20070713 Empowering Teachers with Choice How a Diversified Education System Benefits Teachers, Students, and America

Independent Women’s Forum
1726 M Street NW
Tenth Floor
Washington, DC 20036
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Empowering Teachers with Choice:
How a Diversified Education System
Benefits Teachers, Students, and America
By Vicki E. Murray, Ph.D.
Position Paper No. 605 ■ July 2007
WOMEN FOR SCHOOL CHOICE: A PROJECT OF THE INDEPENDENT WOMEN’S FORUM

1726 M Street NW, Tenth Floor
202-419-1820
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© 2007 Independent Women’s Forum. All rights reserved.

Executive Summary ........................................................................................................1
Introduction: Possibilities and Problems with Teaching in America ..................................3
Results to Date: Is Teaching Still Risky Business? ..........................................................7
Teachers as Agents of Change, Not Objects of Change..................................................21
Teachers as Leaders: A Better Model for Reform ..........................................................23
Conclusion: Choice Benefits Teachers, their Students, and the Country ........................27
Endnotes......................................................................................................................29
Table of Contents

Empowering Teachers with Choice: How a Diversified Education System Benefits Teachers, Students, and America ■ 1
I N D E P E N D E N T
W O M E N ’ S F O R U M
Education is the second largest U.S. industry, and female employees outnumber male
employees by more than three to one. Since there are more career opportunities today
than ever before, ensuring the teaching profession attracts talented women is an
important public policy concern. However, since 1983, when A Nation at Risk, a
landmark assessment of U.S. education, concluded that the “professional working life of
teachers is on the whole unacceptable,” little has changed despite numerous state and
national efforts. A fundamental shortcoming of those efforts is that they treat teachers as
objects of change, not agents of change. In fact, educators are driving emerging reforms
by starting schools where teachers want to work and parents
want their children to learn.
Until recently, private schools were the only alternative to
the traditional public-school system. Overall, private-school
teachers are nearly twice as satisfied as public-school teachers
with their working conditions. In the 1970s and 1980s, educators
began advocating “chartered schools” or public schools that
would abide by the same accountability and admissions
requirements as district schools but would be run by teachers,
have distinct educational missions, and serve general or targeted
student populations. The first charter school opened in 1991, and
today some 4,000 charter schools are educating nearly 1.2 million
students. Although charter schools represent about three percent
of all American schools, charter schools create an instructive
microcosm of a diversified educational system and show how that
system might benefit teachers and students.
At 82 percent, overall satisfaction rates among charter-school teachers are twice as
high as their private counterparts and more than three times as high as their district
counterparts. Two-thirds of charter-school teachers report high levels of satisfaction with the
influence they have over curricula, student discipline, and professional development, as well
as school safety, collaboration with colleagues, and their schools’ learning environments. On
those same measures, slightly more than half of private-school teachers and slightly more
than one-third of public-school teachers report high levels of satisfaction. These results
suggest the teachers’ and students’ ability to choose their schools positively affects teachers’
and students’ experience at school. In contrast to our current system, which is dominated by
assigned, government-run public schools, a more diversified system would offer teachers the
same wide range of employment options other professionals now enjoy. To attract quality
teachers, schools would have to offer competitive salaries, flexible schedules, and a
Executive Summary
In contrast to our current system, which is
dominated by assigned, government-run
public schools, a more diversified system
would offer teachers the same wide range of
employment options other professionals
currently enjoy. To attract quality teachers,
schools would have to offer competitive
salaries, flexible schedules, and a professional
working environment in which teachers have
autonomy to innovate and are rewarded for
their success in educating students.

2 ■ Position Paper No. 605
professional working environment in which teachers have autonomy to innovate and are
rewarded for their successes.
In short, if their top concern were truly the well-being of
teachers, organizations purporting to represent them, such as the
National Education Association and the American Federation of
Teachers, would make diversifying the education marketplace—
through charter schools, voucher programs, and other initiatives
that increase parental choice—their top priority.1
Although charter schools represent about
three percent of all American schools, charter
schools create an instructive microcosm of a
diversified educational system and show how
that system might benefit teachers.

Imagine if teaching resembled the medical or legal profession. Like doctors and attorneys,
teachers would choose their areas and levels of specialization, and pick from a variety of
employers that best match their unique specialties and interests. Similar to hospitals and law
firms today, schools would operate according to various missions, attracting and serving
general or specific populations. Schools would come in many sizes and operate in both the
government and private sectors. To attract and retain the best and the brightest, schools
would have to offer teachers competitive salaries, flexible work schedules, options for
working standard or extensive hours, opportunities for rigorous career enrichment, and a
professional working environment in which teachers have autonomy to innovate and are
rewarded for their successes.
This kind of labor market already exists for teachers in other
parts of the world. In Japan, for example, there is great demand for
high-quality teachers and a diversified education system, comprised
of a centralized national school system run by the Ministry of
Education and decentralized supplemental elementary (juku) and
secondary (yobiko) schools run by educators. These decentralized
schools, ranging from very small schools, with one teacher
instructing a handful of students, to nationwide chains enrolling as
many as a million students. The schools also offer diverse curricula.
Some schools offer specialized preparation for high school and
university entrance exams. Others offer remedial, gifted, or general
educational services. Still others provide non-academic instruction,
including the arts and physical fitness.2
The benefits to teachers of such a system are not only strong
parental support and involvement, but as education scholar Andrew Coulson explains, “The
opportunity to offer personalized instruction to truly motivated students is appealing to
teachers disheartened by the disengaged, disinterested attitudes commonly found among
students in compulsory schools. Salaries are generally good, . . . and top juku instructors can
and do earn as much as professional Japanese baseball players.” 3
Such a diversified system fosters good teacher-school and teacher-student matches, and
it also gets results. Japanese students consistently score at or near the top on international
exams across a variety of subjects.4
There is no good reason such a diversified labor market
for elementary and secondary school teachers could not exist in America, as it does for
postsecondary educators.
A more diversified educational system would also channel current public demand for
good teachers. A 2004 Phi Delta Kappa/Gallup poll conducted for the Teaching Commission
Introduction: Possibilities and Problems
with Teaching in America
A diversified system would also be more
responsive to the needs of women,
the teaching force’s largest constituency.
For the past 40 years, roughly 75 percent
of all elementary and secondary school
teachers have been women, and today
women outnumber men by more than
three to one among full-time elementary
and secondary school teachers.
This trend is expected to continue.

found that “73 percent of Americans said that getting good teachers is a high priority in their
communities.”5
Research indicates that controlling for other variables, quality teachers can
boost student learning by a full level in a single year and almost eliminate the achievement
gap among low-income, minority students and other students.6
Ensuring a diversified labor market capable of attracting and keeping such teachers
serves the individual good of students as well as the common good. According to economist
Eric Hanushek of Stanford University’s Hoover Institution, performance on standardized
tests generally, and math and science in particular, “is directly related to individual
productivity and earnings and to national economic growth.” Hanushek estimates that if
U.S. student performance simply remained comparable to that of their international peers
throughout the 1980s instead of declining, “[Gross domestic product] in the United States
would end up more than 4 percent higher than realized in 2002. With close to a $10.5
trillion economy, the unrealized gain for 2002 alone would amount to $450 billion, or more
than the total annual expenditure on K-12 education.”7
Today, nearly a quarter of Americans are enrolled in
educational institutions, making the educational system the
second largest industry in the United States, accounting for about
13 million jobs, or four percent, of the civilian workforce.8
In fact,
teachers outnumber nurses by two to one, and attorneys and
professors by five to one.9
Since 1970, the number of elementary
and secondary teachers in America has increased from 2.3 million
teachers to 3.6 million in 2006, or 57 percent.10
By 2014, that
number is projected to reach nearly 4 million.11
A diversified
education system could therefore help ensure that the teacher
labor market and the national economy remains robust.
A diversified system would also be more responsive to the needs of women, the
teaching force’s largest constituency. For the past 40 years, roughly 75 percent of all
elementary and secondary school teachers have been women, and today women outnumber
men by more than three to one among full-time elementary and secondary school teachers.12
This trend is expected to continue. The Education Commission of the States (ECS) explains
that “one of the reasons for the interest in teaching among women is the opportunity it
affords to take time out to raise a family, which means there is likely to continue to be
relatively strong interest in teaching as a profession among women in spite of increased job
opportunities elsewhere.”13
As wage parity between men and women is increasingly achieved across professions,
ensuring that the teaching profession remains attractive to talented women is an important
public policy concern. “For most of U.S. history, the nation has been able to operate schools
at low cost by exploiting the trapped labor force of educated women who had few other
opportunities,” notes MIT economics Professor Peter Temin, “Now schools must compete
with other mentally and financially rewarding occupations as they recruit teachers.”14
Recent
research by Harvard University economist Caroline M. Hoxby clarifies those findings.15
Alarmingly, survey responses of public-school
teachers indicate they are twice as likely as
private-school teachers to sometimes feel
that doing their best is a waste of time and
more than four times as likely to worry about
job security.

Hoxby explains that “the likelihood that a highly talented female (one ranked among the
top 10 percent of all high schoolers) will become a teacher fell from roughly 20 percent in
1964 to just over 11 percent in 2000.”16
Yet she finds that it is not higher salaries in other
professions that are drawing talented women away from teaching, but rather the lack of
merit pay in teaching:
[W]e cannot expect high-performing college graduates to continue to enter
teaching if that is the one profession in which pay is decoupled from
performance. Indeed, other professions have been raising the reward for
performance over the past few decades. . . . To attract high-aptitude women
back into teaching, school districts need to reward teachers in the same way
that college graduates are paid in other professions—that is, according to
their performance.17
In other words, when it comes to influencing a talented woman’s decision to enter
a profession, money does matter, but merit pay apparently matters more. Lucrative
paychecks alone do not lure highly motivated and dedicated individuals into their
professions. Such individuals want to make a positive contribution to society.
Nevertheless, in a free society, hard-working professionals deserve an equal opportunity
to earn an honest, competitive living without barriers
preventing them from being fairly compensated. As with public
support for good doctors and attorneys, the Teaching
Commission finds that having good teachers in their
communities is a top priority for the overwhelming majority of
Americans. This support suggests that parents would certainly
be willing to pay more for good teachers to educate their
children, just as they are willing to pay for quality medical care
and legal services.
A prevalent notion is that paying teachers for performance
would undermine collegiality.18
Survey results of educator schools
from eight states where pay is based on performance indicate
otherwise. Seventy percent of teachers agree or strongly agree that
more effective teachers should be paid more. Likewise, when asked about the level of
collegiality at their schools since enacting performance pay, 70 percent of teachers responded
that the level of collegiality at their schools was high or very high.19
Public- and private-school teachers’ perceptions about teaching and conditions at their
schools differ significantly.20
On average, 22 percent more private-school teachers indicate
they are satisfied with their class sizes and their school’s enforcement of student behavior
rules, have the materials they need, and feel supported by fellow teachers, administrators,
and parents than public-school teachers. Yet today, public- and private-school classrooms
average about fifteen students. Since class sizes were first tracked in 1955, private schools
Today, more teachers are creating
the kind of schools where they want to work
and where parents want their children
to learn. The schools those teachers left
behind are taking notice because their
employees now have more appealing teaching
options. Such options empower teachers and
contribute to an improved working and
learning environment

have halved their average pupil/teacher ratio from a high of 32:1 to less than 16:1. Likewise,
public schools have reduced their average pupil/teacher ratio from a high of 27:1 to less than
16:1.21
However, the cost of reducing public-school class sizes is significant. For example, 20
states have launched class-size-reduction initiatives over the past two decades. In the
1999–2000 school year alone, those states spent in excess of $2 billion. In 1998, the federal
government created the Class Size Reduction Program, which costs more than $1 billion
annually.22
Meanwhile, data from the U.S. Department of Education show that private
schools on average are half as expensive per pupal as public schools.23
Even though public and private classroom typically have fewer than 16 students, 83
percent more public-school teachers indicate that paperwork and other routine duties,
student misbehavior, tardiness, and cutting class interfere with their teaching. Alarmingly,
survey responses of public-school teachers indicate that they are twice as likely as private-
school teachers to sometimes feel that doing their best is a waste of time and more than four
times as likely to worry about job security.
What follows is an examination of efforts to improve the teaching profession and the
results to date. The next section examines a fundamental shortcoming of those efforts,
namely that they treat teachers as objects of change, not agents of change. Subsequent
sections consider recent reform efforts inspired and advanced by teachers to improve the
profession. The results thus far are encouraging and suggest teachers have a vital role to play
in the running and founding of schools.
Today, more teachers are creating the kinds of schools where they want to work and
where parents want their children to learn. The schools those teachers left behind are taking
notice because their employees now have more appealing teaching options. Such options
empower teachers and contribute to an improved working and learning environment. These
efforts are recent but promising. The final section considers the benefits to teachers if the
emerging diversified education system were universalized, giving all teachers the same wide
range of employment options other professionals currently enjoy.

