11From Introductions to ConclusionsDrafting an EssayIn this chap

11From Introductions to ConclusionsDrafting an Essay
In this chapter, we describe strategies for crafting introductions
that set up your argument. We then describe the characteristics
of well-formulated paragraphs that will help you build your
argument. Finally, we provide you with some strategies for
writing conclusions that reinforce what is new about your
argument, what is at stake, and what readers should do with the
knowledge you convey
DRAFTING INTRODUCTIONS
The introduction is where you set up your argument. It’s where
you identify a widely held assumption, challenge that
assumption, and state your thesis. Writers use a number of
strategies to set up their arguments. In this section we look at
five of them:
· Moving from a general topic to a specific thesis (inverted-
triangle introduction)
· Introducing the topic with a story (narrative introduction)
· Beginning with a question (interrogative introduction)
· Capturing readers’ attention with something unexpected
(paradoxical introduction)
· Identifying a gap in knowledge (minding-the-gap introduction)
Remember that an introduction need not be limited to a single
paragraph. It may take several paragraphs to effectively set up
your argument.
Keep in mind that you have to make these strategies your own.
That is, we can suggest models, but you must make them work
for your own argument. You must imagine your readers and
what will engage them. What tone do you want to take? Playful?
Serious? Formal? Urgent? The attitude you want to convey will
depend on your purpose, your argument, and the needs of your
audience.◼ The Inverted-Triangle Introduction
An inverted-triangle introduction, like an upside-down triangle,
is broad at the top and pointed at the base. It begins with a

general statement of the topic and then narrows its focus,
ending with the point of the paragraph (and the triangle), the
writer’s thesis. We can see this strategy at work in the
following introduction from a student’s essay. The student
writer (1) begins with a broad description of the problem she
will address, (2) then focuses on a set of widely held but
troublesome assumptions, and (3) finally, presents her thesis in
response to what she sees as a pervasive problem.
The paragraph reads, “In today’s world, many believe that
education’s sole purpose is to communicate information for
students to store and draw on as necessary. By storing this
information, students hope to perform well on tests. Good test
scores assure good grades. Good grades eventually lead to
acceptances into good colleges, which ultimately guarantee
good jobs. Many teachers and students, convinced that
education exists as a tool to secure good jobs, rely on the
banking system. In her essay “Teaching to Transgress,” bell
hooks defines the banking system as an “approach to learning
that is rooted in the notion that all students need to do is
consume information fed to them by a professor and be able to
memorize and store it” (185). Through the banking system,
students focus solely on facts, missing the important themes and
life lessons available in classes and school materials. The
banking system misdirects the fundamental goals of education.
Education’s true purpose is to prepare students for the real
world by allowing them access to pertinent life knowledge
available in their studies. Education should then entice students
to apply this pertinent life knowledge to daily life struggles
through praxis. In addition to her definition of the banking
system, hooks offers the idea of praxis from the work of Paulo
Freire. When incorporated into education, praxis, or “action and
reflection upon the world in order to change it” (185), offers an
advantageous educational tool that enhances the true purpose of
education and overcomes the banking system.”
The annotation marking the sentences, “In today’s world, many

believe that education’s sole purpose is to communicate
information for students to store and draw on as necessary. By
storing this information, students hope to perform well on tests.
Good test scores assure good grades. Good grades eventually
lead to acceptances into good colleges, which ultimately
guarantee good jobs” reads, “The student begins with a general
set of assumptions about education that she believes people
readily accept.”
The annotation marking the sentences, “In her essay “Teaching
to Transgress,” bell hooks defines the banking system as an
“approach to learning that is rooted in the notion that all
students need to do is consume information fed to them by a
professor and be able to memorize and store it” (185)”
The annotation marking the sentences, “The banking system
misdirects the fundamental goals of education. Education’s true
purpose is to prepare students for the real world by allowing
them access to pertinent life knowledge available in their
studies. Education should then entice students to apply this
pertinent life knowledge to daily life struggles through praxis.
In addition to her definition of the banking system, hooks offers
the idea of praxis from the work of Paulo Freire. When
incorporated into education, praxis, or “action and reflection
upon the world in order to change it” (185), offers an
advantageous educational…” reads, “The student then points to
the banking system as the problem. This sets up her thesis about
the “true purpose” of education.”
The paragraph reads, “In today’s world, many believe that
education’s sole purpose is to communicate information for
students to store and draw on as necessary. By storing this
information, students hope to perform well on tests. Good test
scores assure good grades. Good grades eventually lead to
acceptances into good colleges, which ultimately guarantee
good jobs. Many teachers and students, convinced that
education exists as a tool to secure good jobs, rely on the
banking system. In her essay “Teaching to Transgress,” bell
hooks defines the banking system as an “approach to learning

that is rooted in the notion that all students need to do is
consume information fed to them by a professor and be able to
memorize and store it” (185). Through the banking system,
students focus solely on facts, missing the important themes and
life lessons available in classes and school materials. The
banking system misdirects the fundamental goals of education.
Education’s true purpose is to prepare students for the real
world by allowing them access to pertinent life knowledge
available in their studies. Education should then entice students
to apply this pertinent life knowledge to daily life struggles
through praxis. In addition to her definition of the banking
system, hooks offers the idea of praxis from the work of Paulo
Freire. When incorporated into education, praxis, or “action and
reflection upon the world in order to change it” (185), offers an
advantageous educational tool that enhances the true purpose of
education and overcomes the banking system.”
The annotation marking the sentences, “In today’s world, many
believe that education’s sole purpose is to communicate
information for students to store and draw on as necessary. By
storing this information, students hope to perform well on tests.
Good test scores assure good grades. Good grades eventually
lead to acceptances into good colleges, which ultimately
guarantee good jobs” reads, “The student begins with a general
set of assumptions about education that she believes people
readily accept.”
The annotation marking the sentences, “In her essay “Teaching
to Transgress,” bell hooks defines the banking system as an
“approach to learning that is rooted in the notion that all
students need to do is consume information fed to them by a
professor and be able to memorize and store it” (185)”
The annotation marking the sentences, “The banking system
misdirects the fundamental goals of education. Education’s true
purpose is to prepare students for the real world by allowing
them access to pertinent life knowledge available in their
studies. Education should then entice students to apply this
pertinent life knowledge to daily life struggles through praxis.

In addition to her definition of the banking system, hooks offers
the idea of praxis from the work of Paulo Freire. When
incorporated into education, praxis, or “action and reflection
upon the world in order to change it” (185), offers an
advantageous educational…” reads, “The student then points to
the banking system as the problem. This sets up her thesis about
the “true purpose” of education.”
The strategy of writing an introduction as an inverted triangle
entails first identifying an idea, an argument, or a concept that
people appear to accept as true; next, pointing out the problems
with that idea, argument, or concept; and then, in a few
sentences, setting out a thesis — how those problems can be
resolved.◼ The Narrative Introduction
Opening with a short narrative, or story, is a strategy many
writers use successfully to draw readers into a topic. A narrative
introduction relates a sequence of events and can be especially
effective if you think you need to coax indifferent or reluctant
readers into taking an interest in the topic. Of course, a
narrative introduction delays the declaration of your argument,
so it’s wise to choose a short story that clearly connects to your
argument, and get to the thesis as quickly as possible (within a
few paragraphs) before your readers start wondering “What’s
the point of this story?”
Notice how the student writer uses a narrative introduction to
her argument in her essay titled “Throwing a Punch at Gender
Roles: How Women’s Boxing Empowers Women.”
The first paragraph reads, “Glancing at my watch, I ran into the
gym, noting to myself that being late to the first day of boxing
practice was not the right way to make a good first impression. I
flew down the stairs into the basement, to the room the boxers
have lovingly dubbed “The Pit.” What greeted me when I got
there was more than I could ever have imagined. Picture a room
filled with boxing gloves of all sizes covering an entire wall, a
mirror covering another, a boxing ring in a corner, and an
awesome collection of framed newspaper and magazine articles

chronicling the boxers whose pictures were hanging on every
wall. Now picture that room with seventy-plus girls on the floor
doing push-ups, sweat dripping down their faces. I was
immediately struck by the discipline this sport would take from
me, but I had no idea I would take so much more from it.”
The annotation for this sentence reads, “The student’s entire
first paragraph is a narrative that takes us into the world of
women’s boxing and foreshadows her thesis.”
The second paragraph reads, “The university offers the only
nonmilitary-based college-level women’s boxing program in
America, and it also offers women the chance to push their
physical limits in a regulated environment. Yet the program is
plagued with disappointments. I have experienced for myself
the stereotypes female boxers face and have dealt with the harsh
reality that boxing is still widely recognized as only a men’s
sport. This paper will show that the women’s boxing program at
Notre Dame serves as a much-needed outlet for females to come
face-to-face with”
The annotation for this paragraph reads, “With her narrative as
a backdrop, the student identifies a problem, using the
transition word “yet” to mark her challenge to the conditions
she observes in the university’s women’s boxing program.”
The first paragraph reads, “Glancing at my watch, I ran into the
gym, noting to myself that being late to the first day of boxing
practice was not the right way to make a good first impression. I
flew down the stairs into the basement, to the room the boxers
have lovingly dubbed “The Pit.” What greeted me when I got
there was more than I could ever have imagined. Picture a room
filled with boxing gloves of all sizes covering an entire wall, a
mirror covering another, a boxing ring in a corner, and an
awesome collection of framed newspaper and magazine articles
chronicling the boxers whose pictures were hanging on every
wall. Now picture that room with seventy-plus girls on the floor
doing push-ups, sweat dripping down their faces. I was
immediately struck by the discipline this sport would take from
me, but I had no idea I would take so much more from it.”

The annotation for this sentence reads, “The student’s entire
first paragraph is a narrative that takes us into the world of
women’s boxing and foreshadows her thesis.”
The second paragraph reads, “The university offers the only
nonmilitary-based college-level women’s boxing program in
America, and it also offers women the chance to push their
physical limits in a regulated environment. Yet the program is
plagued with disappointments. I have experienced for myself
the stereotypes female boxers face and have dealt with the harsh
reality that boxing is still widely recognized as only a men’s
sport. This paper will show that the women’s boxing program at
Notre Dame serves as a much-needed outlet for females to come
face-to-face with”
The annotation for this paragraph reads, “With her narrative as
a backdrop, the student identifies a problem, using the
transition word “yet” to mark her challenge to the conditions
she observes in the university’s women’s boxing program.”
The paragraph reads, “…aspects of themselves they would not
typically get a chance to explore. It will also examine how
viewing this sport as a positive opportunity for women at ND
indicates that there is growing hope that very soon more
activities similar to women’s boxing may be better received by
society in general. I will accomplish these goals by analyzing
scholarly journals, old Observer [the school newspaper] articles,
and survey questions answered by the captains of the 20--
women’s boxing team of ND.”
The annotation for this sentence reads, “The writer then states
her thesis (what her paper “will show”): Despite the problems
of stereotyping, women’s boxing offers women significant
opportunities for growth.”
The paragraph reads, “…aspects of themselves they would not
typically get a chance to explore. It will also examine how
viewing this sport as a positive opportunity for women at ND
indicates that there is growing hope that very soon more
activities similar to women’s boxing may be better received by

society in general. I will accomplish these goals by analyzing
scholarly journals, old Observer [the school newspaper] articles,
and survey questions answered by the captains of the 20--
women’s boxing team of ND.”
The annotation for this sentence reads, “The writer then states
her thesis (what her paper “will show”): Despite the problems
of stereotyping, women’s boxing offers women significant
opportunities for growth.”
The student writer uses a visually descriptive narrative to
introduce us to the world of women’s college boxing; then, in
the second paragraph, she steers us toward the purpose of the
paper and the methods she will use to develop her argument
about what women’s boxing offers to young women and to the
changing world of sports.◼ The Interrogative Introduction
An interrogative introduction invites readers into the
conversation of your essay by asking one or more questions,
which the essay goes on to answer. You want to think of a
question that will pique your readers’ interest, enticing them to
read on to discover how your insights shed light on the issue.
Notice the question Daphne Spain, a professor of urban and
environmental planning, uses to open her essay “Spatial
Segregation and Gender Stratification in the Workplace.”
The paragraph reads, “To what extent do women and men who
work in different occupations also work in different space?
Baran and Teegarden propose that occupational segregation in
the insurance industry is “tantamount to spatial segregation by
gender” since managers are overwhelmingly male and clerical
staff are predominantly female. This essay examines the spatial
conditions of women’s work and men’s work and proposes that
working women and men come into daily contact with one
another very infrequently. Further, women’s jobs can be
classified as “open floor,” but men’s jobs are more likely to be
“closed door.” That is, women work in a more public
environment with less control of their space than men. This lack
of spatial control both reflects and contributes to women’s

