farmers ’ houses; F, Seeds are stored in
baskets made from wood bark stuffed
with dried grasses.
Indigenous people attending school

• Indigenous science includes everything, from metaphysics to philosophy and various practical
technologies practiced by indigenous peoples both past and present. Science is a part of culture, and
how science is done largely depends on the cultural practices of the people.
• Indigenous beliefs also develop desirable values that are relevant or consistent to scientific attitudes,
namely:
1. motivating attitudes;
2. cooperating attitudes;
3. practical attitudes; and
4. reflective attitudes.
• These cultural beliefs therefore can be good foundation for developing positive values toward learning
and doing science and in bringing science in a personal level.
• Indigenous science knowledge has developed diverse structures and contents through the interplay
between the society and the environment.
• Developmental stages of most sciences are characterized by continual competition between a
number of distinct views of nature, each partially derived from, and all roughly compatible with the
dictates of scientific observation and method.
• It provides the basis of astronomy, pharmacology, food technology, or metallurgy, which were
derived from traditional knowledge and practices.
• A simple framework is developed for understanding indigenous science. Indigenous science is
composed of traditional knowledge that uses science process skills and guided by community values
and culture.
• Indigenous science uses science process skills such as observing, comparing, classifying, measuring,
problem solving, interfering, communicating and predicting.
• Indigenous science is guided by culture and community values such as the following:
1. The land is a source of life. It is a precious gift from the creator.
2. The Earth is revered as “Mother Earth.” It is the origin of their identity as people.
3. All living and nonliving things are interconnected and interdependent with each other.
4. Human beings are stewards or trustee of the land and other natural resources.
5. They have a responsibility to preserve it.
6. Nature is a friend to human beings- it needs respect and proper care.
• Even before the time of Spanish colonization in the Philippines, various people and communities
already practiced science.
• They invented tools and built structures, studied the medicinal uses of plants, observed heavenly bodies
to predict seasons and weather, and used indigenous science in agriculture.
• These are considered indigenous science, which is one of the foundations of modern science.

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