On August 26, 1981, then U.S. Secretary of Education T. H. Bell formed the National
Commission on Excellence in Education and directed it to publish a report on the quality of
education in America.24
The report, A Nation at Risk, was released in April 1983. According
to the report, “The Commission found that not enough of the academically able students are
being attracted to teaching; that teacher preparation programs need substantial
improvement; that the professional working life of teachers is on the whole unacceptable;
and that a serious shortage of teachers exists in key fields.”25
The Excellence Commission
also concluded that salaries were so low many teachers had to supplement their annual
income with part-time and summer work; and teachers have too little influence in critical
professional decisions.
The Excellence Commission went on to make several recommendations that are
condensed into four broad recommendations concerning teacher preparation, competitive
salaries, teacher recruitment (especially in areas of critical shortage), and teacher retention.26
Accompanying each recommendation is a table summarizing the policies that states and the
District of Columbia currently have in place designed to achieve them.
Recommendation 1: Teacher Preparation. “Persons preparing to teach should be
required to meet high educational standards, to demonstrate an aptitude for
teaching, and to demonstrate competence in an academic discipline.”
Policies Number of States
State requires subject-knowledge tests for high-school teachers for an initial license 43
Induction and mentoring program or policies 42
State requires a minimum number of weeks required for student teaching 39
State requires a basic skills test for an initial license 37
State requires high-school teachers to obtain a subject-area major for an initial license 33
State requires subject-knowledge tests for middle-school teachers for an initial license 26
State requires a subject-specific pedagogy test for an initial license 25
Sources: Author’s table based on data from Education Week,Agent K-12 database; and Education Commission
of the States (ECS), Recruitment and Retention: State Policy database.
Notes:
1. Table includes the 50 states and the District of Columbia.
2. Some states in the ECS database have policies, but information about them is not publicly available. Those
states are included in the “Number of States” column.
It would appear that the teaching profession has come a long way over the past two
decades. Currently, 43 states require subject-matter tests, 37 states require basic-skills tests,
Results to Date: Is Teaching Still
Risky Business?

and 25 states require pedagogy tests. In recent years, states have implemented more
regulations governing teacher quality, standards for people entering the teaching
profession, and accountability from education schools, including increased basic skills,
mastery of subject matter, and pedagogy testing.27
Title II of the Higher Education Act,
passed in 1998, also requires schools of education to submit accountability reports
demonstrating that 85 percent of their students pass state certification exams. Today,
passing rates of education-school graduates on the licensing exams are published in 29
states, and 14 states attempt to hold education schools accountable based on the
achievement of students in classes taught by their graduates.28
In a recent national survey of teachers, however, respondents report that in their
experience at least a few or more than a few new teachers need more content knowledge
in the subjects they teach (73 percent), while a very large number of new teachers need
“a lot more” training to teach students who are discipline
problems (45 percent), and students who are struggling (42
percent).29
Those responses are alarming given that 82 percent
of the states currently have policies concerning induction and
mentoring for new teachers, and over two-thirds have
minimum student-teaching requirements. They also call into
question the rigor of states’ certification process, which only
13 percent of principals and seven percent of superintendents
think guarantees a teacher will be successful in the
classroom.30
Those responses also likely reflect the consequences of a recent trend in
many states lowering their certification standards to increase the number of recent
graduates passing licensure exams.31
Extensive alumni and faculty surveys conducted by the past president of Columbia
University’s Teachers College, Arthur Levine, help shed light on this phenomenon. In his
2006 report, Educating School Teachers, Levine explains, “State standards for assuring
quality control in teacher education programs today are weak.”32
Despite the fact that in
48 states and the District of Columbia low-performing education schools must be
identified, Levine explains that the “rhetoric here is stronger than the reality, as only 13
states reported a total of 20 schools needing improvement.”33
The Teaching Commission
also recently concluded that many teacher preparation programs “continue to lack rigor
and real-world relevance.”34
Moreover, among the 19 states with policies setting
minimum admission qualifications for undergraduates entering teacher-education
programs, only three states recommend a “B-” grade point average, while 16 states
require only a “C” or “C-.”35
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee School of Education Professors Mark Schug and
Richard Western note that dissatisfaction with education schools dates back the mid-19th
century. They add, “State licensure systems, intended by professional educators to serve as
linchpins in a rational system of quality control, have similarly generated widespread
discontent. . . . Observers note that within these systems, ill-defined, unfounded requirements
Low standards undermine public
confidence in the teaching profession and
contribute to a general lack of respect for
teachers, despite public acknowledgment
of the importance of good teachers.

and superficial program-evaluation procedures prevail behind the facade of elaborate state
codes.”36
Research also reveals that fewer than half of education professors had taught in
elementary or secondary schools in the past 15 years, and one in six had no classroom
experience.37
Low standards undermine public confidence in the teaching profession and contribute
to a general lack of respect for teachers, despite public acknowledgment of the importance
of good teachers. Doctors and attorneys garner respect because the public knows admissions
standards to medical and law schools are competitive, training is rigorous, and state
licensure standards are high. States and education schools do teachers no favors by lowering
the standards. States are likely motivated to do so by fears of teacher shortages. Yet the
evidence shows that people who are not equipped for the teaching profession soon quit,
leaving behind talented teachers who must contend with the disruption to their schools and
students that high turnover rates bring.38
Adding insult to injury, low standards stigmatize
quality teachers as being in an “easy” profession.
Levine concludes that education schools must become “professional schools focused
on classroom practice. . . . Medical schools are rooted in hospitals; law schools look to the
courts; journalism schools see their home as the media; and business schools focus on
corporations. The work of education schools needs to be grounded in P-12 schools.”38
Levine concludes that “the job of a teacher education program is to prepare teachers who
can promote student achievement. The measure of a program’s success is how well the
students in its graduates’ classes perform.”40
Recommendation 2: Competitive Salaries. “Salaries for the teaching profession
should be increased and should be professionally competitive, market-sensitive, and
performance-based. Salary, promotion, tenure, and retention decisions should be
tied to an effective evaluation system that includes peer review so that superior
teachers can be rewarded, average ones encouraged, and poor ones either improved
or terminated.”
State has a statewide teacher salary schedule 21
Signing bonuses 17
State has a pay-for-performance program based on student achievement growth 8
Evaluations are tied to student achievement 6
Select Average Salaries Amount
National average beginning teacher salary $30,754
National average teacher salary $44,555
Low average beginning teacher salary (Wisconsin) $23,592
High beginning teacher salary (Alaska) $40,027

Select Average Salaries Amount
Low average teacher salary (South Dakota) $33,236
High average teacher salary (District of Columbia) $62,909
Notes:
1. Table includes the 50 states and District of Columbia.
states are included in “Number of States” column.
The issue of competitive teacher pay dates back to the days of ancient Greece, and this
issue followed the expansion of Western civilization to America. In 1776, Adam Smith argued,
The time and study, the genius, knowledge, and application requisite to
qualify an eminent teacher. . . , are at least equal to what is necessary for the
greatest practitioners in law and physic. But the usual reward of the
eminent teacher bears no proportion to that of the lawyer or physician.41
Little has changed since then. Only a third of states offer teachers signing bonuses,
while fewer than one-third have outcomes-based salaries and evaluations procedures.
Much of the salary growth in other professions is driven by intensifying competition
for top-quality employees among employers, who increasingly pay more for outstanding
performance. In contrast, fewer teachers are rewarded for outstanding performance today
than 50 years ago. Approximately 10 percent of school districts had a merit-pay system in
the 1950s, dropping to fewer than four percent in the 1970s. Today, less than one percent
of all teacher pay is currently based on performance, the same as in 1982 just prior to the
publication of A Nation at Risk.42
In private schools, competition for quality teachers is greater than public schools in
part because average teacher salaries are lower. Averages, however, do not tell the whole
story. To compensate for lower salaries overall, private schools minimize administration and
strive for efficiency to devote limited resources to rewarding their best teachers. They also
have a powerful incentive to remove consistently mediocre teachers to free up additional
resources for bonuses to outstanding teachers. Private schools do this because parents who
pay tuition expect top-quality teachers for their children. If private schools cannot offer
them such teachers, parents will take their children and tuition dollars elsewhere.
Consequently, private schools are twice as likely to pay their teachers differentiated salaries,
and one third of them do not have a uniform salary schedule.43
Uniform salary schedules compress all teachers’ salaries. Research indicates that such
salary compression accounts for more than 75 percent of the decline in teacher quality.44
Current teachers appear to agree. An overwhelming majority of teachers (76 percent),
especially new teachers (81 percent), say a few or quite a few teachers they work with do
not do a good job and are simply going through the motions.45
Uniform salary schedules also
make meaningful pay increases for teachers prohibitive. Simply raising all teachers’ salaries