lower occupational status by limiting opportunities for the
transfer of knowledge from men to women.”
The annotation for the sentences, “To what extent do women
and men who work in different occupations also work in
different space? Baran and Tee garden propose that
occupational segregation in the insurance industry is
“tantamount to spatial segregation by gender” since managers
are overwhelmingly male and clerical staff are predominantly
female” reads, “Spain sets up her argument by asking a question
and then tentatively answering it with a reference to a published
study.”
The annotation for the sentences, “In the third sentence, she
states her thesis – that men and women have very little contact
in the workplace” reads, “That is, women work in a more public
The paragraph reads, “To what extent do women and men who
work in different occupations also work in different space?
Baran and Teegarden propose that occupational segregation in
the insurance industry is “tantamount to spatial segregation by
gender” since managers are overwhelmingly male and clerical
staff are predominantly female. This essay examines the spatial
conditions of women’s work and men’s work and proposes that
working women and men come into daily contact with one
another very infrequently. Further, women’s jobs can be
classified as “open floor,” but men’s jobs are more likely to be
“closed door.” That is, women work in a more public
of spatial control both reflects and contributes to women’ s
The annotation for the sentences, “To what extent do women
and men who work in different occupations also work in
different space? Baran and Tee garden propose that

occupational segregation in the insurance industry is
“tantamount to spatial segregation by gender” since managers
are overwhelmingly male and clerical staff are predominantly
female” reads, “Spain sets up her argument by asking a question
and then tentatively answering it with a reference to a published
study.”
The annotation for the sentences, “In the third sentence, she
states her thesis – that men and women have very little contact
in the workplace” reads, “That is, women work in a more public
By the end of this introductory paragraph, Spain has explained
some of the terms she will use in her essay (open
floor and closed door) and has offered in her final sentence a
clear statement of her thesis.
In “Harry Potter and the Technology of Magic,” literature
scholar Elizabeth Teare begins by contextualizing the Harry
Potter publishing phenomenon. Then she raises a question about
what fueled this success story.
The paragraph reads, “The July/August 2001 issue of Book lists
J. K. Rowling as one of the ten most influential people in
publishing. She shares space on this list with John Grisham and
Oprah Winfrey, along with less famous but equally powerful
insiders in the book industry. What these industry leaders have
in common is an almost magical power to make books succeed
in the marketplace, and this magic, in addition to that performed
with wands, Rowling’s novels appear to practice. Opening
weekend sales charted like those of a blockbuster movie (not to
mention the blockbuster movie itself), the reconstruction of the
venerable New York Times bestseller lists, the creation of a
new nation’s worth of web sites in the territory of cyberspace,
and of course the legendary inspiration of tens of millions of
child readers – the Harry Potter books have transformed both

the technologies of reading and the way we understand those
technologies. What is it that makes these books – about a lonely
boy whose first act on learning he is a wizard is to go shopping
for a wand – not only an international phenomenon among
children and parents and teachers but also a topic of compelling
interest to literary, social, and cultural critics? I will argue that
the stories the books tell, as well as the stories we’re telling
about them, enact both our fantasies and our fears of children’s
literature and publishing in the context of twenty-first-century
commercial and technological culture.”
The annotation for the sentences, “The July/August 2001 issue
of Book lists J. K. Rowling as one of the ten most influential
people in publishing. She shares space on this list with John
Grisham and Oprah Winfrey, along with less famous but equally
powerful insiders in the book industry. What these industry
leaders have in common is an almost magical power to make
books succeed in the marketplace, and this magic, in addi tion to
that performed with wands, Rowling’s novels appear to practice.
Opening weekend sales charted like those of a blockbuster
movie (not to mention the blockbuster movie itself), the
reconstruction of the venerable New York Times bestseller lists,
the creation of a new nation’s worth of web sites in the territory
of cyberspace, and of course the legendary inspiration of tens of
millions of child readers – the Harry Potter books have
transformed both the technologies of reading and the way we
understand those technologies” reads, “In her first four
sentences, Teare describes something she is curious about and
she hopes readers will be curious about – the growing
popularity of the Harry Potter books.”
The annotation for the sentence, “What is it that makes these
books – about a lonely boy whose first act on learning he is a
wizard is to go shopping for a wand – not only an international
phenomenon among children and parents and teachers but also a
topic of compelling interest to literary, social, and cultur al
critics?” reads, “In the fifth sentence, Teare asks the question
she will try to answer in the rest of the essay.”

The annotation for the sentence, “I will argue that the stories
the books tell, as well as the stories we’re telling about them,
enact both our fantasies and our fears of children’s literature
and publishing in the context of twenty-first-century
commercial and technological culture” reads, “Finally, in the
last sentence, Teare offers a partial answer to her question – her
thesis.”
The paragraph reads, “The July/August 2001 issue of Book lists
J. K. Rowling as one of the ten most influential people in
publishing. She shares space on this list with John Grisham and
Oprah Winfrey, along with less famous but equally powerful
insiders in the book industry. What these industry leaders have
in common is an almost magical power to make books succeed
in the marketplace, and this magic, in addition to that performed
with wands, Rowling’s novels appear to practice. Opening
weekend sales charted like those of a blockbuster movie (not to
mention the blockbuster movie itself), the reconstruction of the
venerable New York Times bestseller lists, the creation of a
new nation’s worth of web sites in the territory of cyberspace,
and of course the legendary inspiration of tens of millions of
child readers – the Harry Potter books have transformed both
the technologies of reading and the way we understand those
technologies. What is it that makes these books – about a lonely
boy whose first act on learning he is a wizard is to go shopping
for a wand – not only an international phenomenon among
children and parents and teachers but also a topic of compelling
interest to literary, social, and cultural critics? I will argue that
the stories the books tell, as well as the stories we’re telling
about them, enact both our fantasies and our fears of children’s
literature and publishing in the context of twenty-first-century
commercial and technological culture.”
The annotation for the sentences, “The July/August 2001 issue
of Book lists J. K. Rowling as one of the ten most influential
people in publishing. She shares space on this list with John
Grisham and Oprah Winfrey, along with less famous but equally
powerful insiders in the book industry. What these industry

leaders have in common is an almost magical power to make
books succeed in the marketplace, and this magic, in addition to
that performed with wands, Rowling’s novels appear to practice.
Opening weekend sales charted like those of a blockbuster
movie (not to mention the blockbuster movie itself), the
reconstruction of the venerable New York Times bestseller lists,
the creation of a new nation’s worth of web sites in the territory
of cyberspace, and of course the legendary inspiration of tens of
millions of child readers – the Harry Potter books have
transformed both the technologies of reading and the way we
understand those technologies” reads, “In her first four
sentences, Teare describes something she is curious about and
she hopes readers will be curious about – the growing
popularity of the Harry Potter books.”
The annotation for the sentence, “What is it that makes these
books – about a lonely boy whose first act on learning he is a
wizard is to go shopping for a wand – not only an international
phenomenon among children and parents and teachers but also a
topic of compelling interest to literary, social, and cultural
critics?” reads, “In the fifth sentence, Teare asks the question
she will try to answer in the rest of the essay.”
The annotation for the sentence, “I will argue that the stories
the books tell, as well as the stories we’re telling about them,
enact both our fantasies and our fears of children’s literature
and publishing in the context of twenty-first-century
commercial and technological culture” reads, “Finally, in the
last sentence, Teare offers a partial answer to her question – her
thesis.”
In the final two sentences of the introduction, Teare raises her
question about the root of this “international phenomenon” and
then offers her thesis. By the end of the opening paragraph,
then, the reader knows exactly what question is driving Teare’s
essay and the answer she proposes to explain throughout the
essay.◼ The Paradoxical Introduction
A paradoxical introduction appeals to readers’ curiosity by
pointing out an aspect of the topic that runs counter to their

expectations. Just as an interrogative introduction draws readers
in by asking a question, a paradoxical introduction draws
readers in by saying, in effect, “Here’s something completely
surprising and unlikely about this issue, but my essay will go on
to show you how it is true.” In this passage from “ ‘Holding
Back’: Negotiating a Glass Ceiling on Women’s Muscular
Strength,” sociologist Shari L. Dworkin points to a paradox in
our commonsense understanding of bodies as the product of
biology, not culture.
The paragraph reads, “Current work in gender studies points to
how “when examined closely, much of what we take for granted
about gender and its causes and effects either does not hold up,
or can be explained differently.” These arguments become
especially contentious when confronting nature/ culture debates
on gendered bodies. After all, “common sense” frequently tells
us that flesh and blood bodies are about biology. However,
bodies are also shaped and constrained through cumulative
social practices, structures of opportunity, wider cultural
meanings, and more. Paradoxically, then, when we think that we
are “really seeing” naturally sexed bodies, perhaps we are
seeing the effect of internalizing gender ideologies – carrying
out social practices – and this constructs our vision of “sexed”
bodies.”
The annotation for the sentence, “Current work in gender
studies points to how “when examined closely, much of what we
take for granted about gender and its causes and effects either
does not hold up, or can be explained differently”” reads, “In
the first sentence, Dworkin quotes from a study to identify the
thinking that she is going to challenge.”
The annotation for the sentence, “However, bodies are also
shaped and constrained through cumulative social practices,
structures of opportunity, wider cultural meanings, and more”
reads, “Notice how Dworkin signals her own position
“However” relative to commonly held assumptions.”
The annotation for the sentence, “Paradoxically, then, when we

think that we are “really seeing” naturally sexed bodies, perhaps
we are seeing the effect of internalizing gender ideologies –
carrying out social practices – and this constructs our vision of
“sexed” bodies” reads, “Dworkin ends by stating her thesis,
noting a paradox that will surprise readers.”
The paragraph reads, “Current work in gender studies points to
how “when examined closely, much of what we take for granted
about gender and its causes and effects either does not hold up,
or can be explained differently.” These arguments become
especially contentious when confronting nature/ culture debates
on gendered bodies. After all, “common sense” frequently tells
us that flesh and blood bodies are about biology. However,
bodies are also shaped and constrained through cumulative
social practices, structures of opportunity, wider cultural
meanings, and more. Paradoxically, then, when we think that we
are “really seeing” naturally sexed bodies, perhaps we are
seeing the effect of internalizing gender ideologies – carrying
out social practices – and this constructs our vision of “sexed”
bodies.”
The annotation for the sentence, “Current work in gender
studies points to how “when examined closely, much of what we
take for granted about gender and its causes and effects either
does not hold up, or can be explained differently”” reads, “In
the first sentence, Dworkin quotes from a study to identify the
thinking that she is going to challenge.”
The annotation for the sentence, “However, bodies are also
shaped and constrained through cumulative social practices,
structures of opportunity, wider cultural meanings, and more”
reads, “Notice how Dworkin signals her own position
“However” relative to commonly held assumptions.”
The annotation for the sentence, “Paradoxically, then, when we
think that we are “really seeing” naturally sexed bodies, perhaps
we are seeing the effect of internalizing gender ideologies –
carrying out social practices – and this constructs our vision of
“sexed” bodies” reads, “Dworkin ends by stating her thesis,
noting a paradox that will surprise readers.”

Dworkin’s strategy in the first three sentences is to describe
common practice, the understanding that bodies are biological.
Then, in the sentences beginning “However” and
“Paradoxically,” she advances the surprising idea that our
bodies — not just the clothes we wear, for example — carry
cultural gender markers. Her essay then goes on to examine
women’s weight lifting and the complex motives driving many
women to create a body that is perceived as muscular but not
masculine.◼ The Minding-the-Gap Introduction
This type of introduction takes its name from the British train
system, the voice on the loudspeaker that intones “Mind the
gap!” at every stop, to call riders’ attention to the gap between
the train car and the platform. In a minding-the-gap
introduction, a writer calls readers’ attention to a gap in the
research on an issue and then uses the rest of the essay to fill in
the “gap.” A minding-the-gap introduction says, in effect, “Wait
a minute. There’s something missing from this conversation,
and my research and ideas will fill in this gap.”
For example, in the introductory paragraphs to their book Men’s
Lives, Michael S. Kimmel and Michael A. Messner explain how
the book is different from other books that discuss men’s lives,
and how it serves a different purpose.
The first paragraph reads, “This is a book about men. But,
unlike other books about men, which line countless library
shelves, this is a book about men as men. It is a book in which
men’s experiences are not taken for granted as we explore the
“real” and significant accomplishments of men, but a book in
which those experiences are treated as significant and important
in themselves.”
The annotation for this sentence reads, “The authors begin with
an assumption and then challenge it. A transition word “but”
signals the challenge.”
The second paragraph reads, “But what does it mean to examine
men “as men”? Most courses in a college curriculum are about
men, aren’t they? But these courses routinely deal with men

only in their public roles, so we come to know and understand
men as scientists, politicians, military figures, writers, and
philosophers. Rarely, if ever, are men understood through the
prism of gender.”
The annotation for this paragraph, “The authors follow with a
question that provokes readers’ interest and points to the gap
they summarize in the last sentence”
The first paragraph reads, “This is a book about men. But,
unlike other books about men, which line countless library
shelves, this is a book about men as men. It is a book in which
men’s experiences are not taken for granted as we explore the
“real” and significant accomplishments of men, but a book in
which those experiences are treated as significant and important
in themselves.”
The annotation for this sentence reads, “The authors begin with
an assumption and then challenge it. A transition word “but”
signals the challenge.”
The second paragraph reads, “But what does it mean to examine
men “as men”? Most courses in a college curriculum are about
men, aren’t they? But these courses routinely deal with men
only in their public roles, so we come to know and understand
men as scientists, politicians, military figures, writers, and
philosophers. Rarely, if ever, are men understood through the
prism of gender.”
The annotation for this paragraph, “The authors follow with a
question that provokes readers’ interest and points to the gap
they summarize in the last sentence”
Kimmel and Messner use these opening paragraphs to highlight
both what they find problematic about the existing literature on
men and to introduce readers to their own approach.Steps to
Drafting Introductions: Five Strategies
1. Use an inverted triangle. Begin with a broad situation,
concept, or idea, and narrow the focus to your thesis.
2. Begin with a narrative. Capture readers’ imagination and
interest with a story that sets the stage for your argument.
3. Ask a question that you will answer. Provoke readers’

interest with a question, and then use your thesis to answer the
question.
4. Present a paradox. Begin with an assumption that readers
accept as true, and formulate a thesis that not only challenges
that assumption but may very well seem paradoxical.
5. Mind the gap. Identify what readers know and then what they
don’t know (or what you believe they need to know).A Practice
Sequence: Drafting an Introduction
1. Write or rewrite your introduction (which, as you’ve seen,
may involve more than one paragraph), using one of the five
drafting strategies discussed in this chapter. Then share your
introduction with one of your peers and ask the following
questions:
· To what extent did the strategy compel you to want to read
further?
· To what extent is my thesis clear?
· How effectively do I draw a distinction between what I believe
others assume to be true and my own approach?
· Is there another way that I might have made my introduction
more compelling?
After listening to the responses, try a second strategy and then
ask your peer which introduction is more effective.
2. If you do not have your own introduction to work on, revise
the introduction below from a student’s essay, combining two of
the five drafting strategies we’ve discussed in this chapter.
News correspondent Pauline Frederick once commented, “When
a man gets up to speak people listen then look. When a woman
gets up, people look; then, if they like what they see, they
listen.” Ironically, the harsh reality of this statement is given
life by the ongoing controversy over America’s most
recognizable and sometimes notorious toy, Barbie. Celebrating
her fortieth birthday this year, Barbie has become this nation’s
most beleaguered soldier (a woman no less) of idolatry who has
been to the front lines and back more times than the average
“Joe.” This doll, a piece of plastic, a toy, incurs both criticism
and praise spanning both ends of the ideological spectrum.

Barbie’s curvaceous and basically unrealistic body piques the
ire of both liberals and conservatives, each contending that
Barbie stands for the distinct view of the other. One hundred
and eighty degrees south, others praise Barbie’s (curves and all)
ability to unlock youthful imagination and potential. M. G. Lord
explains Barbie best: “To study Barbie, one sometimes has to
hold seemingly contradictory ideas in one’s head at the same
time. . . . The doll functions like a Rorschach test: people
project wildly dissimilar and often opposing meanings on it. . . .
And her meaning, like her face, has not been static over time.”
In spite of the extreme polarity, a sole unconscious consensus
manifests itself about Barbie. Barbie is “the icon” of
womanhood and the twentieth century. She is the American
dream. Barbie is “us.” The question is always the same: What
message does Barbie send? Barbie is a toy. She is what we see.
DEVELOPING PARAGRAPHS
In your introduction, you set forth your thesis. Then, in
subsequent paragraphs, you have to develop your argument.
Remember our metaphor: If your thesis, or main claim, is the
skewer that runs through each paragraph in your essay, then
these paragraphs are the “meat” of your argument. The
paragraphs that follow your introduction carry the burden of
evidence in your argument. After all, a claim cannot stand on its
own without supporting evidence. Generally speaking, each
paragraph should include a topic sentence that brings the main
idea of the paragraph into focus, be unified around the main
idea of the topic sentence, and adequately develop the idea. At
the same time, a paragraph does not stand on its own; as part of
your overall argument, it can refer to what you’ve said earlier,
gesture toward where you are heading, and connect to the larger
conversation to which you are contributing.
We now ask you to read an excerpt from “Reinventing
‘America’: Call for a New National Identity,” by Elizabeth
Martínez, and answer some questions about how you think the
author develops her argument, paragraph by paragraph. Then we

discuss her work in the context of the three key elements of
paragraphs: topic sentences, unity, and adequate development.
As you read, pay attention to how, sentence by sentence,
Martínez develops her paragraphs. We also ask that you
consider how she makes her argument provocative,
impassioned, and urgent for her audience.ELIZABETH
MARTÍNEZ
From Reinventing “America”: Call for a New National Identity
Elizabeth Martínez is a Chicana activist who since 1960 has
worked in and documented different movements for change,
including the civil rights, women’s, and Chicano movements.
She is the author of six books and numerous articles. Her best-
known work is 500 Years of Chicano History in Pictures (1991),
which became the basis of a two-part video she scripted and
codirected. Her latest book is De Colores Means All of Us:
Latina Views for a Multi-Colored Century (1998). In
“Reinventing ‘America,’ ” Martínez argues that Americans’
willingness to accept a “myth” as “the basis for [the] nation’s
self-defined identity” has brought the country to a crisis.
For some fifteen years, starting in 1940, 85 percent of all U.S.
elementary schools used the Dick and Jane series to teach
children how to read. The series starred Dick, Jane, their white
middle-class parents, their dog Spot, and their life together in a
home with a white picket fence.
“Look, Jane, look! See Spot run!” chirped the two kids. It was a
house full of glorious family values, where Mom cooked while
Daddy went to work in a suit and mowed the lawn on weekends.
The Dick and Jane books also taught that you should do your
job and help others. All this affirmed an equation of middle-
class whiteness with virtue.
In the mid-1990s, museums, libraries, and eighty Public
Broadcasting Service (PBS) stations across the country had
exhibits and programs commemorating the series. At one
museum, an attendant commented, “When you hear someone
crying, you know they are looking at the Dick and Jane books.”
It seems nostalgia runs rampant among many Euro-Americans: a

nostalgia for the days of unchallenged White Supremacy — both
moral and material — when life was “simple.”
We’ve seen that nostalgia before in the nation’s history. But
today it signifies a problem reaching a new intensity. It
suggests a national identity crisis that promises to bring in its
wake an unprecedented nervous breakdown for the dominant
society’s psyche.
Nowhere is this more apparent than in California, which has
long been on the cutting edge of the nation’s present and future
reality. Warning sirens have sounded repeatedly in the 1990s,
such as the fierce battle over new history textbooks for public
schools, Proposition 187’s ugly denial of human rights to
immigrants, the 1996 assault on affirmative action that
culminated in Proposition 209, and the 1997 move to abolish
bilingual education. Attempts to copycat these reactionary
measures have been seen in other states.
The attack on affirmative action isn’t really about affirmative
action. Essentially it is another tactic in today’s war on the
gains of the 1960s, a tactic rooted in Anglo resentment and fear.
A major source of that fear: the fact that California will almost
surely have a majority of people of color in twenty to thirty
years at most, with the nation as a whole not far behind.
Check out the February 3, 1992, issue of Sports Illustrated with
its double-spread ad for Time magazine. The ad showed
hundreds of newborn babies in their hospital cribs, all of them
Black or brown except for a rare white face here and there. The
headline says, “Hey, whitey! It’s your turn at the back of the
bus!” The ad then tells you, read Time magazine to keep up
with today’s hot issues. That manipulative image could have
been published today; its implication of shifting power appears
to be the recurrent nightmare of too many potential Anglo
allies.
Euro-American anxiety often focuses on the sense of a
vanishing national identity. Behind the attacks on immigrants,
affirmative action, and multiculturalism, behind the demand for
“English Only” laws and the rejection of bilingual education,

lies the question: with all these new people, languages, and
cultures, what will it mean to be an American? If that question
once seemed, to many people, to have an obvious, universally
applicable answer, today new definitions must be found. But too
often Americans, with supposed scholars in the lead, refuse to
face that need and instead nurse a nostalgia for some bygone
clarity. They remain trapped in denial.
An array of such ostriches, heads in the sand, began flapping
their feathers noisily with the publication of Allan Bloom’s
1987 best-selling book, The Closing of the American
Mind. Bloom bemoaned the decline of our “common values” as
a society, meaning the decline of Euro-American cultural
centricity (shall we just call it cultural imperialism?). Since
then we have seen constant sniping at “diversity” goals across
the land. The assault has often focused on how U.S. history is
taught. And with reason, for this country’s identity rests on a
particular narrative about the historical origins of the United
States as a nation.The Great White Origin Myth
Every society has an origin narrative that explains that society
to itself and the world with a set of stories and symbols. The
origin myth, as scholar-activist Roxanne Dunbar Ortiz has
termed it, defines how a society understands its place in the
world and its history. The myth provides the basis for a nation’s
self-defined identity. Most origin narratives can be called myths
because they usually present only the most flattering view of a
nation’s history; they are not distinguished by honesty.
Ours begins with Columbus “discovering” a hemisphere where
some 80 million people already lived but didn’t really count (in
what became the United States, they were just buffalo-chasing
“savages” with no grasp of real estate values and therefore
doomed to perish). It continues with the brave Pilgrims, a
revolution by independence-loving colonists against a decadent
English aristocracy, and the birth of an energetic young republic
that promised democracy and equality (that is, to white male
landowners). In the 1840s, the new nation expanded its si ze by
almost one-third, thanks to a victory over that backward land of

little brown people called Mexico. Such has been the basic
account of how the nation called the United States of America
came into being as presently configured.
The myth’s omissions are grotesque. It ignores three major
pillars of our nationhood: genocide, enslavement, and
imperialist expansion (such nasty words, who wants to hear
them? — but that’s the problem). The massive extermination of
indigenous peoples provided our land base; the enslavement of
African labor made our economic growth possible; and the
seizure of half of Mexico by war (or threat of renewed war)
extended this nation’s boundaries north to the Pacific and south
to the Rio Grande. Such are the foundation stones of the United
States, within an economic system that made this country the
first in world history to be born capitalist. . . .Racism as
Linchpin of the U.S. National Identity
A crucial embellishment of the origin myth and key element of
the national identity has been the myth of the frontier, analyzed
in Richard Slotkin’s Gunfighter Nation, the last volume of a
fascinating trilogy. He describes Theodore Roosevelt’s belief
that the West was won thanks to American arms, “the means by
which progress and nationality will be achieved.” That success,
Roosevelt continued, “depends on the heroism of men who
impose on the course of events the latent virtues of their ‘race.’
” Roosevelt saw conflict on the frontier producing a series of
virile “fighters and breeders” who would eventually generate a
new leadership class. Militarism thus went hand in hand with
the racialization of history’s protagonists. . . .
The frontier myth embodied the nineteenth-century concept of
Manifest Destiny, a doctrine that served to justify expansionist
violence by means of intrinsic racial superiority. Manifest
Destiny was Yankee conquest as the inevitable result of a
confrontation between enterprise and progress (white) versus
passivity and backwardness (Indian, Mexican). “Manifest”
meant “God-given,” and the whole doctrine is profoundly rooted
in religious conviction going back to the earliest colonial times.
In his short, powerful book Manifest Destiny: American