so they at least match the national average would cost an estimated $8.5 billion under the
current system because the salaries of mediocre teachers would have to rise as much as those
of outstanding teachers.46
As a result, Levine explains, “Education is not a competitive choice for the nation’s
most able young people, for whom law, medicine, and business . . . are far more appealing.”47
Because other professions pay competitive salaries based on
performance, they are increasing at a significantly higher rate than
teacher salaries. Consider that between 1994 and 2000 average
worker salaries increased 43 percent (from $35,000 to nearly
$50,000). Teacher salaries increased only 9 percent over the same
period (from approximately $32,000 to $35,000). Thus average
worker salaries increased at a rate of nearly five times faster than
average teacher salaries.48
Nearly one-third of all college graduates
certified to teach today do not enter teaching because of non-
competitive salaries.49
Although not a majority, this rate is
alarmingly high given that the number of certified teachers who
never began teaching or left the profession within a few years has increased from 25 percent
in the 1970s and 1980s to 40 percent today. Moreover, approximately 4 million people are
trained to teach today but do not.50
Many teachers favor competitive salaries based on measures not typically used
under a uniform salary system. A majority of teachers (53 percent) measure their success
in terms of student mastery of knowledge and skills. Half of all newer teachers believe
pre- and post-testing of students are a good way to measure teacher effectiveness.
Teachers also say it is easy for them to recognize the best teachers among their colleagues
(78 percent), and others would readily agree (72 percent).51
Newer teachers want ways to
increase their salaries besides graduate coursework or more time spent in their districts
(55 percent). They favor diversified pay based on evaluations by principals (78 percent),
the amount of time and effort devoted to teaching (73 percent), and students’ academic
progress (53 percent).52
By a margin of almost two to one, newer teachers believe how
well they work is a better way to set teacher salaries than formal qualifications such as
certification or degrees.53
State efforts throughout the 1980s and 1990s to make teacher salaries more
competitive ultimately stalled, but interest in reforming those efforts is picking up steam. In
2005, governors in 20 states outlined teacher compensation plans in their State of the State
addresses, and 14 of them proposed reforming the teacher-compensation system in their
states. The favored approach today bases diversified teacher pay on incentives that include
teacher knowledge, skills, and student performance. Minnesota adopted what is considered
one of the most sweeping plans in July 2005 called Quality Compensation, or “Q Comp.”
Schools that adopt Minnesota’s diversified teacher salary system instead of a uniform salary
schedule are eligible to receive a portion of the $86 million set aside by the state for teacher
pay increases, which translates into approximately $260 more per student in state aid. Local
Uniform salary schedules are a significant
obstacle to paying teachers competitive
salaries because they compress all teachers’
salaries. Research indicates that such salary
compression accounts for more than 75
percent of the decline in teacher quality.

teachers favor the “Q Comp” program because it has helped improve student achievement,
professional development, and teacher salaries.54
Most efforts to diversify teacher pay, however, are occurring at the school or district
level. In Douglas County, Colorado, for example, the County Federation of Teachers and the
Douglas County Board of Education adopted performance pay for teachers as part of their
1993–1994 contract that was approved by more than nine out of ten teachers. Teachers in
the district receive diversified pay in addition to their base salaries for individual and school-
wide performance, skills- and knowledge-based pay, and additional responsibilities pay.
Diversified pay amounts vary from an extra $250 to $500 for each additional skill acquired
in accordance with district priorities, to $750 for additional responsibilities, $1,000 extra
for advanced coursework and degrees, an additional $1,250 for outstanding performance,
up to $1,800 extra for outstanding evaluations, and an additional $2,500 for Master
Teachers and National Board Certified Teachers.55
Thus a new teacher in Douglas County,
Colorado, could expect an increase in base salary of $31,000 by up to approximately
$10,000, depending upon pay incentives.
Likewise, the Vaughn Next Century Learning Center in the Los Angeles Unified School
District implemented a knowledge- and skill-based diversified pay system in the 1998–1999
school year. Nearly all of the students at the school qualify for the federal free- and reduced-
priced lunch program, and many students are English Language Learners. Diversified pay
amounts vary from an extra $6,000 for additional education and National Board
certification to teacher performance bonuses worth up to $14,700. For taking on leadership
roles with added responsibilities, teachers can earn bonuses up to $4,000. Teachers meeting
school goals for student attendance, discipline, parental involvement, and collaboration
goals receive bonuses up to $2,000 total, and they also receive $2,000 bonuses for school-
wide student achievement. A new teacher at Vaughn Next Century Learning Center could
therefore see an increase in base salary of $41,000 by nearly $30,000, again depending upon
the preferred pay incentives.56
The Teacher Advancement Program (TAP), upon which Minnesota’s “Q Comp” program
is based, is a promising reform that comes from the non-profit sector. Today 106 schools in nine
states serving approximately 50,000 students participate in TAP, developed by the Milken Family
Foundation in 1999.57
Under TAP, veteran teachers are promoted to “mentor” or “master
teachers” and work with novice teachers to hone their skills and raise student performance. The
program consists of multiple career paths for teachers, ongoing applied professional
development, instructionally focused accountability, and performance-based compensation.58
The Madison School District in Phoenix, Arizona, participates in TAP. Under a
uniform salary schedule, a new teacher with a bachelor’s degree earning the lowest salary of
$31,000 could expect a lifetime high salary of $57,000, an increase of 84 percent, only after
many years in the district and additional coursework. A new attorney, in contrast, could
expect a lifetime salary increase in excess of 200 percent.59
Milken Family Foundation’s
Executive Vice President of Education Lewis C. Solmon, and former dean of the Graduate
School of Education at UCLA, explains,

The flat salary schedule for teachers is a good reason for those in Madison
to welcome the stipends of $6,250 that the district offers to its “master”
teachers, who take a leadership role among the faculty, and the bonuses
averaging $3,400 to teachers who exhibit outstanding classroom
performance and student achievement.60
Compare those pay increases to the ones offered by the state. In 2000, Arizona voters
approved a $0.006 sales tax increase for educational programs, and districts must direct 60
percent of those funds to the classroom. Of those funds, 40 percent must go toward
performance pay; however, performance is not defined, and funds may also be directed
toward increasing administrative pay. Since taking effect in 2001, average annual teacher
salaries have increased only $1,900 as of 2005, less than $384 annually.61
In contrast, participating TAP teachers who achieve specified goals earn a bonus. Half
of that bonus is based on a classroom evaluation of teaching skills not tied to student
outcomes. One quarter of the bonus is tied to school-wide gains, while the remaining quarter
is based on progress made by an individual teacher’s students. This structure promotes
cooperation among teachers, while discouraging less effective teachers from benefiting from
the success of more effective ones. Solmon explains, “That means, for instance, that a master
teacher in Madison, Arizona, could get a bonus worth as much as 17 percent of his or her
salary compared with the 2–3 percent bonus that current salary structures usually set as a
cap for such expert teachers.”62
The evidence suggests that when teachers succeed, students
achieve. Student achievement trend in TAP schools compares extremely well to comparable
non-TAP control schools. In fact, more than two-thirds of the time TAP schools
outperformed non-TAP schools.63
Recommendation 3: Recruit More Teachers in Areas of Critical Shortage.
“Incentives, such as grants and loans, should be made available to attract
outstanding students to the teaching profession, particularly in those areas of critical
shortage. . . .Qualified individuals, including recent graduates with mathematics and
science degrees, graduate students, and industrial and retired scientists could, with
appropriate preparation, immediately begin teaching in these fields.”
Financial incentives 51
Targeted recruitment programs and policies 50
Alternative teacher preparation programs and/or alternative certification/licensure 47
Certification/licensure of educators from outside the state 44
For hard-to-staff schools or subject areas 38
Scholarship programs 37
Teaching opportunities for retired teachers 36

Loan forgiveness programs 36
Other statewide recruitment programs and policies 34
State-supported recruitment initiatives 33
Other statewide financial incentives 32
For minority teachers 30
For paraprofessionals/teaching assistants to become certified teachers 28
Work/life experience credit 23
Tax credit or tax incentive policies 18
Source: Author’s table based on data from the Education Commission of the States (ECS), Recruitment and
Retention: State Policy database.
Notes:
1. Table includes the 50 states and District of Columbia.
states are included in “Number of States” column.
It is estimated that teacher vacancies in the United States cost nearly $5 billion
annually.64
Today, every state and the District of Columbia offer financial incentives to
attract teachers, including those in areas of critical shortage such as math and science. Fifty
states have targeted recruitment programs, 37 states offer scholarships, and 36 states offer
loan forgiveness programs. Support for such programs is high among teachers, especially
newer teachers. For example, 63 percent of teachers support financial incentives for teachers
who teach difficult classes with challenging students. Two out of three new teachers support
such financial incentives. Financial incentives for educators who work in at-risk
communities with low performing schools garner even more support from teachers overall
(70 percent), increasing to three out of four new teachers.65
Alternative certification is an increasingly popular remedy for teacher shortages. New
Jersey and Texas were the first states to begin using alternative certification programs in the
mid-1980s. These programs are designed to attract and prepare older professionals looking to
change careers, and these programs typically provide an intensive summer of training and a
year of weekend meetings.66
The Clark County School District in Nevada has a particularly
innovative alternative certification program for stay-at-home mothers. It offers the necessary
courses at local elementary schools during their regular hours, which allows mothers to be in
school during the same hours as their children. Because the program is offered at an actual
school, it gives participants direct access to mentor teachers and real-world classrooms.67
Half
of all teachers believe having different paths to the teaching profession is a good idea, and 56
percent of new teachers support alternative routes to teaching. Among all teachers who know
colleagues who have alternative certification, 65 percent think they are of high quality,
including more than three out of four new teachers.68
Alternative certification programs proliferated in 2001 with the passage of Title II of
the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (now called the No Child Left Behind Act,
or NCLB), Preparing, Training, and Recruiting High-Quality Teachers and Principals.

This provision encourages states to participate in federal programs designed to recruit
qualified professionals from other fields by offering them alternative routes to teacher
certification. Also, in 2001, the Department of Education created the American Board for
Certification of Teacher Excellence (ABCTE), which designed the Passport to Teaching
certification exam and is currently developing the Master Teacher certification.69
Today, nearly one out of every three teachers entering the profession each year receives
their certification through alternative routes.70
Alternative certification programs currently
exist in 47 states, as well as in the District of Columbia.71
As of 2004, there were 538 such
alternative certification programs nationwide that allowed 35,000
teachers to enter the profession. Had those programs not been
available, nearly half of program participants would not have
become teachers.72
Over the past 25 years, more than 250,000
teachers have earned their credentials through alternative route
programs, most of whom did so in the past decade.73
Building on
those efforts, in early 2006 President Bush proposed a $400 million
American Competitiveness Initiative, which included a $25 million
Adjunct Teacher Corps to encourage up to 30,000 math and
science professionals to become adjunct high-school teachers.74
Still, teacher shortages in critical areas persist at a time
when more teachers are approaching retirement age, and fewer
young people are entering the teaching profession.75
The current
teacher shortage, however, is not a problem of supply. It is one
of distribution, with shortages in high-growth states as well as in specialized education
fields such as math, science, special education, and English as a second language.76
Recent
research further suggests that teacher supply and demand varies more within states than
among states, which indicates the problem must be addressed at the school level.77
Existing recruitment efforts are also coming under fire as simple solutions to a complex
problem.78
In fact, a June 2006 Business Week cover story criticized the states’ longstanding
attempts to relieve teacher shortages: “The nation’s system for training and paying teachers
is decades-old and clearly bankrupt. Half of all teachers leave the profession within the first
five years. And because archaic regulations prevent schools from paying salaries attuned to
market realities, the nation has an enormous shortage of math and science teachers.”79
In
fact, the National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future blamed existing shortages
in critical areas on “cumbersome hiring practices that prevented efficient and timely hiring
and chased away good candidates.”80
John Merrow’s 1999 teacher shortage investigation for PBS concluded that teacher
shortages are “self-inflicted wounds” caused in large part because “inept school districts
cannot find the qualified teachers living under their noses.” Merrow documents numerous
examples, including school districts assigning middle-school coaches to teach high-school
English, history, and math, and licensed science teachers waiting up to two years for districts
to review their applications only to be offered positions in bilingual education.81
The current teacher shortage is not a problem
of supply. It is one of distribution,
with shortages in high-growth states as well
as in specialized education fields such as
math, science, special education, and English
as a second language. Recent research
further suggests that teacher supply and
demand varies more within states than
among states, which indicates the problem
must be addressed at the school level.