Expansion and the Empire of Right, Professor Anders
Stephanson tells how the Puritans reinvented the Jewish notion
of chosenness and applied it to this hemisphere so that
territorial expansion became God’s will. . . .Manifest Destiny
Dies Hard
The concept of Manifest Destiny, with its assertion of racial
superiority sustained by military power, has defined U.S.
identity for 150 years. . . .
Today’s origin myth and the resulting concept of national
identity make for an intellectual prison where it is dangerous to
ask big questions about this society’s superiority. When
otherwise decent people are trapped in such a powerful desire
not to feel guilty, self-deception becomes unavoidable. To cease
our present falsification of collective memory should, and
could, open the doors of that prison. When together we cease
equating whiteness with Americanness, a new day can dawn. As
David Roediger, the social historian, has said, “[Whiteness] is
the empty and therefore terrifying attempt to build an identity
on what one isn’t, and on whom one can hold back.”
Redefining the U.S. origin narrative, and with it this country’s
national identity, could prove liberating for our collective
psyche. It does not mean Euro-Americans should wallow
individually in guilt. It does mean accepting collective
responsibility to deal with the implications of our real origin. A
few apologies, for example, might be a step in the right
direction. In 1997, the idea was floated in Congress to
apologize for slavery; it encountered opposition from all sides.
But to reject the notion because corrective action, not an
apology, is needed misses the point. Having defined itself as the
all-time best country in the world, the United States fiercely
denies the need to make a serious official apology for anything.
. . . To press for any serious, official apology does imply a new
origin narrative, a new self-image, an ideological sea-change.
Accepting the implications of a different narrative could also
shed light on today’s struggles. In the affirmative-action
struggle, for example, opponents have said that that policy is no

longer needed because racism ended with the Civil Rights
Movement. But if we look at slavery as a fundamental pillar of
this nation, going back centuries, it becomes obvious that
racism could not have been ended by thirty years of mild
reforms. If we see how the myth of the frontier idealized the
white male adventurer as the central hero of national history,
with the woman as sunbonneted helpmate, then we might better
understand the dehumanized ways in which women have
continued to be treated. A more truthful origin narrative could
also help break down divisions among peoples of color by
revealing common experiences and histories of
cooperation.Reading as a Writer
1. To what extent does the narrative Martínez begins with make
you want to read further?
2. How does she connect this narrative to the rest of her
argument?
3. How does she use repetition to create unity in her essay?
4. What assumptions does Martínez challenge?
5. How does she use questions to engage her readers?◼ Use
Topic Sentences to Focus Your Paragraphs
The topic sentence states the main point of a paragraph. It
should
· provide a partial answer to the question motivating the writer.
· act as an extension of the writer’s thesis and the question
motivating the writer’s argument.
· serve as a guidepost, telling readers what the paragraph is
about.
· help create unity and coherence both within the paragraph and
within the essay.
Elizabeth Martínez begins by describing how elementary
schools in the 1940s and 1950s used the Dick and Jane series
not only to teach reading but also to foster a particular set of
values — values that she believes do not serve all children
enrolled in America’s schools. In paragraph 4, she states her
thesis, explaining that nostalgia in the United States has created
“a national identity crisis that promises to bring in its wake

an unprecedented nervous breakdown for the dominant society’s
psyche.” This is a point that builds on an observation she makes
in paragraph 3: “It seems nostalgia runs rampant among many
Euro-Americans: a nostalgia for the days of unchallenged White
Supremacy — both moral and material — when life was
‘simple.’ ” Martínez often returns to this notion of nostalgia for
a past that seems “simple” to explain what she sees as an
impending crisis.
Consider the first sentence of paragraph 5 as a topic sentence.
With Martínez’s key points in mind, notice how she uses the
sentence to make her thesis more specific. Notice too, how she
ties in the crisis and breakdown she alludes to in paragraph 4.
Essentially, Martínez tells her readers that they can see these
problems at play in California, an indicator of “the nation’s
present and future reality.”
Nowhere is this more apparent than in California, which has
reality. Warning sirens have sounded repeatedly in the 1990s,
such as the fierce battle over new history textbooks for public
schools, Proposition 187’s ugly denial of human rights to
immigrants, the 1996 assault on affirmative action that
culminated in Proposition 209, and the 1997 move to abolish
bilingual education. Attempts to copycat these reactionary
measures have been seen in other states.
The final sentence of paragraph 5 sets up the remainder of the
essay.
As readers, we expect each subsequent paragraph to respond in
some way to the issue Martínez has raised. She meets that
expectation by formulating a topic sentence that appears at the
beginning of the paragraph. The topic sentence is what helps
create unity and coherence in the essay.◼ Create Unity in Your
Paragraphs
Each paragraph in an essay should focus on the subject
suggested by the topic sentence. If a paragraph begins with one
focus or major point of discussion, it should not end with
another. Several strategies can contribute to the unity of each

paragraph.Use details that follow logically from your topic
sentence and maintain a single focus — a focus that is clearly
an extension of your thesis.
For example, in paragraph 5, Martínez’s topic sentence
(“Nowhere is this more apparent than in California, which has
reality”) helps to create unity because it refers back to her
thesis (this refers to the “national identity crisis” mentioned
in paragraph 4) and limits the focus of what she includes in the
paragraph to “the fierce battle over new history textbooks” and
recent pieces of legislation in California that follow directly
from and support the claim of the topic sentence.Repeat key
words to guide your readers.
A second strategy for creating unity is to repeat (or use
synonyms for) key words within a given paragraph. You can see
this at work in paragraph 12 (notice the words we’ve
underscored), where Martínez explains that America’s origin
narrative omits significant details:
The myth’s omissions are grotesque. It ignores three major
pillars of our nationhood: genocide, enslavement,
and imperialist expansion (such nasty words, who wants to hear
them? — but that’s the problem). The massive extermination of
indigenous peoples provided our land base; the enslavement of
African labor made our economic growth possible; and
the seizure of half of Mexico by war (or threat of renewed war)
extended this nation’s boundaries north to the Pacific and south
to the Rio Grande. Such are the foundation stones of the United
States, within an economic system that made this country the
first in world history to be born capitalist. . . .
Specifically, Martínez tells us that the origin narrative ignores
“three major pillars of our nationhood: genocide, enslavement,
and imperialist expansion.” She then
substitutes extermination for “genocide,” repeats enslavement,
and substitutes seizure for “imperialist expansion.” By

connecting words in a paragraph, as Martínez does here, you
help readers understand that the details you provide are all
relevant to the point you want to make.Use transition words to
link ideas from different sentences.
A third strategy for creating unity within paragraphs is to
establish a clear relationship among different ideas by
using transition words or phrases. Transition words or phrases
signal to your readers the direction your ideas are taking. Table
11.1 lists common transition words and phrases grouped by
function — that is, for adding a new idea, presenting a
contrasting idea, or drawing a conclusion about an idea.
TABLE 11.1Common Transition Words and Phrases
ADDING AN IDEA
PRESENTING A CONTRASTING IDEA
DRAWING A LOGICAL CONCLUSION
also, and, further, moreover, in addition to, in support of,
similarly
although, alternatively, as an alternative, but, by way of
contrast, despite, even though, however, in contrast to,
nevertheless, nonetheless, rather than, yet
as a result, because of, consequently, finally, in sum, in the end,
subsequently, therefore, thus
Martínez uses transition words and phrases throughout the
excerpt here. In several places, she uses the word but to make a
contrast — to draw a distinction between an idea that many
people accept as true and an alternative idea that she wants to
pursue. Notice in paragraph 17 how she signals the importance
of an official apology for slavery — and by implication
genocide and the seizure of land from Mexico:
. . . A few apologies, for example, might be a step in the right
direction. In 1997, the idea was floated in Congress to
apologize for slavery; it encountered opposition from all
sides. But to reject the notion because corrective action, not an
apology, is needed misses the point. Having defined itself as the
all-time best country in the world, the United States fiercely

denies the need to make a serious official apology for anything.
. . . To press for any serious, official apology does imply a new
origin narrative, a new self-image, an ideological sea-change.
Similarly, in the last paragraph, Martínez counters the argument
that affirmative action is not necessary because racism no
longer exists:
. . . In the affirmative-action struggle, for example, opponents
have said that that policy is no longer needed because racism
ended with the Civil Rights Movement. But if we look at
slavery as a fundamental pillar of this nation, going back
centuries, it becomes obvious that racism could not have been
ended by thirty years of mild reforms. . . .
There are a number of ways to rephrase what Martínez is saying
in paragraph 18. We could substitute however for “but.” Or we
could combine the two sentences into one to point to the
relationship between the two competing ideas: Although some
people oppose affirmative action, believing that racism no
longer exists, I would argue that racism remains a fundamental
pillar of this nation. Or we could pull together Martínez’s
different points to draw a logical conclusion using a transition
word like therefore. Martínez observes that our country is in
crisis as a result of increased immigration. Therefore, we need
to reassess our conceptions of national identity to account for
the diversity that increased immigration has created. We can
substitute any of the transition words in Table 11.1 for drawing
a logical conclusion.
The list of transition words and phrases in Table 11.1 is hardly
exhaustive, but it gives you a sense of the ways to connect ideas
so that readers understand how your ideas are related. Are they
similar ideas? Do they build on or support one another? Are you
challenging accepted ideas? Or are you drawing a logical
connection from a number of different ideas?◼ Use Critical
Strategies to Develop Your Paragraphs
To develop a paragraph, you can use a range of strategies,
depending on what you want to accomplish and what you
believe your readers will find persuasive. Among these

strategies are using examples and illustrations; citing data
(facts, statistics, evidence, details); analyzing texts; telling a
story or an anecdote; defining terms; making comparisons; and
examining causes and evaluating consequenc es.Use examples
and illustrations.
Examples make abstract ideas concrete through illustration.
Using examples is probably the most common way to develop a
piece of writing. Of course, Martínez’s essay is full of
examples. In fact, she begins with an example of a series of
books — the Dick and Jane books — to show how a generation
of schoolchildren were exposed to white middle-class values.
She also uses examples in paragraph 5, where she lists several
pieces of legislation (Propositions 187 and 209) to develop the
claim in her topic sentence.Cite data.
Data are factual pieces of information. They function in an
essay as the bases of propositions. In the first few paragraphs of
the excerpt, Martínez cites statistics (“85 percent of all U.S.
elementary schools used the Dick and Jane series to teach
children how to read”) and facts (“In the mid-1990s, museums,
libraries, and eighty Public Broadcasting Service . . . stations
across the country had exhibits and programs commemorating
the series”) to back up her claim about the popularity of the
Dick and Jane series and the nostalgia the books evoke.Analyze
texts.
Analysis is the process of breaking something down into its
elements to understand how they work together. When you
analyze a text, you point out parts of the text that have
particular significance to your argument and explain what they
mean. By texts, we mean both verbal and visual texts.
In paragraph 7, Martínez analyzes a visual text, an
advertisement that appeared in Sports Illustrated, to reveal “its
implication of shifting power” — a demographic power shift
from Anglos to people of color.Provide narratives or anecdotes.

Put simply, a narrative is an account of something that
happened. More technically, a narrative relates a sequence of
events that are connected in time; and an anecdote is a short
narrative that recounts a particular incident. An anecdote, like
an example, can bring an abstraction into focus. Consider
Martínez’s third paragraph, where the anecdote about the
museum attendant brings her point about racially charged
nostalgia among white Americans into memorable focus: The
tears of the museum-goers indicate just how profound their
nostalgia is.
By contrast, a longer narrative, in setting out its sequence of
events, often opens up possibilities for analysis. Why did these
events occur? Why did they occur in this sequence? What might
they lead to? What are the implications? What is missing?
In paragraph 11, for example, Martínez relates several key
events in the origin myth of America. Then, in the next
paragraph, she explains what is omitted from the myth, or
narrative, and builds her argument about the implications and
consequences of those omissions.Define terms.
A definition is an explanation of what something is and, by
implication, what it is not. The simplest kind of definition is a
synonym, but for the purpose of developing your argument, a
one-word definition is rarely enough.
When you define your terms, you are setting forth meanings that
you want your readers to agree on, so that you can continue to
build your argument on the foundation of that agreement. You
may have to stipulate that your definition is part of a larger
whole to develop your argument. For example: “Nostalgia is a
bittersweet longing for things of the past; but for the purposes
of my essay, I focus on white middle-class nostalgia, which
combines a longing for a past that never existed with a hostile
anxiety about the present.”
In paragraph 10, Martínez defines the term origin narrative — a
myth that explains “how a society understands its place in the

world and its history . . . the basis for a nation’s self-defined
identity.” The “Great White Origin Myth” is an important
concept in her developing argument about a national crisis of
identity.Make comparisons.
Technically, a comparison shows the similarities between two
or more things, and a contrast shows the differences. In
practice, however, it is very difficult, if not impossible, to
develop a comparison that does not make use of contrast.
Therefore, we use the term comparison to describe the strategy
of comparing and contrasting.
Doubtless you have written paragraphs or even whole essays
that take as a starting point a version of this sentence: “X and Y
are similar in some respects and different in others.” This
neutral formulation is seldom helpful when you are developing
an argument. Usually, in making your comparison — in setting
forth the points of similarity and difference — you have to take
an evaluative or argumentative stance.
Note the comparison in this passage:
Although there are similarities between the current nostalgias
for Dick and Jane books and for rhythm and blues music of the
same era — in both cases, the object of nostalgia can move
people to tears — the nostalgias spring from emotional
responses that are quite different and even contradictory. I will
argue that the Dick and Jane books evoke a longing for a past
that is colored by a fear of the present, a longing for a time
when white middle-class values were dominant and
unquestioned. By contrast, the nostalgia for R&B music may
indicate a yearning for a past when multicultural musicians
provided white folks with a sweaty release on the dance floor
from those very same white-bread values of the time.
The writer does more than list similarities and differences; she
offers an analysis of what they mean and is prepared to argue
for her interpretation.
Certainly Elizabeth Martínez takes an evaluative stance when
she compares versions of American history in paragraphs

11 and 12. In paragraph 11, she angrily relates the sanitized
story of American history, setting up a contrast in paragraph
12 with the story that does not appear in history textbooks, a
story of “genocide, enslavement, and imperialist expansion.”
Her evaluative stance comes through clearly: She finds the first
version repugnant and harmful, its omissions
“grotesque.”Examine causes and evaluate consequences.
In any academic discipline, questions of cause and consequence
are central. Whether you are analyzing the latest election results
in a political science course, reading about the causes of the
Vietnam War in a history course, or speculating about the long-
term consequences of climate change in a science course,
questions of why things happened, happen, or will happen are
inescapable.
Examining causes and consequences usually involves
identifying a phenomenon and asking questions about it until
you gather enough information to begin analyzing the
relationships among its parts and deciding which are most
significant. You can then begin to set forth your own analysis of
what happened and why.
Of course, this kind of analysis is rarely straightforward, and
any phenomenon worthy of academic study is bound to generate
a variety of conversations about its causes and consequences. In
your own thinking and research, avoid jumping to conclusions
and continue to sift evidence until plausible connections present
themselves. Be prepared to revise your thinking — perhaps
several times — in light of new evidence.
In your writing, you also want to avoid oversimplifying. A
claim like this — “The answer to curbing unemployment in the
United States is to restrict immigration” — does not take into
account corporate outsourcing of jobs overseas or the many
other possible causes of unemployment. At the very least, you
may need to explain the basis and specifics of your analysis and
qualify your claim: “Recent studies of patterns of immigration
and unemployment in the United States suggest that unrestricted

immigration is a major factor in the loss of blue-collar job
opportunities in the Southwest.” Certainly this sentence is less
forceful and provocative than the other one, but it does suggest
that you have done significant and focused research and respect
the complexity of the issue.
Throughout her essay, Martínez analyzes causes and
consequences. In paragraph 8, for example, she speculates that
the cause of “attacks on immigrants, affirmative action, and
multiculturalism” is “Euro-American anxiety,” “the sense of a
vanishing national identity.” In paragraph 13, she concludes
that a consequence of Theodore Roosevelt’s beliefs about race
and war was a “militarism [that] went hand in hand with the
racialization of history’s protagonists.” In paragraph 16, the
topic sentence itself is a statement about causes and
consequences: “Today’s origin myth and the resulting concept
of national identity make for an intellectual prison where it is
dangerous to ask big questions about this society’s superiority.”
Having shown where and how Martínez uses critical strategies
to develop her paragraphs, we must hasten to add that these
critical strategies usually work in combination. Although you
can easily develop an entire paragraph (or even an entire essay)
using comparison, it is almost impossible to do so without
relying on one or more of the other strategies. What if you need
to tell an anecdote about the two authors you are comparing?
What if you have to cite data about different rates of
economic growth to clarify the main claim of your comparison?
What if you are comparing different causes and consequences?
Our point is that the strategies described here are methods for
exploring your issue in writing. How you make use of them,
individually or in combination, depends on which can help you
best communicate your argument to your readers.steps to
developing paragraphs
1. Use topic sentences to focus your paragraphs. Remember that
a topic sentence partially answers the question motivating you
to write; acts as an extension of your thesis; indicates to your
readers what the paragraph is about; and helps create unity both

within the paragraph and within the essay.
2. Create unity in your paragraphs. The details in your
paragraph should follow logically from your topic sentence and
maintain a single focus, one tied clearly to your thesis.
Repetition and transition words also help create unity in
paragraphs.
3. Use critical strategies to develop your paragraphs. Use
examples and illustrations; cite data; analyze texts; tell stories
or anecdotes; define terms; make comparisons; and examine
causes and evaluate consequences.a practice sequence: working
with paragraphs
We would like you to work in pairs on paragraphing. The
objective of this exercise is to gauge the effectiveness of your
topic sentences and the degree to which your paragraphs are
unified and fully developed.
Make a copy of your essay and cut it up into paragraphs.
Shuffle the paragraphs to be sure they are no longer in the
original order, and then exchange cut-up drafts with your
partner. The challenge is to put your partner’s essay back
together again. When you both have finished, compare your
reorderings with the original drafts. Were you able to reproduce
the original organization exactly? If not, do the variations make
sense? If one or the other of you had trouble putting the essay
back together, talk about the adequacy of your topic sentences,
ways to revise topic sentences in keeping with the details in a
given paragraph, and strategies for making paragraphs more
unified and coherent.
DRAFTING CONCLUSIONS
In writing a conclusion to your essay, you are making a final
appeal to your audience. You want to convince readers that
what you have written is a relevant, meaningful interpretation
of a shared issue. You also want to remind them that your
argument is reasonable. Rather than summarize all of the points
you’ve made in the essay — assume your readers have carefully
read what you’ve written — pull together the key components of

your argument in the service of answering the question “So
what?” Establish why your argument is important: What will
happen if things stay the same? What will happen if things
change? How effective your conclusion is depends on whether
or not readers feel that you have adequately addressed “So
what?” — that you have made clear what is significant and of
value.
In building on the specific details of your argument, you can
also place what you have written in a broader context. (What
are the sociological implications of your argument? How far -
reaching are they? Are there political implications? Economic
implications?) Finally, explain again how your ideas contribute
something new to the conversation by building on, extending, or
even challenging what others have argued.
In her concluding paragraph, Elizabeth Martínez brings together
her main points, puts her essay in a broader context, indicates
what’s new in her argument, and answers the question “So
what?”:
Accepting the implications of a different narrative could also
shed light on today’s struggles. In the affirmative-action
struggle, for example, opponents have said that that policy is no
longer needed because racism ended with the Civil Rights
Movement. But if we look at slavery as a fundamental pillar of
this nation, going back centuries, it becomes obvious that
racism could not have been ended by thirty years of mild
reforms. If we see how the myth of the frontier idealized the
white male adventurer as the central hero of national history,
with the woman as sunbonneted helpmate, then we might better
understand the dehumanized ways in which women have
continued to be treated. A more truthful origin narrative could
also help break down divisions among peoples of color by
revealing common experiences and histories of cooperation.
Let’s examine this concluding paragraph:
1. Although Martínez refers back to important events and ideas
she has discussed, she does not merely summarize. Instead, she
suggests the implications of those important events and ideas in

her first sentence (the topic sentence), which crystallizes the
main point of her essay: Americans need a different origin
narrative.
2. Then she puts those implications in the broader context of
contemporary racial and gender issues.
3. She signals what’s new in her argument with the word if (if
we look at slavery in a new way; if we look at the frontier myth
in a new way).
4. Finally, her answers to why this issue matters culminate in
the last sentence. This last sentence connects and extends the
claim of her topic sentence, by asserting that a “more truthful
origin narrative” could help heal divisions among peoples of
color who have been misrepresented by the old origin myth.
Clearly, she believes the implications of her argument matter: A
new national identity has the potential to heal a country in
crisis, a country on the verge of a “nervous breakdown” ( para.
4).
Martínez also does something else in the last sentence of the
concluding paragraph: She looks to the future, suggesting what
the future implications of her argument could be. Looking to the
future is one of five strategies for shaping a conclusion. The
others we discuss are echoing the introduction, challenging the
reader, posing questions, and concluding with a quotation. Each
of these strategies appeals to readers in different ways;
therefore, we suggest you try them all out in writing your own
conclusions. Also, remember that some of these strategies can
be combined. For example, you can write a conclusion that
challenges readers, poses a question, looks to the future, and
ends with a quotation.◼ Echo the Introduction
Echoing the introduction in your conclusion helps readers come
full circle. It helps them see how you have developed your idea
from beginning to end. In the following example, the student
writer begins with a voice speaking from behind an Islamic veil,
revealing the ways that Western culture misunderstands the
symbolic value of wearing the veil. The writer repeats this
visual image in her conclusion, quoting from the Koran: “Speak

to them from behind a curtain.”
The paragraph reads, “Introduction: A voice from behind the
shrouds of an Islamic veil exclaims: “I often wonder whether
people see me as a radical, fundamentalist Muslim terrorist
packing an AK-47 assault rifle inside my jean jacket. Or maybe
they see me as the poster girl for oppressed womanhood
everywhere.” In American culture where shameless public
exposure, particularly of females, epitomizes ultimate freedom,
the head-to-toe covering of a Muslim woman seems inherently
oppressive. Driven by an autonomous national attitude, the
inhabitants of the “land of the free” are quick to equate the veil
with indisputable persecution. Yet Muslim women reveal the
enslaving hijab as a symbolic display of the Islamic ideals –
honor, modesty, and stability. Because of an unfair American
assessment, the aura of hijab mystery cannot”
The annotation for this paragraph reads, “Notice that the author
begins with “a voice from behind the shrouds of an Islamic
veil” and then echoes this quotation in her conclusion: “Speak
The paragraph reads, “Introduction: A voice from behind the
shrouds of an Islamic veil exclaims: “I often wonder whether
people see me as a radical, fundamentalist Muslim terrorist
packing an AK-47 assault rifle inside my jean jacket. Or maybe
they see me as the poster girl for oppressed womanhood
everywhere.” In American culture where shameless public
exposure, particularly of females, epitomizes ultimate freedom,
the head-to-toe covering of a Muslim woman seems inherently
oppressive. Driven by an autonomous national attitude, the
inhabitants of the “land of the free” are quick to equate the veil
with indisputable persecution. Yet Muslim women reveal the
enslaving hijab as a symbolic display of the Islamic ideals –
honor, modesty, and stability. Because of an unfair American
assessment, the aura of hijab mystery cannot”
The annotation for this paragraph reads, “Notice that the author
begins with “a voice from behind the shrouds of an Islamic

veil” and then echoes this quotation in her conclusion: “Speak
The first paragraph reads, “be removed until the customs and
ethics of Muslim culture are genuinely explored. It is this form
of enigmatic seclusion that forms the feminist controversy
between Western liberals, who perceive the veil as an inhibiting
factor against free will, and Islamic disciples, who
conceptualize the veil as a sacred symbol of utmost morality.”
The second paragraph reads, “Conclusion: For those who
improperly judge an alien religion, the veil becomes a symbol
of oppression and devastation, instead of a representation of
pride and piety. Despite Western images, the hijab is a daily
revitalization and reminder of the Islamic societal and religious
ideals, thereby upholding the conduct and attitudes of the
Muslim community. Americans share these ideals yet fail to
recognize them in the context of a different culture. By
sincerely exploring the custom of Islamic veiling, one will
realize the vital role the hijab plays in shaping Muslim culture
by sheltering women, and consequently society, from the perils
that erupt from indecency. The principles implored in the Koran
of modesty, honor, and stability construct a unifying and moral
view of the Islamic Middle Eastern society when properly
investigated. As it was transcribed from Allah, “Speak to them
from behind a curtain.
This is purer for your hearts and their hearts.”
The annotation for this “The principles implored in the Koran of
modesty, honor, and stability construct a unifying and moral
from behind a curtain. This is purer for your hearts and their
hearts” reads, “Notice how the conclusion echoes the
introduction in its reference to a voice speaking from behind a
curtain.”
The first paragraph reads, “be removed until the customs and
ethics of Muslim culture are genuinely explored. It is this form

of enigmatic seclusion that forms the feminist controversy
between Western liberals, who perceive the veil as an inhibiting
factor against free will, and Islamic disciples, who
conceptualize the veil as a sacred symbol of utmost morality.”
The second paragraph reads, “Conclusion: For those who
improperly judge an alien religion, the veil becomes a symbol
of oppression and devastation, instead of a representation of
pride and piety. Despite Western images, the hijab is a daily
revitalization and reminder of the Islamic societal and religious
ideals, thereby upholding the conduct and attitudes of the
Muslim community. Americans share these ideals yet fail to
recognize them in the context of a different culture. By
sincerely exploring the custom of Islamic veiling, one will
realize the vital role the hijab plays in shaping Muslim culture
by sheltering women, and consequently society, from the perils
that erupt from indecency. The principles implored in the Koran
of modesty, honor, and stability construct a unifying and moral
from behind a curtain.
This is purer for your hearts and their hearts.”
The annotation for this “The principles implored in the Koran of
modesty, honor, and stability construct a unifying and moral
from behind a curtain. This is purer for your hearts and their
hearts” reads, “Notice how the conclusion echoes the
introduction in its reference to a voice speaking from behind a
curtain.”◼ Challenge the Reader
By issuing a challenge to your readers, you create a sense of
urgency, provoking them to act to change the status quo. In this
example, the student writer explains the unacceptable
consequences of preventing young women from educating
themselves about AIDS and the spread of a disease that has
already reached epidemic proportions.