It is instructive to consider how private schools recruit their teachers. Unlike school
districts, which employ an average of nearly 1,500 teachers, private schools on average
employ only 14 elementary teachers or 27 high-school teachers. As a smaller wage-setting
unit, private schools are better able to adjust salaries to current demand for teachers in areas
of critical need. Economics professors Michael Podgursky and Dale Ballou found that even
after controlling for such factors as school location and school-year length, public-school
special-education teachers were paid only 4 percent higher than teachers in other subjects,
while private special-education schools paid their teachers 14 percent more. Likewise, math
and science teachers in private schools are paid approximately 8 percent more than teachers
in other subjects, and outstanding teachers across subjects earn bonuses of 10 percent above
their base pay. In contrast, Podgursky and Ballou’s statistical analysis of total public-school
teacher compensation found no discernable effect on the salaries of public-school math and
science teachers or merit-pay recipients.82
Several non-government programs have emerged to combat critical teacher shortages.
In September 2005, IBM launched its own pilot Transition to Teaching program to allow up
to 100 employees interested in leaving IBM to become fully accredited teachers by
reimbursing participants up to $15,000 for tuition and stipends while they teach as
students.83
More established programs also show encouraging results. Since its inception in
1989, 17,000 Teach for America (TFA) corps members have helped 2.5 million students.
More than 66 percent of TFA participants graduate from the country’s most competitive
colleges, compared to 4 percent of their non-TFA peers, and they are teaching in areas with
some of the hardest schools to staff. In fact, more than 4,000 TFA corps members work in
struggling schools throughout 25 urban and rural regions nationwide today, up from 15
such regions just five years ago. Independent evaluations of the program find the quality of
TFA teachers is high, and student achievement improves in schools that hire TFA teachers.84
For nearly 20 years, the Milken Foundation, in cooperation with state superintendents,
has awarded nearly 2,000 outstanding teachers a $25,000 award. Of those teachers, 84
percent are still teaching, even though their qualifications make them highly desirable to
other employers. Solmon explains that
46 percent of all teachers leave the profession in the first five years
and . . . anecdotally, the Milken awards have created an aura of excellence
about the profession that enhances the environment that our TAP research
shows is so important to teacher retention. The very fact that these teachers
have opportunities beyond the classroom increases the attractiveness of the
profession as a whole.85
In Arizona, for example, some of the state’s most talented teachers are moving from non-
TAP schools in affluent areas to TAP schools in socioeconomically disadvantaged communities.
What attracts them is “the more interesting professional development, the enhanced
collegiality, and the opportunity to earn more by being effective,”according to Solmon.86

Recommendation 4: Teacher Retention. “[E]nsure time for curriculum and
professional development . . .develop career ladders for teachers that distinguish
among the beginning instructor, the experienced teacher, and the master
teacher. . . . Master teachers should be involved in designing teacher preparation
programs and in supervising teachers during their probationary years.”
Advanced licensure or certification policies 51
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards policies 51
Requirements for tenure 48
Other advanced licensure/certification policies 47
Rights of tenure 46
Teacher recognition programs or policies 45
Teacher leader and distributive leadership policies 42
State requires time to be set aside for professional development 16
State requires and finances mentoring for all novice teachers 15
Notes:
1. Includes the 50 states and District of Columbia..
2. Some states in the ECS database have policies, but information about them is not publicly available.
Nearly every president since Harry Truman has urged comprehensive efforts to combat
teacher shortages, but many experts now say those efforts reflect the “wrong diagnosis” and
a “phony cure.”87
In addition to the various recruitment measures in place to attract teachers
discussed previously, all states try to retain quality teachers by offering advanced licensing
and National Board for Professional Teaching Standards policies. Forty-eight states also
have tenure policies, 45 states have teacher recognition programs, and 42 states have teacher
leader policies. Only 16 states require time for professional development and only 15 states
require time for mentoring new teachers.
Yet the rising generation of teachers wants such opportunities for collaboration. Boston
College’s Marilyn Cochran-Smith writes “that full opportunities to participate in induction
and mentoring programs that are focused on improving children’s learning have a statistically
significant impact on the likelihood of teachers staying longer in the classroom.”88
Consider
the standard practices of other professional fields, as Levine explains:
Yet upon graduating from medical school, new doctors are not rushed into the
operating room and asked to oversee open-heart surgery. Instead they go
through an internship and a residency, gradually gaining knowledge and
experience under the guidance of experienced practitioners. New lawyers who
join a law firm do not enter a courtroom right away to serve as lead counsel
in a murder case, but work for a partner and get experience and increasing

responsibility....They want to train their new hires in their own way. But the
teaching profession fails to assume that role—only 15 states currently require
and support induction programs in the schools for new teachers.89
Similarly, in other professional fields, including academe, tenure is a distinction that
recognizes years of outstanding work. However, 58 percent of the elementary and secondary
education teachers view tenure as a protection against the threat of losing their jobs to newcomers
who might be paid less, and only 28 percent see it as a measure of hard or excellent work.90
Teachers are evenly divided about whether the professional development they have
received helped make them better teachers, indicating that the quality of such programs
varies widely. Research confirms that this variance, along with several other factors, can
limit the effectiveness of professional development for teachers.91
Thirty-eight percent of
teachers also believe their professional development was not immediately useful in the
classroom, especially 42 percent of veteran teachers.92
Conventional wisdom used to hold that increasing retirement rates largely account for
teacher shortages. Consequently, recruitment efforts to increase the sheer numbers of new
teachers took on greater urgency than retaining veteran, experienced teachers. This emphasis
also meant attention shifted to external factors outside of schools, such as increasing the
numbers of education majors and graduates passing state licensing exams. Less attention
was paid to the internal, organizational school factors that affect teacher retention.
The reality is that the number of new entrants to teaching and re-entrants to teaching
exceeds the retirement rate. As Richard M. Ingersoll of the University of Pennsylvania
Graduate School of Education puts it, “[M]ost of the hiring of new teachers is simply to fill
spots vacated by teachers who just departed. And, most of those departing are not doing so
because of gray hair.”93
The National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future
concludes, “The number of teachers leaving for non-retirement reasons is about three to
one.”94
In fact, there is a growing consensus that school staffing problems are what Ingersoll
calls “a revolving door” as
large numbers of qualified teachers depart their jobs for reasons other than
retirement such as teacher job dissatisfaction and teachers pursuing other
jobs . . . teacher recruitment programs—traditionally dominant in the policy
realm—will not solve the staffing problems of such schools if they do not
also address the organizational sources of low teacher retention.95
Data show a high and fairly consistent annual turnover rate among teachers, averaging
just over 14 percent from 1988 to 2000.96
That rate is higher than professors (9 percent) or
science and technology professionals (4 to 9 percent), but lower than nurses (18 percent) and
federal clerical workers (30 percent).97
Yet, because the teaching workforce is so much larger
than nearly all other professions, the current turnover rate translates into more than one
million teachers in transition annually, or nearly a third of the entire teacher workforce

moving into, between, or out of schools in any given year.98
To stem the tide, schools scramble
to hire less experienced teachers, who quickly become overwhelmed and leave as well.99
The top three causes of turnover according to teachers are family or personal reasons
(40 percent), job dissatisfaction (29 percent), or pursuit of another job (27 percent). The
primary sources of dissatisfaction among teachers who switch schools or leave the
profession altogether also underscore the importance of school structure for retaining good
teachers. Poor salary, poor administrative support, and poor student discipline are the top
three reasons cited by teachers who switch schools and those who leave the profession.
Among those who leave, salary is the primary reason (61 percent), and poor administrative
support is the main reason teachers leave for another school (51 percent).100
Teachers often pursue another job to earn higher salaries, and many of the highest paid
teachers still earn less than the lowest paid school administrators.101
By allowing multiple
career paths for teachers, TAP is a promising model that allows teachers to hold a variety of
teaching positions depending on their talents and interests, including those of career, mentor,
and master teacher. As teachers advance in their profession their salaries rise, which means
good teachers do not have to leave the profession to earn better pay.102
The results to date are
very encouraging. As Business Week reports, “Teacher turnover in TAP schools is just half the
national average. And in most TAP schools, test scores have been significantly higher.”103
Ingersoll sums up why state efforts to date have not been effective in retaining top
teachers:
We can recruit all kinds of qualified people and persuade them to go into
teaching, but if they get into jobs that aren’t well-paid and don’t have
particularly good working conditions in which they’re given little say in the
way schools operate, it’s not going to really solve the problem because a lot
of these people will leave.104

For all the noble intentions informing the recommendations of A Nation at Risk, as well as
the efforts by states to achieve them, “Overall, the lack of progress . . . has been
discouraging,” as Excellence Commission member and Nobel Prize-winning chemist Glenn
Seaborg sums up.105
The explanations education scholars offer for this lack of progress are
varied, but they share a common theme: efforts to date have assumed teachers are objects of
change rather than agents of change. The limitations of reform efforts so conceived were
evident within a few years of A Nation at Risk’s release. In 1986, nearly 100 research
universities formed the Holmes Group. In 1990, the Holmes Group released an extensive
report titled Tomorrow’s Schools with its own recommendations, which began, “The critical
question is not ‘What does the teacher do?’ It’s ‘What does the teacher get the kids to do?’
Basically we’re talking about teaching as an act of leadership.”106
Yet under the current school structure, the Holmes Group suggested teachers are being
set up for failure:
People have taken for granted that a good teacher must be able to
“manage” 150 kids every day and that even good teachers will be able to
“reach” only a few of their students. This is not good enough. Now people
are saying that all students should learn. Teachers know they can’t meet
such a standard within the current constraints. The definition has changed
but the conditions of work have not.107
The Holmes Group recommended schools have greater autonomy, where teachers
“plan the school; revise the curriculum; teach and supervise student teachers; reflect on,
experiment with, and evaluate their own teaching; join in research; meet with parents and
with community agencies; and design staff development that’s relevant to all this.”108
The Holmes Group concludes that schools based on those principles would allow
“new work norms and expectations to take shape there.” In turn, they would
flourish as a species and add great variety to the ecology of education. One
reason for creating them is to promote diversity and experimentation in an
educational landscape that often looks flat and monotonous....We think it’s
time for educators to help reshape a reform movement that...often has
bypassed the education profession...we can begin shaping the contexts in
which we work. We are the ones to start building tomorrow’s schools—today.109
The idea for teachers to take a leadership role in founding schools, however, originated
long before A Nation at Risk or the Holmes report, Tomorrow’s Schools. In 1974, the late
Teachers as Agents of Change,
Not Objects of Change

Ray Budde, a professor of educational administration at the University of Massachusetts
Graduate School of Education, presented a seminal conference paper titled “Education by
Charter”—in fact, it was this paper that coined the phrase “charter school.” Budde argued
for a district contract design that would allow teachers to use innovative educational
methods and even manage schools.110
It was only after the release of A Nation at Risk that
Budde published his paper, which resonated well beyond academic circles.111
Albert Shanker, the late president of the American Federation of Teachers (AFT), is
widely credited with popularizing the concept of charter schools. In 1985, just two years
after the release of A Nation at Risk, Shanker began advocating for public-school choice
because a greater diversity of schools would increase the likelihood of a good match between
the interests of teachers and their students.112
Unlike Budde, Shanker envisioned separate
schools created by teachers, or parents with teachers, who wanted new curricula or teaching
strategies to improve instruction and student learning.113
In 1991, that vision became a
reality when Minnesota passed legislation allowing the country’s first charter school to
open.114
Within just five years, more than 250 charter schools were operating in 10 states.
Shanker concluded, “[A]s far as I’m concerned every school should be a charter school.”115
Significantly, teachers and parents “were the driving force behind charters” in
approximately three out of five cases, according to the U.S. Department of Education in
1997. Within just a few years, that figure increased to nearly three out of four cases.116
The
top reasons cited for founding a new charter school were to realize a particular educational
vision (67 percent) and serve a special student population (20 percent). Those who converted
a pre-existing district school into a charter school cited autonomy as their primary
motivation (50 percent) followed by the desire to realize a particular educational vision (28
percent).117
These reasons remain the primary reasons educators, parents, and former school-
district personnel give for founding charter schools, and today nearly 4,000 charter schools
are educating almost 1.2 million students in 40 states and the District of Columbia.118
Such dramatic growth in the number of charter schools suggests teacher advocates
were correct in their belief that teachers must be agents, not objects, of educational change.
The following section considers what makes educator-founded schools so popular and the
prospect of them serving as models for improving the teaching profession.