The paragraph reads, “The changes in AIDS education that I am
suggesting are necessary and relatively simple to make.
Although the current curriculum in high school health classes is
helpful and informative, it simply does not pertain to young
women as much as it should. AIDS is killing women at an
alarming rate, and many people do not realize this. According to
Daniel DeNoon, AIDS is one of the six leading causes of death
among women aged 18 to 45, and women “bear the brunt of the
worldwide AIDS epidemic.” For this reason, DeNoon argues,
women are one of the most important new populations that are
contracting HIV at a high rate. I challenge young women to be
more well-informed about AIDS and their link to the disease;
otherwise, many new cases may develop. As the epidemic
continues to spread, women need to realize that”
The annotation for the sentences, “The changes in AIDS
education that I am suggesting are necessary and relatively
simple to make. Although the current curriculum in high school
health classes is helpful and informative, it simply does not
pertain to young women as much as it should. AIDS is killing
women at an alarming rate, and many people do not realize thi s.
According to Daniel DeNoon, AIDS is one of the six leading
causes of death among women aged 18 to 45, and women “bear
the brunt of the worldwide AIDS epidemic” reads, “Here the
author cites a final piece of research to emphasize the extent of
the problem.”
The annotation for the sentences, “For this reason, DeNoon
argues, women are one of the most important new populations
that are contracting HIV at a high rate. I challenge young
women to be more well-informed about AIDS and their link to
the disease; otherwise, many new cases may develop. As the
epidemic continues to spread, women need to realize that…”
reads, “Here she begins her explicit challenge to readers about
what they have to do to protect themselves or their students
from infection.”
The paragraph reads, “The changes in AIDS education that I am
suggesting are necessary and relatively simple to make.

Although the current curriculum in high school health classes is
helpful and informative, it simply does not pertain to young
women as much as it should. AIDS is killing women at an
alarming rate, and many people do not realize this. According to
Daniel DeNoon, AIDS is one of the six leading causes of death
among women aged 18 to 45, and women “bear the brunt of the
worldwide AIDS epidemic.” For this reason, DeNoon argues,
women are one of the most important new populations that are
contracting HIV at a high rate. I challenge young women to be
more well-informed about AIDS and their link to the disease;
otherwise, many new cases may develop. As the epidemic
continues to spread, women need to realize that”
The annotation for the sentences, “The changes in AIDS
education that I am suggesting are necessary and relatively
simple to make. Although the current curriculum in high school
health classes is helpful and informative, it simply does not
pertain to young women as much as it should. AIDS is killing
women at an alarming rate, and many people do not realize this.
According to Daniel DeNoon, AIDS is one of the six leading
causes of death among women aged 18 to 45, and women “bear
the brunt of the worldwide AIDS epidemic” reads, “Here the
author cites a final piece of research to emphasize the extent of
the problem.”
The annotation for the sentences, “For this reason, DeNoon
argues, women are one of the most important new populations
that are contracting HIV at a high rate. I challenge young
women to be more well-informed about AIDS and their link to
the disease; otherwise, many new cases may develop. As the
epidemic continues to spread, women need to realize that…”
reads, “Here she begins her explicit challenge to readers about
what they have to do to protect themselves or their students
from infection.”◼ Look to the Future
Looking to the future is particularly relevant when you are
asking readers to take action. To move readers to action, you
must establish the persistence of a problem and the
consequences of letting a situation continue unchanged. In the

concluding paragraph below, the student author points out a
number of things that teachers need to do to involve parents in
their children’s education. She identifies a range of options
before identifying what she believes is perhaps the most
important action teachers can take.
The paragraph reads, “First and foremost, teachers must
recognize the ways in which some parents are positively
contributing to their children’s academic endeavors. Teachers
must recognize nontraditional methods of participation as
legitimate and work toward supporting parents in these tasks.
For instance, teachers might send home suggestions for local
after-school tutoring programs. Teachers must also try to make
urban parents feel welcome and respected in their school.
Teachers might call parents to ask their opinion about a certain
difficulty their child is having, or invite them to talk about
something of interest to them. One parent, for instance, spoke
highly of the previous superintendent who had let him use his
work as a film producer to help with a show for students during
homeroom. If teachers can develop innovative ways to utilize
parents’ talents and interests rather than just inviting them to be
passively involved in an already in- place curriculum, more
parents might respond. Perhaps, most importantly, if teachers
want parents to be involved in students’ educations, they must
make the parents feel as though their opinions and concerns
have real weight. When parents such as those interviewed for
this study voice concerns and questions over their child’s
progress, it is imperative that teachers acknowledge and answer
them.”
The annotation for the sentences, “First and foremost, teachers
must recognize the ways in which some parents are positively

something of interest to them” reads, “The second through fifth
sentences present an array of options.”
The annotation for the sentences, “Perhaps, most importantly, if
teachers want parents to be involved in students’ educations,
they must make the parents feel as though their opinions and
concerns have real weight. When parents such as those
interviewed for this study voice concerns and questions over
their child’s progress, it is imperative that teachers
acknowledge and answer them” reads, “In the last two
sentences, the writer looks to the future with her
recommendations.”
The paragraph reads, “First and foremost, teachers must
recognize the ways in which some parents are positively
something of interest to them. One parent, for instance, spoke
highly of the previous superintendent who had let him use his
work as a film producer to help with a show for students during
homeroom. If teachers can develop innovative ways to uti lize
parents’ talents and interests rather than just inviting them to be
passively involved in an already in- place curriculum, more
parents might respond. Perhaps, most importantly, if teachers
want parents to be involved in students’ educations, they must
make the parents feel as though their opinions and concerns
have real weight. When parents such as those interviewed for
this study voice concerns and questions over their child’s
progress, it is imperative that teachers acknowledge and answer

them.”
The annotation for the sentences, “First and foremost, teachers
must recognize the ways in which some parents are positively
something of interest to them” reads, “The second through fifth
sentences present an array of options.”
The annotation for the sentences, “Perhaps, most importantly, if
teachers want parents to be involved in students’ educations,
they must make the parents feel as though their opinions and
concerns have real weight. When parents such as those
interviewed for this study voice concerns and questions over
their child’s progress, it is imperative that teachers
acknowledge and answer them” reads, “In the last two
sentences, the writer looks to the future with her
recommendations.”◼ Pose Questions
Posing questions stimulates readers to think about the
implications of your argument and to apply what you argue to
other situations. This is the case in the following paragraph, in
which the student writer focuses on immigration and then shifts
readers’ attention to racism and the possibility of hate crimes.
It’s useful to extrapolate from your argument, to raise questions
that test whether what you write can be applied to different
situations. These questions can help readers understand what is
at issue.
The paragraph reads, “Also, my research may apply to a broader
spectrum of sociological topics. There has been recent
discussion about the increasing trend of immigration. Much of
this discussion has involved the distribution of resources to

immigrants. Should immigrants have equal access to certain
economic and educational resources in America? The decision is
split. But it will be interesting to see how this debate will play
out. If immigrants are granted more resources, will certain
Americans mobilize against the distribution of these resources?
Will we see another rise in racist groups such as the Ku Klux
Klan in order to prevent immigrants from obtaining more
resources? My research can also be used to understand global
conflict or war. In general, groups mobilize when their
established resources are threatened by an external force.
Moreover, groups use framing processes to justify their
collective action to others.”
The annotation for the sentence, “Should immigrants have equal
access to certain economic and educational resources in
America?”
The annotation for the sentence, “If immigrants are granted
more resources, will certain Americans mobilize against the
distribution of these resources?” reads, “Other speculative
questions follow from possible responses to the writer’s first
question.”
The paragraph reads, “Also, my research may apply to a broader
spectrum of sociological topics. There has been recent
discussion about the increasing trend of immigration. Much of
this discussion has involved the distribution of resources to
immigrants. Should immigrants have equal access to certain
economic and educational resources in America? The decision is
split. But it will be interesting to see how this debate will play
out. If immigrants are granted more resources, will certain
Americans mobilize against the distribution of these resources?
Will we see another rise in racist groups such as the Ku Klux
Klan in order to prevent immigrants from obtaining more
resources? My research can also be used to understand global
conflict or war. In general, groups mobilize when their
established resources are threatened by an external force.
Moreover, groups use framing processes to justify their
collective action to others.”

The annotation for the sentence, “Should immigrants have equal
access to certain economic and educational resources in
America?”
The annotation for the sentence, “If immigrants are granted
more resources, will certain Americans mobilize against the
distribution of these resources?” reads, “Other speculative
questions follow from possible responses to the writer’s first
question.”◼ Conclude with a Quotation
A quotation can strengthen your argument, indicating that
others in positions of power and authority support your stance.
A quotation also can add poignancy to your argument, as it does
in the following excerpt, in which the quotation amplifies the
idea that people use Barbie to advance their own interests.
The paragraph reads, “what we perceive. Juel Best concludes
his discourse on Barbie with these words: “Toys do not embody
violence or sexism or occult meanings. People must assign toys
their meanings.” Barbie is whoever we make her out to be.
Barbie grabs hold of our imaginations and lets us go wild.”
The annotation for this paragraph reads, “The writer quotes an
authority to amplify the idea that individually and collectively,
we project significance on toys.”Steps to Drafting Conclusions:
Five Strategies
1. Pull together the main claims of your essay. Don’t simply
repeat points you make in the paper. Instead, show readers how
the points you make fit together.
2. Answer the question “So what?” Show your readers why your
stand on the issue is significant.
3. Place your argument in a larger context. Discuss the specifics
of your argument, but also indicate its broader implications.
4. Show readers what is new. As you synthesize the key points
of your argument, explain how what you argue builds on,
extends, or challenges the thinking of others.
5. Decide on the best strategy for writing your conclusion. Will
you echo the introduction? Challenge the reader? Look to the
future? Pose questions? Conclude with a quotation? Choose the

best strategy or strategies to appeal to your readers.A Practice
Sequence: Drafting a Conclusion
1. Write your conclusion, using one of the strategies described
in this section. Then share your conclusion with a classmate.
Ask this person to address the following questions:
· Did I pull together the key points of the argument?
· Did I answer “So what?” adequately?
· Are the implications I want readers to draw from the essay
clear?
After listening to the responses, try a second strategy, and then
ask your classmate which conclusion is more effective.
2. If you do not have a conclusion of your own, analyze each
example conclusion above to see how well each appears to (1)
pull together the main claim of the essay, (2) answer “So
what?” (3) place the argument in a larger context, and (4) show
readers what is new.
ANALYZING STRATEGIES FOR WRITING: FROM
INTRODUCTIONS TO CONCLUSIONS
Now that you have studied the various strategies for writing
introductions, developing your ideas in subsequent paragraphs,
and drafting conclusions, read Barbara Ehrenreich’s essay,
“Cultural Baggage,” and analyze the strategies she uses for
developing her argument about diversity. It may help to refer to
the practice sequences for drafting introductions (p. 320) and
conclusions (p. 339), as well as Steps to Developing Paragraphs
(p. 333). Ideally, you should work with your classmates, in
groups of three or four, assigning one person to record your
ideas and share with the whole class.
Alternatively, you could put the essays by Ehrenreich and
Elizabeth Martínez “in conversation” with one another. How do
Martínez and Ehrenreich define the issues around diversity?
What is at stake for them in the arguments they develop? What
things need to change? How would you compare the way each
uses stories and personal anecdotes to develop her ideas? Would
you say that either writer is a more effective “conversationalist”