The sheer growth of student enrollment suggests schools founded by educators are popular
with parents. Such popularity, as well as student achievement, is the subject of growing body
of research.119
A review of that literature is beyond the scope of this analysis, which considers
charter schools as a reform model for improving the teaching profession and working
conditions for educators. In a recent national survey of public-district-school teachers,
nearly six out of 10 said they would be interested in working at a charter school that was
run and managed by teachers. Fewer than two out of 10 each said they would either not be
too interested or not interested at all in teaching at such a school.120
This suggests the
teaching labor market among public-school teachers is diversified. Their employment
options should be, too.
One way to gauge the popularity of charter schools among teachers is to compare the
growth of teachers in public-district schools, private schools, and public-charter schools.
Based on available data from the Common Core of Data through the U.S. Department of
Education’s National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), there are 3.1 million public-
district-school teachers, 409,000 private-school teachers, and an estimated 50,000 charter-
school teachers today.121
Many factors can contribute to the increase in the number of teachers across the
public and private sectors. Nevertheless, from 1975 to 1990, the number of private-school
teachers grew 39 percent—four times the growth of public-school teachers over the same
period. From 1990 to 2006, however, the growth of public-school teachers far exceeded
that of private-school teachers, 23 percent compared with 15 percent.122
Given the
dramatic growth of public-charter schools, it is likely that many teachers who might
otherwise have been attracted to private schools may have decided to teach at public-
charter schools instead.
Given that fewer younger people are entering teaching today, it is important that the
profession regain its attraction to prospective and returning teachers, as well as other
professionals from other fields. It is also important to retain quality teachers. Survey findings
from the Hudson Institute reveal that if charter-school teachers were not teaching in a
charter school, more than one in four say they would do something else entirely. From this
response survey authors gather that “charter schools are tapping into sources of
instructional horsepower not attracted to more conventional schools.”123
The charter model
represents a powerful means for diversifying and bolstering the teaching profession. The
growth of charter-school teachers since 1991, averaging 4,200 annually, compares very well
to that of alternative certification programs, averaging 10,000 annually, which have been in
place twice as long. Such growth is more impressive given that district schools outnumber
charter schools by 24 to one.
Teachers as Leaders: A Better Model
for Reform

Teacher surveys also indicate what attracts teachers to different school settings. Figure 1
summarizes teacher survey responses on important measures of job satisfaction and general
working environments by school setting.
Sources: Author’s compilation based on survey responses from the NCES Digest of Education Statistics 2005,
Private Schools: A Brief Portrait; and Progress through the Teacher Pipeline; Hudson Institute, “Charter Schools
in Action” and the Pioneer Institute, “Study Finds Charter School Teachers are Stakeholders.”
Notes:
1. No national survey has yet been conducted comparing public district, public charter, and private-school
teachers’ respective satisfaction levels and opinions about working conditions. The author matched similar
questions and responses using multi-state surveys in most cases.
2. Questions followed by an “*” indicate charter responses came from the Pioneer Institute’s survey of
Massachusetts charter schools. Those responses were used because there were no comparable national
charter school teacher survey data available. The Pioneer Institute survey was selected because more of its
questions most closely resembled questions asked on national surveys of district public school and private
school teachers. However, related questions posed to charter-school teachers in Arizona, California, and
Pennsylvania yielded similar response rates.
3. Regarding “satisfied with teacher salary,” an additional 26 percent of charter-school teachers responded that
they were “very satisfied.”
4. Charter-school teachers’ response to being “quite satisfied overall” represent the percentage of charter
teachers who hope to return to their schools next year.
Influence evaluating teachers*
Influence hiring teachers/staff*
Quite satisfied overall***
Very satisfied with student motivation to learn
Very satisfied with support from parents
Very satisfied with student discipline and behavior
Infuence student discipline*
Influence professional development*
Report high levels of teacher/staff collaboration*
Always feel safe in school
Satisfied with teaching salary**
Very satisfied with class size
Very satisfied with school learning environment
Influence curriculum*
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Public, District Private Public, Charter
8%1 19% 35%
15% 14% 30%
23% 42% 82%
23% 36% 51%
26% 52% 38%
29% 42% 60%
30% 48% 62%
33% 36% 63%
34% 56% 68%
36% 64% 66%
39% 43% 44%
42% 68% 54%
42% 55% 62%
44% 68% 76%
Figure 1: Teacher Satisfaction Levels and Working Conditions by Sector124

On every measure of satisfaction and working conditions, more public-charter-school
teachers give favorable responses than public-district-school teachers. Likewise, more private-
school teachers give favorable responses than public-district-school teachers on every measure
except influence over hiring teachers or staff. However, the difference is slight at 15 percent
compared with 14 percent. Significantly, a majority of public-charter-school teachers
respond favorably on 11 out of 14 measures, while private-school teachers respond
favorably on only six measures. On no measure did a majority of public-district-school
teachers answer favorably.
On overall satisfaction with teaching at their schools, four
out of five public-charter-school teachers respond favorably,
compared with two out of five private-school teachers and one
out of five public-district-school teachers. The 44 percent
favorable response from public-district-school teachers
concerns the influence they have over curricula. Likewise, 68
percent of the private-school teachers respond most favorably
when it comes to class size and the influence they have over
curricula. After overall satisfaction, 76 percent of the public-
charter-school teachers also respond most favorably to the
influence they have over curricula. When it comes to
professional development, public-charter-school teachers are
almost twice as likely as their district and private counterparts
to have an influence over professional development (63 percent
compared to 33 percent and 36 percent, respectively).
The least favorable response from public-district-school teachers (8 percent) concerns
their influence over teacher evaluations. In contrast, over twice as many private-school
teachers (19 percent), and more than four times as many charter-school teachers (35 percent)
respond that they have an influence over teacher evaluations.
Survey responses also reveal a correlation between the influence teachers have over
student discipline and behavior and their general satisfaction with the learning environment
in their schools. Among public-district-school teachers, only three out of 10 report being
satisfied with student discipline and behavior or having an influence over student
discipline, compared with about four out of 10 each among private-school teachers and six
out of 10 each among public-charter-school teachers. The level of teachers’ satisfaction
with their schools’ learning environments reflects those responses. Four out of 10 public-
district-school teachers report being very satisfied compared with about five out of 10
private-school teachers and six out of ten public-charter-school teachers. Those responses
suggest teachers have an important role to play in cultivating a quality learning
environment for students, and that student learning is hardly beyond their control when
teachers are empowered.125
Given that fewer younger people are entering
teaching today, it is important that the
profession regain its attraction to prospective
and returning teachers, as well as other
professionals from other fields. It is also
important to retain quality teachers. Survey
findings from the Hudson Institute reveal that
if charter-school teachers were not teaching
in a charter school, more than one in four say
they would do something else entirely.

Contrary to common opinion that private-school students are easier to educate, in part
because of greater parental involvement in their children’s education, 51 percent of public-
charter-school teachers are very satisfied with their students’ motivation to learn, compared
with only 36 percent of private-school teachers and 23 percent of public-district-school
teachers. Yet 52 percent of private-school teachers report being very satisfied with parental
support, compared with 38 percent of public-charter-school teachers and 26 percent of
public-district-school teachers. Those responses further indicate that external, non-school
factors do not override the importance of good teachers when it comes to student learning.
Furthermore, those responses suggest the ability of teachers and students to choose their
schools, rather than being assigned to them, positively affects both.

Since 1983, when A Nation at Risk concluded that “the professional working life of teachers
is on the whole unacceptable,” little has changed despite numerous state and national
efforts:
● Most states and the federal government have policies regulating teacher preparation
and certification. Still, three out of four teachers on average report new colleagues
are inadequately prepared in their subject areas, and quite a few teachers they work
with do not do a good job or are simply going through the motions.
● Most teachers favor competitive salaries based on the amount of time and effort
devoted to teaching and students’ academic progress. In districts with diversified
performance pay programs, teacher bonuses are significantly higher, collegiality and
teacher retention is higher, and student achievement is improved. Yet less than one
percent of all teacher pay is currently based on performance, the same as in 1982
just prior to the publication of A Nation at Risk.
● Most states offer financial incentives, alternative certification, and other programs
to remedy teacher shortages. Yet those practices have not improved working
conditions because they do not give teachers or schools more autonomy over salary,
hiring, and curriculum practices. Consequently, many of the highest paid teachers
still earn less than the lowest paid administrators, teacher shortages in areas of
critical need persist, and about half of all teachers leave the profession within five
years.
A fundamental shortcoming of those programs is they treat teachers as objects of
change, not agents of change. Educators are driving emerging reforms by starting schools
where they want to work and parents want their children to learn. The Holmes Group’s
conclusion encapsulates the spirit of recent efforts: “We think it’s time for educators to help
reshape a reform movement that . . . often has bypassed the education profession . . .we can
begin shaping the contexts in which we work. We are the ones to start building tomorrow’s
schools–today.” The express goal of emerging reform efforts led by teachers is diversifying
the education system to foster a variety of schools where innovation and experimentation
can flourish.
Until recently, private schools, representing about one quarter of all American schools,
were the only alternative to public-district schools. Research by the U.S. Department of
Education finds private-school teachers are nearly twice as satisfied overall as public-school
teachers with their jobs and the working conditions at their schools. In the 1970s and 1980s,
Conclusion: Choice Benefits Teachers,
their Students, and the Country