or more successful in fulfilling her purpose?BARBARA
EHRENREICH
Cultural Baggage
Barbara Ehrenreich is a social critic, activist, and political
essayist. Her book Nickel and Dimed: On (Not) Getting By in
America (2001) describes her attempt to live on low-wage jobs;
it became a national best seller in the United States. Her
book, Bait and Switch: The (Futile) Pursuit ofthe American
Dream (2005), explores the shadowy world of the white-collar
unemployed. Recent books of cultural analysis by Ehrenreich
include Bright-Sided: How the Relentless Promotion of Positive
Thinking Has Undermined America and This Land Is Their
Land: Reports from a Divided Nation (both published in 2009).
Ehrenreich has also written for Mother Jones, The Atlantic, Ms.,
The New Republic, In These Times,Salon.com, and other
publications. “Cultural Baggage” was originally published in
the New York Times Magazine in 1992. Her most recent book
is Living with a Wild God, a memoir that she published in 2014.
An acquaintance was telling me about the joys of rediscovering
her ethnic and religious heritage. “I know exactly what my
ancestors were doing 2,000 years ago,” she said, eyes gleaming
with enthusiasm, “and I can do the same things now.” Then she
leaned forward and inquired politely, “And what is your ethnic
background, if I may ask?”
“None,” I said, that being the first word in line to get out of my
mouth. Well, not “none,” I backtracked. Scottish, English, Irish
— that was something, I supposed. Too much Irish to qualify as
a WASP; too much of the hated English to warrant a “Kiss Me,
I’m Irish” button; plus there are a number of dead ends in the
family tree due to adoptions, missing records, failing memories,
and the like. I was blushing by this time. Did “none” mean I
was rejecting my heritage out of Anglo-Celtic self-hate? Or was
I revealing a hidden ethnic chauvinism in which the
Britannically derived serve as a kind of neutral standard
compared with the ethnic “others”?
Throughout the 1960s and 70s, I watched one group after

another — African Americans, Latinos, Native Americans —
stand up and proudly reclaim their roots while I just sank back
ever deeper into my seat. All this excitement over ethnicity
stemmed, I uneasily sensed, from a past in which their ancestors
had been trampled upon by my ancestors, or at least by people
who looked very much like them. In addition, it had begun to
seem almost un-American not to have some sort of hyphen at
hand, linking one to more venerable times and locales.
But the truth is, I was raised with none. We’d eaten ethnic foods
in my childhood home, but these were all borrowed, like the
pasties, or Cornish meat pies, my father had picked up from his
fellow miners in Butte, Montana. If my mother had one rule, it
was militant ecumenism in all manners of food and experience.
“Try new things,” she would say, meaning anything from
sweetbreads to clams, with an emphasis on the “new.”
As a child, I briefly nourished a craving for tradition and roots.
I immersed myself in the works of Sir Walter Scott. I pretended
to believe that the bagpipe was a musical instrument. I was
fascinated to learn from a grandmother that we were descended
from certain Highland clans and longed for a pleated skirt in
one of their distinctive tartans.
But in Ivanhoe, it was the dark-eyed “Jewess” Rebecca I
identified with, not the flaxen-haired bimbo Rowena. As for
clans: Why not call them “tribes,” those bands of half-clad
peasants and warriors whose idea of cuisine was stuffed sheep
gut washed down with whiskey? And then there was the sting of
Disraeli’s remark — which I came across in my early teens —
to the effect that his ancestors had been leading orderly, literate
lives when my ancestors were still rampaging through the
Highlands daubing themselves with blue paint.
Motherhood put the screws on me, ethnicity-wise. I had hoped
that by marrying a man of Eastern European Jewish ancestry I
would acquire for my descendants the ethnic genes that my own
forebears so sadly lacked. At one point, I even subjected the
children to a seder of my own design, including a little talk
about the flight from Egypt and its relevance to modern social

issues. But the kids insisted on buttering their matzos and
snickering through my talk. “Give me a break, Mom,” the older
one said. “You don’t even believe in God.”
After the tiny pagans had been put to bed, I sat down to brood
over Elijah’s wine. What had I
SATORP-Company General Use
Module 12: Critical Thinking
The Change Management Process (130 points)
Throughout the years, specifically since the implementation of
Saudi Vision 2030, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has
experienced many changes. For this assignment,
Select an organization, which you have not written about (thus
far) in MGT521, and address the following: do not write about
Aramco
1. Provide information about the organization’s mission, vision,
values, and industry.
2. Provide details about how the organization has made changes
based upon the pillars of Saudi Vision 2030.
3. Explain what additional changes the organization must make
to further align with the goals and objectives set forth by Saudi
Vision 2030.

4. Explain what changes the organization must make to align
with the needs/changes in the external environment.
5. Based upon the changes noted, as related to Saudi Vision
2030 and environmental changes, explain which tools for action
planning, explored in Table 9.3, you would utilize to effectively
carry out the change.
6. Explain the critical role of communication during the time of
the change and how you would effectively communicate the
change to all organizational stakeholders.
Paper should meet the following requirements:
· Be 7-8 pages in length, which does not include the title and
reference pages, which are never a part of the content minimum
requirements.
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Formatted according to APA 7th edition a
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Unit 4 Examination
1

2
Organizational Change
Fourth Edition
3
This book is dedicated to Tupper Cawsey,
our dear and wonderful friend, colleague, and
extraordinary educator.
He passed away, but his positive impact continues to
reverberate in those he touched.
Thank you, Tupper.
Gene and Cynthia
4
5
Organizational Change
An Action-Oriented Toolkit
Fourth Edition
Gene Deszca

Wilfrid Laurier University
Cynthia Ingols
Simmons University
Tupper F. Cawsey
Wilfrid Laurier University
Los Angeles
London
New Delhi
Singapore
Washington DC
6
Melbourne
7
FOR INFORMATION:
SAGE Publications, Inc.
2455 Teller Road
Thousand Oaks, California 91320
E-mail: [email protected]
SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd.

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Copyright © 2020 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
All rights reserved. Except as permitted by U.S. copyright law,
no
part of this work may be reproduced or distributed in any form
or
by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system,
without
permission in writing from the publisher.

8
All third party trademarks referenced or depicted herein are
included solely for the purpose of illustration and are the
property
of their respective owners. Reference to these trademarks in no
way indicates any relationship with, or endorsement by, the
trademark owner.
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Deszca, Gene, author. | Ingols, Cynthia, author. |
Cawsey, T. F., author/
Title: Organizational change : an action-oriented toolkit / Gene
Deszca, Wilfrid
Laurier University, Canada, Cynthia Ingols - Simmons College,
USA, Tupper F.
Cawsey - Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada.
Other titles: Organisational change
Description: Fourth Edition. | Thousand Oaks : SAGE
Publications, [2019] |
Revised edition of Organizational change, [2016] | Includes
bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019013498 | ISBN 9781544351407
(paperback)
Subjects: LCSH: Organizational change.

Classification: LCC HD58.8 .C39 2019 | DDC 658.4/06—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019013498
Acquisitions Editor: Maggie Stanley
Editorial Assistant: Janeane Calderon
Production Editor: Gagan Mahindra
Copy Editor: Lynne Curry
Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.
Proofreader: Rae-Ann Goodwin
Indexer: Mary Mortensen
Cover Designer: Candice Harman
Marketing Manager: Sarah Panella
https://lccn.loc.gov/2019013498
9
10
Brief Contents
1. Preface
2. Acknowledgments
3. Chapter 1 • Changing Organizations in Our Complex World
4. Chapter 2 • How to Lead Organizational Change:

Frameworks
5. Chapter 3 • What to Change in an Organization: Frameworks
6. Chapter 4 • Building and Energizing the Need for Change
7. Chapter 5 • Navigating Change through Formal Structures
and Systems
8. Chapter 6 • Navigating Organizational Politics and Culture
9. Chapter 7 • Managing Recipients of Change and Influencing
Internal Stakeholders
10. Chapter 8 • Becoming a Master Change Agent
11. Chapter 9 • Action Planning and Implementation
12. Chapter 10 • Get and Use Data Throughout the Change
Process
13. Chapter 11 • The Future of Organizations and the Future of
Change
14. Notes
15. Index
16. About the Authors
11
12
Detailed Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1 • Changing Organizations in Our Complex World

Defining Organizational Change
The Orientation of This Book
Environmental Forces Driving Change Today
The Implications of Worldwide Trends for Change
Management
Four Types of Organizational Change
Planned Changes Don’t Always Produce the
Intended Results
Organizational Change Roles
Change Initiators
Change Implementers
Change Facilitators
Common Challenges for Managerial Roles
Change Recipients
The Requirements for Becoming a Successful Change
Leader
Summary
Key Terms
End-of-Chapter Exercises
Chapter 2 • How to Lead Organizational Change:
Frameworks
Differentiating How to Change from What to Change
The Processes of Organizational Change
(1) Stage Theory of Change: Lewin
Unfreeze
Change
Refreeze: or more appropriately Re-gell
(2) Stage Model of Organizational Change: Kotter

Kotter’s Eight-Stage Process
(3) Giving Voice to Values: Gentile
GVV and Organizational Change
(4) Emotional Transitions Through Change: Duck
Duck’s Five-Stage Change Curve
(5) Managing the Change Process: Beckhard and Harris
13
(6) The Change Path Model: Deszca and Ingols
Application of the Change Path Model
Awakening: Why Change?
Mobilization: Activating the Gap Analysis
Acceleration: Getting from Here to There
Institutionalization: Using Data to Help Make the
Change Stick
Summary
Key Terms
➡Case Study: “Not an Option to Even Consider:”
Contending With the Pressures to Compromise by
Heather Bodman and Cynthia Ingols
Chapter 3 • What to Change in an Organization: Frameworks
Open Systems Approach to Organizational Analysis
(1) Nadler and Tushman’s Congruence Model
History and Environment

Strategy
The Transformation Process
Work
The Formal Organization
The Informal Organization
People
Outputs
An Example Using Nadler and Tushman’s
Congruence Model
Evaluating Nadler and Tushman’s Congruence
Model
(2) Sterman’s Systems Dynamics Model
(3) Quinn’s Competing Values Model
(4) Greiner’s Model of Organizational Growth
(5) Stacey’s Complexity Theory
Summary
Key Terms
➡Case Study: Sarah’s Snacks by Paul Myers
Chapter 4 • Building and Energizing the Need for Change
Understanding the Need for Change
Seek Out and Make Sense of External Data
14
Seek Out and Make Sense of the Perspectives of
Stakeholders
Seek Out and Make Sense of Internal Data
Seek Out and Assess Your Personal Concerns and
Perspectives

Assessing the Readiness for Change
Heightening Awareness of the Need for Change
Factors That Block People from Recognizing the
Need for Change
Developing a Powerful Vision for Change
The Difference Between an Organizational Vision and a
Change Vision
Examples of Visions for Change
IBM—Diversity 3.0
Tata’s Nano: From Vision to Failed Project
Change Vision for the “Survive to 5” Program
Change Vision for “Reading Rainbow”
Change Vision for a Large South African Winemaker
Change Vision for the Procurement System in a
Midsize Manufacturing Firm
Summary
Key Terms
A Checklist for Change: Creating the Readiness for
Change
➡Case Study: Leading Change: The Pharmacy
Team by Jess Coppla
Chapter 5 • Navigating Change through Formal Structures
and Systems
Making Sense of Formal Structures and Systems
Impact of Uncertainty and Complexity on Formal
Structures and Systems
Formal Structures and Systems From an Information
Perspective

Aligning Systems and Structures With the
Environment
Structural Changes to Handle Increased Uncertainty
Making Formal Structural Choices
Using Structures and Systems to Influence the Approval
and Implementation of Change
15
Using Formal Structures and Systems to Advance
Change
Using Systems and Structures to Obtain Formal
Approval of a Change Project
Using Systems to Enhance the Prospects for
Approval
Ways to Approach the Approval Process
Aligning Strategically, Starting Small, and “Morphing”
Tactics
The Interaction of Structures and Systems with Change
During Implementation
Using Structures and Systems to Facilitate the
Acceptance of Change
Summary
Key Terms
Checklist: Change Initiative Approval
➡Case Study: Beck Consulting Corporation by
Cynthia Ingols and Lisa Brem
Chapter 6 • Navigating Organizational Politics and Culture
Power Dynamics in Organizations

Individual Power
Departmental Power
Organizational Culture and Change
How to Analyze a Culture
Tips for Change Agents to Assess a Culture
Tools to Assess the Need for Change
Identifying the Organizational Dynamics at Play
Summary
Key Terms
Checklist: Stakeholder Analysis
➡Case Study: Patrick’s Problem by Stacy Blake-
Beard
Chapter 7 • Managing Recipients of Change and Influencing
Internal Stakeholders
Stakeholders Respond Variably to Change Initiatives
Not Everyone Sees Change as Negative
Responding to Various Feelings in Stakeholders
16
Positive Feelings in Stakeholders: Channeling Their
Energy
Ambivalent Feelings in Stakeholders: They Can Be
Useful
Negative Reactions to Change by Stakeholders:

These Too Can Be Useful
Make the Change of the Psychological Contract Explicit
and Transparent
Predictable Stages in the Reaction to Change
Stakeholders’ Personalities Influence Their
Reactions to Change
Prior Experience Impacts a Person’s and
Organization’s Perspective on Change
Coworkers Influence Stakeholders’ Views
Feelings About Change Leaders Make a Difference
Integrity is One Antidote to Skepticism and Cynicism
Avoiding Coercion but Pushing Hard: The Sweet Spot?
Creating Consistent Signals from Systems and
Processes
Steps to Minimize the Negative Effects of Change
Engagement
Timeliness
Two-Way Communication
Make Continuous Improvement the Norm
Encourage People to Be Change Agents and Avoid the
Recipient Trap
Summary
Key Terms
Checklist: How to Manage and Minimize Cynicism About
Change
➡Case Study: Travelink

Solution
s by Noah Deszca
and Gene Deszca
Chapter 8 • Becoming a Master Change Agent
Factors That Influence Change Agent Success
The Interplay of Personal Attributes, Situation,
and Vision
Change Leaders and Their Essential
Characteristics
Developing into a Change Leader
17
Intention, Education, Self-Discipline, and
Experience
What Does Reflection Mean?