however, educators began advocating a new breed of “chartered” schools. Such schools
would be public schools and abide by the same accountability and admissions requirements
as district schools; however, they would be run by teachers, have distinct educational
missions, and serve general or targeted student populations. The first charter school opened
in 1991, and today some 4,000 charter schools serve nearly 1.2 million students nationwide.
As a reform model, charter schools founded by educators hold great promise for filling the
void left by prior state and national reform efforts to improve the teaching profession and
working conditions for educators.
Charter schools build on the successes of efforts like TAP and Teach for America.
Representing 3 percent of all American schools today, they help create an instructive
microcosm of the benefits of a fully diversified educational system for teachers.126
They also
allow for a richer comparison of teachers’ opinions on important measures of job
satisfaction and general working environments. At 82 percent, overall satisfaction rates
among charter teachers are twice as high as their private counterparts and more than three
times as high as their district counterparts. An average of two-thirds of charter-school
teachers report high levels of satisfaction with the influence they have over curricula, student
discipline, and professional development, as well as school safety, collaboration with
colleagues, and their schools’ learning environment. On those same measures, slightly more
than half of private-school teachers and slightly more than one-third of public-school
teachers reported high levels of satisfaction.
These results suggest the ability of teachers and students to choose their schools
positively affects both. Unlike an assigned schooling system, a diversified system would
foster good teacher-student matches and offer teachers the same wide range of employment
options other professionals currently enjoy. To attract quality teachers, schools would have
to offer competitive salaries, flexible schedules, and a professional working environment in
which they have autonomy to innovate and are rewarded for their success in educating
students. Such a system exists in Japan, and teachers benefit from having strong parental
support, motivated students, and salaries that rival Japanese baseball professionals. A
diversified education system also gets results given that Japanese students consistently score
at or near the top on international exams across a variety of subjects.
Ensuring a diversified labor market capable of attracting and keeping quality teachers
serves the individual good of students as well as the common good. Student achievement,
especially in math and science, directly relates to individual earnings and national economic
growth. Had U.S. student performance simply remained comparable to that of their
international peers throughout the 1980s instead of declining, the GDP would have been 4
percent higher than realized in 2002, or $450 billion—more than the annual national K-12
education expenditure. Given the pressing and persistent need for quality teachers, there is
no good reason a diversified education system should not exist in America as it does for
postsecondary educators.

1 For example, the National Education Association (NEA) supports increased funding for Pell
Grants, which allow low-income undergraduates to use public dollars to attend any
postsecondary school of their choice—public, private, religious or secular. Yet it opposes public
funding in President Bush’s 2007 budget for similar types of scholarships for K-12 students. See
“President’s Budget Cuts $1.5 Billion from Education, Eliminates 44 Programs,” NEA News
Release, February 6, 2007, http://www.nea.org/newsreleases/2007/nr070206.html.
2 Andrew J. Coulson, Market Education: The Unknown History (New Brunswick, CT: Transaction
Publishers, 1999), 228. For a more extensive discussion of the Japanese education system see
Coulson, Market Education, 219–229.
3 Coulson, Market Education, 227. Teachers also take full advantage of technology to reach
thousands of students. Id. 385. See also Robert L. August, “Yobiko: Prep School for College
Entrance in Japan,” in Robert Leestma and Herbert J. Walberg, eds., Japanese Educational
Productivity (Ann Arbor, MI: Center for Japanese Studies of the University of Michigan, 1992), 290.
4 See, e.g., Patrick Gonzales, Juan Carlos Guzmán, Lisette Partelow, Erin Pahlke, Leslie Jocelyn,
David Kastberg, and Trevor Williams. (2004). Highlights From the Trends in International
Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2003 (NCES 2005–005). U.S. Department of Education,
National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,
http://nces.ed.gov/?pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp??pubid?=2005005.
5 Public Agenda, An Assessment of Survey Data on Attitudes about Teaching, Including the Views of
Parents, Administrators, Teachers, and the General Public, compiled for The Teaching Commission, 10,
quoted in “Teaching at Risk: A Call to Action,” 2004, 15, http://www.ecs.org/html/Document.asp?
chouseid=4993.
6 Kati Haycock, “Good Teaching Matters—How Well-Qualified Teachers Can Close the Gap,”
Thinking K-16, vol. 3, issue 2 (Washington, DC: Education Trust, 1998), http://www2.edtrust.org/
NR/rdonlyres?/0279CB4F-B729-4260-AB6E-359FD3C374A7/0/k16_ summer98.pdf.
7 Eric Hanushek, “The Importance of School Quality,” chapter 5 of Our Schools & Our Future: Are
We Still at Risk?, ed. Paul E. Peterson (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University,
2003), 160 & 163; cf. Eric Hanushek and Dennis D. Kimko, “Schooling, Labor Force Quality, and
the Growth of Nations,” American Economic Review, vol. 90, no. 5, December 2000, 1184–1208,
http://edpro.stanford.edu/hanushek/admin/pages/files/uploads/growth.aer.dec2000.pdf#search=%
22%22Schooling%2C%20Labor%20Force%20Quality%2C%20and%20the%20Growth%20of
%20Nations%22%20nber%22. These results are also reported in Eric Hanushek, “The Simple
Economics of Improved School Quality,” prepared for The Teaching Commission, July 2003, 8. See
“Teaching at Risk: A Call to Action,” 2004, 14. See also Eric Hanushek, “Economic Analysis of
Endnotes

School Quality,” prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report, April 2004,
http://www.ncert.nic.in/sites/unesco/Hanushek,%20Economics%20of%20Quality,%203%20May.doc.
8 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Career Guide to Industries,
http://www.bls.gov/?oco/cg/cgs034.htm; cf. Richard M Ingersoll, Is There Really a Teacher Shortage?,
http://depts.washington.edu/ctpmail/PDFs/Shortage-RI-09-2003.pdf, co-sponsored by the Center for
the Study of Teaching & Policy (University of Washington) and the Consortium for Policy Research
in Education. September 2003, 11.
9 Richard M. Ingersoll, Is There Really a Teacher Shortage?, http://depts.washington.edu/
ctpmail/PDFs/Shortage-RI-09-2003.pdf, co-sponsored by the Center for the Study of Teaching &
Policy (University of Washington) and the Consortium for Policy Research in Education.
September 2003, 11.
10 T.D. Snyder, A.G. Tan, and C.M. Hoffman, Digest of Education Statistics 2005 (NCES 2006-030)
(2006); U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office) table 4, http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2006030.
Includes public-school teachers and private-school teachers. The number of public-school teachers
increased from 2.1 million in 1970 to 3.2 million in 2006 (52 percent increase), while the number
of private-school teachers increased from 233,000 to 409,000 over the same period (76 percent
increase). NCES does not disaggregate public-charter-school teachers.
11 T.D. Snyder, A.G. Tan, and C.M. Hoffman, Digest of Education Statistics 2005 (NCES 2006-
030), table 4 (2006). In 2014, there will be an estimated 3.4 million public elementary and
secondary school teachers (6 percent increase) and 451,000 private elementary and secondary
school teachers (9 percent increase).
12 Caroline M. Hoxby and Andrew Leigh, “Wage Distortion: Why America’s Top Female College
Graduates Aren’t Teaching,” Education Next, Spring 2005, 51–56, http://www.educationnext.org/
20052/pdf/50.pdf; T.D. Snyder, A.G. Tan, and C.M. Hoffman, Digest of Education Statistics 2005
(NCES 2006-030), table 66 (2006). Based on data for the 1999–2000 school year, there were
754,000 male public-school teachers and 2.3 million female public-school teachers. In private
schools, 107,000 teachers were male and 342,000 teachers were female.
13 Michael B. Allen, Eight Questions on Teacher Recruitment and Retention: What Does the Research
Say? Education Commission of the States, September 2005, 17, http://www.ecs.org/
html/educationissues/teachingquality/trrreport/home/TeacherRecruitmentRetention.pdf. See id.
28–32 for the related research bibliography; cf. Michael Podgursky “Fringe Benefits: There’s more to
compensation than a teacher’s salary,” Education Next, Summer 2003, 71–76.
14 Peter Temin, “Low Pay, Low Quality,” Education Next, Summer 2003, 13.
15 Caroline M. Hoxby, “What Has Changed and What Has Not” in Our Schools and Our
Future . . . Are We Still at Risk?, ed. Paul E. Peterson (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press,
2003), 73–110 (quotation from 93).

Graduates Aren’t Teaching,” Education Next, Spring 2005, 51–56 (quotation from 51).
17 Id. (quotation from 56).
18 See Steve Karkas, Jean Johnson, and Ann Duffett, “Stand by Me: What Teachers Really Think about
Unions, Merit Pay and Other Professional Matters,” Public Agenda, 2003, 26–27, 33 and 57.
19 Kimberly Agam and Diana Wardell, “The Teacher Advancement Program (TAP): National
Teacher Attitudes,” March 2006, 11 and 12.
030), table 72 (2006).
21 T.D. Snyder, A.G. Tan, and C.M. Hoffman, Digest of Education Statistics 2005, table 63 (NCES
2006-030) (2006); U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics
(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office).
22 Education Commission of the States, “Class-Size,” http://www.ecs.org/html/IssueSection.asp?
issueid=24&s=Overview.
23 See annual editions of the Digest of Education Statistics, http://nces.ed.gov/programs/
digest/d05_tf.asp.
24 David Pierpont Gardner, Chairman, the National Commission on Excellence in Education,
“Letter of Transmittal to the Honorable T.H. Bell” in A Nation at Risk, U.S. Secretary of
Education, April 26, 1983, http://www.ed.gov/pubs/NatAtRisk/index.html.
25 The National Commission on Excellence in Education, “Findings” in A Nation at Risk, April 26,
1983, http://www.ed.gov/pubs/NatAtRisk/index.html.
26 All recommendations are from “Recommendation D: Teaching,” the National Commission on
Excellence in Education, A Nation at Risk, April 26, 1983, http://www.ed.gov/pubs/NatAtRisk/?
recomm.html.
27 Arthur Levine, “Educating School Teachers,” The Education Schools Project, September 18,
2006, 15, http://www.edschools.org/pdf/Educating_Teachers_Report.pdf; cf. U.S. Department of
Education, The Secretary’s Fourth Annual Report on Teacher Quality: A Highly Qualified
Teacher in Every Classroom, (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2005).
2006, 14 n.12, http://www.edschools.org/pdf/Educating_Teachers_Report.pdf; cf. See “Efforts to
Improve Teacher Quality,” Education Week: Quality Counts 2006, January 5, 2006; 86–90.
29 Steve Karkas, Jean Johnson, and Ann Duffett, “Stand by Me: What Teachers Really Think about
Unions, Merit Pay and Other Professional Matters,” Public Agenda, 2003.
30 “Teaching at Risk: A Call to Action,” The Teaching Commission, 2004, 34.