Developmental Stages of Change Leaders
Four Types of Change Leaders
Internal Consultants: Specialists in Change
External Consultants: Specialized, Paid Change
Agents
Provide Subject-Matter Expertise
Bring Fresh Perspectives from Ideas That Have
Worked Elsewhere
Provide Independent, Trustworthy Support
Limitations of External Consultants
Change Teams
Change from the Middle: Everyone Needs to Be a
Change Agent
Rules of Thumb for Change Agents
Summary
Key Terms
Checklist: Structuring Work in a Change Team
➡Case Study: Master Change Agent:
Katherine Gottlieb, Southcentral Foundation by
Erin E. Sullivan

Chapter 9 • Action Planning and Implementation
Without a “Do It” Orientation, Things Won’t Happen
Prelude to Action: Selecting the Correct Path
Plan the Work
Engage Others in Action Planning
Ensure Alignment in Your Action Planning
Action Planning Tools
1. To-Do Lists
2. Responsibility Charting
3. Contingency Planning
4. Flow Charting
5. Design Thinking
6. Surveys and Survey Feedback
7. Project Planning and Critical Path Methods
8. Tools to Assess Forces That Affect Outcomes
and Stakeholders
18
9. Leverage Analysis
10. Employee Training and Development

11. Diverse Change Approaches
Working the Plan Ethically and Adaptively
Developing a Communication Plan
Timing and Focus of Communications
Key Principles in Communicating for Change
Influence Strategies
Transition Management
Summary
Key Terms
➡Case Study: Turning Around Cote
Construction Company by Cynthia Ingols, Gene
Deszca, and Tupper F. Cawsey
Chapter 10 • Get and Use Data Throughout the Change
Process
Selecting and Deploying Measures
1. Focus on Key Factors
2. Use Measures That Lead to Challenging but
Achievable Goals
3. Use Measures and Controls That Are

Perceived as Fair and Appropriate
4. Avoid Sending Mixed Signals
5. Ensure Accurate Data
6. Match the Precision of the Measure With the
Ability to Measure
Measurement Systems and Change Management
Data Used as Guides During Design and Early
Stages of the Change Project
Data Used as Guides in the Middle of the
Change Project
Data Used as Guides Toward the End of the
Change Project
Other Measurement Tools
Strategy Maps
The Balanced Scorecard
Risk Exposure Calculator
The DICE Model
Summary
19

Key Terms
Checklist: Creating a Balanced Scorecard
➡Case Study: Omada Health: Making the
Case for Digital Health by Erin E. Sullivan and
Jessica L. Alpert
Chapter 11 • The Future of Organizations and the Future
of Change
Putting the Change Path Model into Practice
Future Organizations and Their Impact
Becoming an Organizational Change Agent:
Specialists and Generalists
Paradoxes in Organizational Change
Orienting Yourself to Organizational Change
Summary
Notes
Index
About the Authors

20
21
Preface to the Fourth Edition
Difficult to see. Always in motion
is the future.1
1 Spoken by Yoda in the movie The Empire Strikes Back
The world has continued to churn in very challenging ways
since
the publishing of the third edition of this text. Uneven and
shifting
global patterns of growth, stubbornly high unemployment levels
in
many parts of the world, increasing income inequality, and
serious
trade disputes that threaten to transform trade patterns are
severely stressing our highly interconnected global economy.
The

massive credit crisis of a decade ago was followed by
unprecedented worldwide government stimulus spending and
low
interest rates to promote growth, which, in turn, have resulted
in
escalating public debt, exacerbated in some nations through tax
cuts. These combine to threaten the capacity of national
governments to respond to future economic difficulties.
In addition, wars, insurrections and civil insurrections in parts
of
Africa, the Ukraine, the Middle East, and Asia have sent masses
of people searching for safety in new places. Simultaneously,
deteriorating international relationships involving major
powers,
fears of global pandemics (Ebola and MERS), and the staying
power of radical Islamist groups such as al-Qaeda and ISIS
affiliates, Boko Haram and Jemaah Islamiyah have shaken all
organizations in affected regions—big or small, public or
private.
Escalating concerns related to global warming, species
extinctions, and rising sea levels are stressing those who
recognize the problems in governments and organizations of all
shapes and sizes, as they attempt to figure out how to
constructively address these emerging realities. Add to these

elements the accelerating pace of technological change and it’s
easy to see why we, at times, feel overwhelmed by the
turbulence, uncertainty, and negative prognosis that seem to
define the present.
22
But, all is not doom and gloom. Progress on human rights and
gender equity, reductions in extreme poverty and hunger,
declining rates of murder and violent crime, improving rates of
literacy and life expectancy, and increasing access to
information
and knowledge through affordable digital resources provide
evidence that progress is being made on some fronts. The
growing public willingness to tackle very difficult
environmental
and social issues now, not later, are combining with innovative
technologies, creative for-profit and not-for-profit
organizations,
and forward-thinking politicians and leaders from all walks of
life.
Supportive public policies are combining with public and
private

initiatives to demonstrate that we can make serious progress on
these issues, if we collectively choose to act in constructive a nd
thoughtful manners locally, regionally, and globally. These
factors
have also made us, your authors, much more aware of the
extreme influence of the external environment on the internal
workings of all organizations.
As we point out in our book, the smallest of firms needs to
adapt
when new competitive realities and opportunities surface. Even
the largest and most successful of firms have to learn how to
adapt when disruptive technologies or rapid social, economic,
political and environmental changes alter their realities. If they
fail
to do so, they will falter and potentially fail.
Our models have always included and often started with events
external to organizations. We have always argued that change
leaders need to scan their environments and be aw are of trends
and crises in those environments. The events of the past two
years have reinforced even more our sense of this. Managers
must be sensitive to what happens around them, know how to
make sense of this, and then have the skills and abilities that
will

allow them to both react effectively to the internal and external
challenges and remain constant in their visions and dreams of
how to make their organizations and the world a better place to
live.
A corollary of this is that organizations need a response
capability
that is unprecedented because we’re playing on a global stage of
increasing complexity and uncertainty. If you are a bank, you
need
23
a capital ratio that would have been unprecedented a few years
ago, and you need to be working hard to understand the
potential
implications of blockchain technologies, regulatory changes,
and
changing consumer preferences on the future of banking. If you
are a major organization, you need to design flexibility and
adaptability into your structures, policies, and plans. If you are
a
public-sector organization, you need to be sensitive to how

capricious granting agencies or funders will be when revenues
dry
up. In today’s world, organizational resilience, adaptability, and
agility gain new prominence.
Further, we are challenged with a continuing reality that change
is
endemic. All managers need to be change managers. All good
managers are change leaders. The management job involves
creating, anticipating, encouraging, engaging others, and
responding positively to change. This has been a theme of this
book that continues. Change management is for everyone.
Change management emerges from the bottom and middle of the
organization as much as from the top. It will be those key
leaders
who are embedded in the organization who will enable the
needed
adaptation of the organization to its environment. Managers of
all
stripes need to be key change leaders.
In addition to the above, we have used feedback on the third
edition to strengthen the pragmatic orientation that we had
developed. The major themes of action orientation, analysis tied
with doing, the management of a nonlinear world, and the

bridging
of the “knowing–doing” gap continue to be central themes. At
the
same time, we have tried to shift to a more user friendly, action
perspective. To make the material more accessible to a diversity
of readers, some theoretical material has been altered, some of
our models have been clarified and simplified, and some of our
language and formatting has been modified.
As we stated in the preface to the first edition, our motivation
for
this book was to fill a gap we saw in the marketplace. Our
challenge was to develop a book that not only gave prescriptive
advice, “how-to-do-it lists,” but one that also provided up-to-
date
theory without getting sidetracked by academic theoretical
complexities. We hope that we have captured the management
24
experience with change so that our manuscript assists all those
who must deal with change, not just senior executives or
organization development specialists. Although there is much in

this book for the senior executive and organizational
development
specialist, our intent was to create a book that would be
valuable
to a broad cross section of the workforce.
Our personal beliefs form the basis for the book. Even as
academics, we have a bias for action. We believe that “doing is
healthy.” Taking action creates influence and demands
responses
from others. While we believe in the need for excellent
analysis,
we know that action itself provides opportunities for feedback
and
learning that can improve the action. Finally, we have a strong
belief in the worth of people. In particular, we believe that one
of
the greatest sources of improvement is the untapped potential to
be found in the people of all organizations.
We recognize that this book is not an easy read. It is not meant
to
be. It is meant as a serious text for those involved in change—
that
is, all managers! We hope you find it a book that you will want

to
keep and pull from your shelf in the years ahead, when you need
to lead change and you want help thinking it through.
Your authors,
Gene, Cynthia, and Tupper
Note on Instructor Teaching Site
A password-protected instructor’s manual is available at
study.sagepub.com/cawsey to help instructors plan and teach
their courses. These resources have been designed to help
instructors make the classes as practical and interesting as
possible for students.
PowerPoint Slides capture key concepts and terms for each
chapter for use in lectures and review.
A Test Bank includes multiple-choice, short-answer, and essay
exam questions for each chapter.
http://study.sagepub.com/cawsey

25
Video Resources for each chapter help launch class discussion.
Sample Syllabi, Assignments, and Chapter Exercises as optional
supplements to course curriculum.
Case Studies and teaching notes for each chapter facilitate
application of concepts in real world situations.
26
27
Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge the many people who have
helped
to make this edition of the book possible. Our colleagues and
students and their reactions to the ideas and materials continue
to

be a source of inspiration.
Cynthia would like to thank her colleagues at the School of
Business, Simmons University, Boston, Massachusetts. In
particular, she would like to thank Dr. Stacy Blake-Beard,
Deloitte
Ellen Gabriel Chair of Women and Leadership, and Dr. Paul
Myers, senior lecturer, who each contributed a case to this
fourth
edition of the book. In addition, Paul graciously read and gave
feedback on other cases and parts of the text, suggesting ways
to
bring clarity to sometimes muddled meanings. Alissa Scheibert,
a
Simmons library science student, conducted in-depth research
for
a number of chapters. Dr. Erin Sullivan, research director, and
Jessica L. Alpert, researcher, Center for Primary Care, Harvard
Medical School, contributed two cases to this edition of the
book
and I am very grateful for their contributions. Jess Coppla, a
former Healthcare MBA student leader and author of one of the
cases, will someday be CEO of a healthcare
organization. . . . I’m
just waiting to see which one. Colleagues Gary Gaumer, Cathy

Robbins, Bob Coulum, Todd Hermann, Mindy Nitkin, and Mary
Shapiro were wonderful cheerleaders throughout the many hours
of my sitting, writing, and revising in my office: thank you all!
Managers, executives, and front-line employees that we have
known have provided insights, case examples, and applications
while keeping us focused on what is useful and relevant. Ellen
Zane, former CEO of Tufts Medical Center, Boston, is an
inspiring
change leader; her turnaround story at the Tufts Medical Center
appeared in the second edition of this book and was published
again in the third edition; it continues to be on the Sage website
for use by faculty. Cynthia has also been fortunate to work with
and learn from Gretchen Fox, founder and former CEO, FOX
RPM: the story of how she changed her small firm appeared in
the
second edition of the book and the case continues to be
available
28
through Harvard Business Publishing
(http://hbr.org/product/fox-

relocation-management-corp/an/NA0096-PDF-ENG). Noah
Deszca, a high school teacher, was the prime author of the
Travelink

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