31 Carolyn McCreight, Teacher Attrition, Shortage and Strategies for Teacher Retention. August 2000,
8–9, http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/22/ad/b8.pdf;
Betsy Streisand, Thomas Toch and Mary Lord, “Many Millions of Kids and Too Few Teachers,” US
News & World Report, September 14, 1998, http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/
980914/archive_004731.htm.
2006, 109, http://www.edschools.org/pdf/Educating_Teachers_Report.pdf.
33 Id. 14 n.12.
34 “Teaching at Risk: A Call to Action,” The Teaching Commission, 2004, 34.
35 Education Week, Agent K-12 database, http://www.edweek.org/agentk-12/states/.
36 Mark Schug and Richard Western, “Deregulating Teacher Training,” Wisconsin Policy Research Institute
Report, volume 10, number 4, June 1997, 2, http://www.wpri.org/Reports/Volume10/Vol10no4.pdf.
37 Ann Duffett, Steve Karkas, Jean Johnson, and Chris Perry, “Different Drummers: How Teachers
of Teachers View Public Education,” Public Agenda, 1997; cf. Ben DeGrow, “When Teaching
Matters, Experience Matters,” School Reform News, Heartland Institute, October 1, 2006,
http://www.heartland.org/Article.cfm?artId=19785.
38 See, for example, Eric A. Hanushek, John F. Kain, Daniel M. O’Brien, and Steven G. Rivkin, “The
Market for Teacher Quality” (February 2005). NBER Working Paper No. W11154, 22–26 & 29.
2006, 104–105, http://www.edschools.org/pdf/Educating_Teachers_Report.pdf; cf. Ben DeGrow,
“When Teaching Teachers, Experience Matters, School Reform News, October 1, 2006,
http://heartland.org/Article.cfm?artId=19785.
2006, 105, http://www.edschools.org/pdf/Educating_Teachers_Report.pdf. Levine adds,
Thirty-four states report they have moved or are moving in this direction. And the
U.S. Department of Education recently awarded contracts to North Carolina and
Tennessee to build P-12 longitudinal data collection systems. Those states have been
leaders in promoting value added assessment and tracking individual student
achievement growth over time. Ten additional states are being considered for
participation in the program.
Id. 106.
41 Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, book one, chapter
X, part 2, http://www.adamsmith.org/smith/won/won-b1-c10-pt-2.html.
42 Andrew J. Coulson, Market Education: The Unknown History (New Brunswick, CT: Transaction
Publishers, 1999), 146; David Tyack and Larry Cuban, “Tinkering Toward Utopia (Cambridge,

MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), 130; and Caroline M. Hoxby, “What Has Changed and
What Has Not” in Our Schools and Our Future . . . Are We Still at Risk? ed. Paul E. Peterson
(Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 2003), 96.
43 Michael Podgursky and Dale Ballou, “Let the Market Decide,” Education Next, Spring 2001,
http://www.hoover.org/publications/ednext/3390886.html.
Graduates Aren’t Teaching,” Education Next, Spring 2005, 56. For the full technical report, see
“Pulled Away or Pushed Out? Explaining the Decline of Teacher Aptitude in the United States,”
AEA Papers and Proceedings, vol. 4, no. 2, May 2004, 236–240, http://econrsss.anu.edu.au/
~aleigh/pdf/Teacher%20Quality.pdf.
46 Lewis C. Solmon, “Recognizing Differences: Let’s Reward Good Teachers” Education Next,
Winter 2005, 17, http://media.hoover.org/documents/ednext20051_16.pdf.
47 Arthur Levine, “Expectations for Our Teachers Are Misplaced,” Chronicle of Higher Education,
March 10, 2006, http://chronicle.com/free/v52/i27/27b05301.htm.
48 Caroline M. Hoxby, “What Has Changed and What Has Not” in Our Schools and Our
Future . . . Are We Still at Risk? ed. Paul E. Peterson (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 2003),
96–97 & 100. Salary increase percentages are author’s figures derived from Hoxby, figure 18, 100.
49 Carolyn McCreight, Teacher Attrition, Shortage and Strategies for Teacher Retention. August 2000,
7, http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/22/ad/b8.pdf.
50 C. Emily Feistritzer, “The Truth Behind the ‘Teacher Shortage,’” Wall Street Journal, January 28, 1998,
http://www.ncei.com/WSJ-12898.htm; cf. Bridget Curran, Teacher Supply and Demand: Is There a
Shortage? National Governors Association, Center for Best Practices, Education Policy Studies
Division. Issue Brief, January 25, 2000, 3, http://www.nga.org/Files/pdf/000125TEACHERS.pdf;
Carolyn McCreight, Teacher Attrition, Shortage and Strategies for Teacher Retention. August 2000, 5,
http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/22/ad/b8.pdf.
52 Id.
53 For related research on certification and teacher quality, see, e.g., R. Greenwald, L.V. Hedges, and
R.D. Laine, “The Effect of School Resources on Student Achievement,” Review of Educational
Research, 66(3) (1996), 361–396; and E.A. Hanushek, “The Impact of Differential Expenditures
on School Performance,” Educational Research, May 1989, 45–62.
54 Id.

55 Id. 8, 10-11.
56 Id. 8, 11-12.
57 “Best Practices: A Top 10 List,” Business Week, June 26, 2006, http://www.businessweek.com/?
magazine/content/06_26/b3990014.htm. For a more comprehensive research overview, see
Jennifer Azordegan, et al., “Diversifying Teacher Compensation,” Education Commission of the
States, Issue Paper, December 2005.
58 National Institute for Excellence in Teaching, “Teacher Advancement Program,”
http://www.talentedteachers.org/tap.taf?page=main.
60 Id.
61 Debra K. Davenport, “Arizona Public School Districts’ Dollars Spent in the Classroom Fiscal Year
2005,” State of Arizona Office of the Auditor General, Division of School Audits, May 2006, 27 & 32,
http://www.auditorgen.state.az.us/Reports/School_Districts/Statewide/2006_May/Classroom_Dollars_F
Y2005_no_district_pages.pdf. In 2005, the Legislature established the Arizona Performance Based
Compensation System Task Force to evaluate and report on school districts’ performance-based
compensation. It also established guidelines for performance pay, and by June 30, 2010, the task
force must develop recommendations on the implementation, operation, and monitoring of
performance-based compensation systems in school districts. Id. 29; cf. Lewis C. Solmon,
“Recognizing Differences: Let’s Reward Good Teachers” Education Next, Winter 2005, 20,
http://media.hoover.org/documents/ednext20051_16.pdf.
63 Id.
2006, 11, http://www.edschools.org/pdf/Educating_Teachers_Report.pdf; cf. Alliance for
Excellent Education, “Teacher Attrition: A Costly Loss to the Nation,” Issue Brief (Washington,
DC: Alliance for Excellent Education, August 2005).
66 John Merrow, “The Teacher Shortage: Wrong Diagnosis, Phony Cures,” Education Week,
October 6, 1999.
67 U.S. Department of Education, Office of Postsecondary Education, The Secretary’s Fourth Annual
Report on Teacher Quality: A Highly Qualified Teacher in Every Classroom, Washington, D.C.,
2005, 32, https://www.title2.org/titleIIreport05.pdf.

69 Marga Mikulecky, Gina Shkodriani and Amy Wilner, Alternative Certification—A Growing
Trend to Address the Teacher Shortage, Education Commission of the States, Policy Brief,
December 2004, 1, http://www.communitycollegepolicy.org/pdf/5712.pdf; cf. American Board for
Certification of Teacher Excellence at http://www.abcte.org/.
70 Marga Mikulecky, Gina Shkodriani, and Amy Wilner, Alternative Certification—A Growing
Trend to Address the Teacher Shortage, Education Commission of the States, Policy Brief,
December 2004, 1, http://www.communitycollegepolicy.org/pdf/5712.pdf.
71 Id.
72 Emily Feistritzer, Profile of Alternative Route Teachers (Washington, DC: National Center for
Educational Information, 2005). Study available though the National Center for Educational
Information, http://www.ncei.com/part.html. There are 47 states, and the District of Columbia,
with alternative certification programs according to the 2006 Education Commission of the States
(ECS), Recruitment and Retention: State Policy database.
2006, 14, http://www.edschools.org/pdf/Educating_Teachers_Report.pdf; cf. C. Emily Feistritzer,
Profile of Alternative Route Teachers (Washington, DC: National Center for Educational
Information, 2005), 2.
74 See President Bush’s Letter on the American Competitiveness Initiative (February 2, 2006) and full
report at http://www.whitehouse.gov/stateoftheunion/2006/aci/; cf. Michelle R. Davis, “Bush
Proposes Math and Science Initiatives,” Education Week, February 8, 2006.
75 The average age of teachers rose from 33 in 1976 to 46 in 2001, suggesting that more teachers
are approaching retirement age. See National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education
Statistics Tables and Figures, 2005, table 68, http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d05/lt2.asp#c2.
Almost three times more high-school students had no interest in teaching as a career (39 percent)
as students who were very interested in a teaching career (14 percent). See Lowell Milken, “A
Matter of Quality” (speech, Milken Family Foundation National Education Conference, Los
Angeles, June 18, 1999), http://milkenarchive.?org/about/lmilken.taf?page=speech_quality.
Among undergraduates, fewer students are majoring in education today than they were nearly 20
years ago. In the 1989–1990 academic year, 9.4 percent of undergraduates were enrolled in
education programs, 7.4 percent of men and 11.4 percent of women. In the 2003–2004 academic
year, only 8.5 percent of undergraduates were enrolled in education programs, 4.1 percent of men
and 11.8 percent of women. See L. Horn and C. Carroll, Profile of Undergraduates in U.S.
Postsecondary Education Institutions: 1989–90: With an Essay on undergraduates at Risk (NCES
93-901). U.S. Department of Education (Washington, DC: National Center for Education
Statistics, 1993), Table II. 4a, http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=93091; L. Horn
and S. Nevill, Profile of Undergraduates in U.S. Postsecondary Education Institutions: 2003–04:

With a Special Analysis of Community College Students (NCES 2006-184), U.S. Department of
Education (Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, 2006), table 2.2,
http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2006184.
76 Bridget Curran, Teacher Supply and Demand: Is There a Shortage? National Governors
Association, Center for Best Practices, Education Policy Studies Division. Issue Brief, January 25,
2000, 4–5, http://www.nga.org/Files/pdf/000125TEACHERS.pdf; National Commission on
Teaching and America’s Future, “Unraveling the ‘Teacher Shortage’ Problem: Teacher Retention is the
Key,” 2002, 4–5, http://www.ncsu.edu/mentorjunction/text_files/teacher_retentionsymposium.pdf;
National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future. No Dream Denied—A Pledge to America’s
Children, 2003, 29, http://www.nctaf.org/documents/no-dream-denied_full-report.pdf.
77 Richard M Ingersoll, Is There Really a Teacher Shortage?, co-sponsored by the Center for the
Study of Teaching & Policy (University of Washington) and the Consortium for Policy Research
in Education. September 2003, 9 ff (quotation from 8), http://depts.washington.edu/
ctpmail/PDFs/Shortage-RI-09-2003.pdf.
October 6, 1999. See Online NewsHour, “The Teacher Void” (Jim Lehrer transcripts),
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/education/july-dec99/teachers_9-9.html.
79 “Best Practices: A Top 10 List,” Business Week, June 26, 2006, http://www.businessweek.com/
magazine/content/06_26/b3990014.htm.
80 National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future, No Dream Denied—A Pledge to
America’s Children, 2003, 30, http://www.nctaf.org/documents/no-dream-denied_full-report.pdf.
For detailed examples of teacher candidates being chased away, see John Merrow, “The Teacher
Shortage: Wrong Diagnosis, Phony Cures,” Education Week, October 6, 1999; Online NewsHour,
“The Teacher Void” (Jim Lehrer transcripts), http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/education/july-
dec99/teachers_9-9.html.
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/education/july-dec99/teachers_9-9.html.
82 Michael Podgursky and Dale Ballou, “Let the Market Decide,” Education Next, Spring 2001,
http://www.hoover.org/publications/ednext/3390886.html.
83 See IBM, “Transition to Teaching” news release, September 16, 2005, http://www.ibm.com/
ibm/ibmgives/news/ transition_to_teaching.shtml.
84 All information and independent research links are from the Teach for America website,
http://www.teachforamerica.org/; cf. Dale Ballou and Stephanie Soler, “Addressing the Looming
Teacher Crunch,” Public Policy Institute Briefing, February 1, 1998, http://www.ppionline.org/
ppi_ci.cfm?knlgAreaID=110&subsecID=135&contentID=1652.

86 Id.
October 6, 1999.
88 Marilyn Cochran-Smith,. Stayers, Leavers, Lovers and Dreamers: Why People Teach and Why
They Stay. Bank Street College of Education, Occupational Paper Series. April 2006, 14.
89 Arthur Levine, “Expectations for Our Teachers Are Misplaced,” Chronicle of Higher Education,
March 10, 2006, http://chronicle.com/free/v52/i27/27b05301.htm.
91 See, e.g., A. Porter, M. Garet, L. Desimone, K. S. Yoon, and B. Birman, Does Professional
Development Change Teaching Practice? Results from a Three-Year Study (Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Education, 2000), http://www.pdal.net/inc/docs/LongitudinalPartII.pdf. An executive
summary is available at http://www.pdal.net/inc/docs/LongitudinalExecutiveSummary.pdf.
93 Richard M Ingersoll, Is There Really a Teacher Shortage?, co-sponsored by the Center for the Study
of Teaching & Policy (University of Washington) and the Consortium for Policy Research in
Education. September 2003, 11, http://depts.washington.edu/ctpmail/PDFs/Shortage-RI-09-2003.pdf.
94 National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future, “Unraveling the ‘Teacher Shortage’
Problem: Teacher Retention is the Key,” 2002, 5–6, http://www.ncsu.edu/mentorjunction/
text_files/teacher_retentionsymposium.pdf.
95 Richard M Ingersoll, Is There Really a Teacher Shortage?, co-sponsored by the Center for the
in Education. September 2003, 9 ff. (quotation from 3), http://depts.washington.edu/
ctpmail/PDFs/Shortage-RI-09-2003.pdf.
96 Author’s average based on data from Richard M. Ingersoll, Is There Really a Teacher Shortage?,
co-sponsored by the Center for the Study of Teaching & Policy (University of Washington) and
the Consortium for Policy Research in Education. September 2003, 9 ff. (quotation from 9),
http://depts.washington.edu/ctpmail/PDFs/Shortage-RI-09-2003.pdf.
97 Richard M Ingersoll, Is There Really a Teacher Shortage?, co-sponsored by the Center for the Study
of Teaching & Policy (University of Washington) and the Consortium for Policy Research in
Education. September 2003, 9, http://depts.washington.edu/ctpmail/PDFs/Shortage-RI-09-2003.pdf.

98 Id. 11.
99 National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future. No Dream Denied—A Pledge to
America’s Children, 2003, 23, http://www.nctaf.org/documents/no-dream-denied_full-report.pdf.
100 Richard M. Ingersoll, Is There Really a Teacher Shortage?, co-sponsored by the Center for the
in Education. September 2003, 15–17, http://depts.washington.edu/ctpmail/PDFs/Shortage-RI-
09-2003.pdf.
101 Lowell Milken, “A Matter of Quality” (speech, Milken Family Foundation National Education
Conference, Los Angeles, June 18, 1999), http://milkenarchive.org/about/lmilken.taf?page=
speech_quality.
102 National Institute for Excellence in Teaching, “Teacher Advancement Program,”
http://www.talentedteachers.org/tap.taf?page=main.
103 “Best Practices: A Top 10 List,” Business Week, June 26, 2006, http://www.businessweek.com/?
magazine/content/06_26/b3990014.htm.
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/?bb/education/july-dec99/teachers_9-9.html.
105 Paul E. Peterson, “Are We Still at Risk?”, preface to Our Schools and Our Future...Are We Still at
Risk?, ed. Paul E. Peterson (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University, 2003), 7.
106 The Holmes Group, Tomorrow’s Schools: Principles for the Design of Professional Development
Schools: A Report of the Holmes Group (East Lansing, MI: The Holmes Group, 1990), viii ff.
(quotation from 10), http://www.holmespartnership.org/Tommorows_Schools.pdf.
107 Id. 69.
108 Id. 67.
109 Id. 67 & xi-xii.
110 Progressive Policy Institute, 21st Century Schools Project Bulletin, vol. 5, no. 13, June 28, 2005,
http://www.ppionline.org/ppi_ci.cfm?knlgAreaID=110&subsecID=900001&contentID=253408;
Ted Kolderie, “Ray Budde and the Origins of the ‘Charter Concept,’” Education Evolving, vol.
1, no. 6, July 3, 2005, http://www.educationevolving.org/eblast-6.html; Gloria Negri, “Ray
Budde; Coined Phrase ‘Charter Schools’,” Boston Globe, June 21, 2005,
http://www.boston.com/news/globe/obituaries/articles/2005/06/21/ray_budde_coined_phrase_ch
arter_schools/.
111 The study was published as Education by Charter: Restructuring Schools and School Districts (Andover,
MA: The Regional Laboratory for Educational Improvement of the Northeast Islands, 1989).

112 Richard D. Kahlenberg, “Albert Shanker’s Legacy,” 7. This is the unabridged version of
“Philosopher or King,” Education Next, Winter 2003, 34–39. Both are online at
http://www.hoover.org/publications/ednext/3398521.html (page references are to the unabridged
version).
113 The American Federation of Teachers, “Charter Schools,” http://www.aft.org/topics/
charters/index.htm.
114 Minnesota was the first state to pass charter legislation in 1991, and the first charter school to
open a year later was City Academy in St. Paul, which now has 15 teachers according the “City
Academy High School Annual Report, 2004–2005,” http://www.cityacademy.org/
background.htm.
115 Richard D. Kahlenberg, “Albert Shanker’s Legacy,” 8. This is the unabridged version of
“Philosopher or King,” Education Next, Winter 2003, 34–39. Both are online at
http://www.hoover.org/?publications/ednext/3398521.html (page references are to the
unabridged version). Charter schools figures from U.S. Department of Education, Office of
Educational Research and Improvement, A Study of Charter Schools: First Year Report, May
1997, 3–4, http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/26/ea/
c2.pdf; cf. RPP International, National Study of Charter Schools: Second-Year Report, U.S.
Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, July 1998,
http://www.ed.gov/pubs/charter98/title.html; RPP International, The State of Charter Schools:
Third-Year Report National Study of Charter Schools, U.S. Department of Education, Office of
Educational Research and Improvement, May 1999, http://www.ed.gov/pubs/
charter3rdyear/index.html; RPP International, The State of Charter Schools: Fourth-Year Report
National Study of Charter Schools, U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational
Research and Improvement, January 2000, http://www.ed.gov/pubs/charter4thyear/index.html.
116 U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, A Study of
Charter Schools: First Year Report, May 1997, 24 & 27, http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/
ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/26/ea/c2.pdf; RPP International, The State of
Charter Schools: Fourth-Year Report National Study of Charter Schools, U.S. Department of
Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, January 2000, 14,
http://www.ed.gov/pubs/charter4thyear/index.html.
117 U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, A Study of
Charter Schools: First Year Report, May 1997, 28, http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/
data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/26/ea/c2.pdf.
118 Center for Education Reform, “National Charter School Data: New School Estimates
2006–2007,” September 6, 2006, http://www.edreform.com/_upload/CER_charter_numbers.pdf.
119 For a list of more than 40 studies on charter school achievement through 2005, see Appendix C
in Robin J. Lake and Paul T. Hill, eds., Hopes, Fears, & Reality: A Balanced Look at American
Charter Schools in 2005, National Charter School Research Project, Center on Reinventing

Public Education (CRPE) at the Daniel J. Evans School of Public Affairs, University of
Washington, November 2005, 80–83, http://www.ncsrp.org/cs/csr/download/csr_files/
HopesandFears2005_report.pdf.
121 This figure is the author’s estimate based on 2004–2005 school year data from the NCES
Common Core of Data, which lists 46,465 teachers at charter schools for 38 states and the
District of Columbia for the 2003–2004 school year. The number of teachers for many charter
schools was missing, however, and no figures were provided for Arizona or Illinois. The estimate
of 50,000 is conservative. Arizona figures are 2002 estimates prepared by Prepared by Arizona
State Senate Staff on August 7, 2002, for charter school fingerprinting legislation requiring
fingerprinting of charter school personnel, S.B. 1008, http://www.azleg.state.az.us/legtext/?45leg/
5s/summary/ s.1008gov_finalrevised.doc.htm.
030), U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (Washington, DC:
U.S. Government Printing Office, 2006), table 63, http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?
pubid=2006030.
123 Gregg Vanourek, Bruno V. Manno, Chester E. Finn, Jr., and Louann Bierlein Palmer, “Charter
Schools in Action: Final Report, Part I,” Hudson Institute, June 1997, 6–7.
030), U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (Washington, DC:
U.S. Government Printing Office, 2006), table 63, http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?
pubid=2006030; cf. Robin R. Henke, Xianglei Chen, and Sonya Geis, Progress Through the
Teacher Pipeline: 1992–93 College Graduates and Elementary/Secondary School Teaching as of
1997 (NCES 2000–152) (Washington DC: U.S. Department of Education. National Center for
Education Statistics, 2000), table 13, http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2000/2000152.pdf; Martha Naomi Alt
and Katharin Peter, Private Schools: A Brief Portrait (NCES 2002–013) (Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2002),
http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2002013; Gregg Vanourek, Bruno V. Manno,
Chester E. Finn, Jr., and Louann Bierlein Palmer, “Charter Schools in Action: Final Report, Part I,”
Hudson Institute, June 1997; and Pioneer Institute, “Study Finds Charter School Teachers Are
Stakeholders,” Policy Directions, July 1998.
125 For a summary of research on the importance of good teachers for improving student
performance, see Dan Goldhaber, “The Mystery of Good Teaching,” Education Next, Spring
2002, 50–55, http://www.hoover.org/publications/ednext/3368021.html. For first-hand accounts
from charter-school teachers, see Deroy Murdock, “Teachers Warm to School Choice,”
Headway, April 1998, 20–21, http://www.heartland.org/pdf/2184bu.pdf; cf. William Styring,
“Teachers and Schools Choice: School Choice Would Benefit Both Students and Teachers,”
American Outlook, Spring 1998, 49–51, http://www.heartland.org/pdf/2184bt.pdf.

126 There are approximately 125,000 total public and private schools as of the 2003-2004 school
year. See T.D. Snyder, A.G. Tan, and C.M. Hoffman, Digest of Education Statistics 2005 (NCES
2006-030), U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2006), table 84, http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/
pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2006030.

About the Author
Vicki E. Murray, Ph.D., is a senior policy fellow in Education Studies at the Pacific Research Institute in
Sacramento, California. She received her doctorate and master’s degrees in politics from the University of
Dallas, where she was an Earhart Foundation Fellow.
About IWF
Founded in 1992, the Independent Women’s Forum is a non-partisan, 501(c)(3) non-profit educational
organization. Its mission is to rebuild civil society by advancing economic liberty, personal responsibility, and
political freedom. IWF fosters greater respect for limited government, equality under the law, property rights,
free markets, strong families, and a powerful and effective national defense and foreign policy. IWF is home
to the nation's next wave of influential scholars—women who are committed to promoting and defending
economic opportunity and political freedom.
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20070713 Empowering Teachers with Choice How a Diversified Education System Benefits Teachers, Students, and America

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