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1. The document discusses the development of the garbagriha, or inner sanctum, in Hindu temples by comparing it to the Holy of Holies in Jewish temples. It explains that in both traditions, the innermost chamber houses representations of the primary deity and is where their presence is most directly marked. 2. The layout and architecture of Hindu temples is rooted in ancient scriptures like the Vedas and Upanishads. Temples aim to bring humans and gods together through symbolic structures that represent Hindu cosmological and philosophical beliefs. 3. The garbagriha serves as the temple's holiest space, housing the murti or icon of the main deity, just as the Holy of Holies contained

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1 Development ofthe Garbagriha Dr Uday Dokras Some Original Photographs by the author Dr Uday Dokras
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3 3 CHAMBEREDTEMPLES and the Development of the Garbagriha Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen? — Nasadiya Sukta, concerns the origin of the universe, Rig Veda, 10:129-6 AYODHYSAS RAM MANDIR EVOLUTION OF FRELIGION: The exact time when humans first became religious remains unknown, however research in evolutionary archaeology shows credible evidence of religious- cum-ritualistic behavior from around the Middle Paleolithic era (45-200 thousand years ago). The use of symbolism in religion is a universal established phenomenon. Archeologist Steven Mithen contends that it is common for religious practices to involve the creation of images and symbols to represent supernatural beings and ideas. Because supernatural beings violate the principles of the natural world, there will always be difficulty in communicating and sharing supernatural concepts with others. This problem can be overcome by anchoring these
4 supernatural beings in material form through representational art. When translated into material form, supernatural concepts become easier to communicate and understand. Organized religion traces its roots to the neolithic revolution that began 11,000 years ago in the Near East but may have occurred independently in several other locations around the world. The invention of agriculture transformed many human societies from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a sedentary lifestyle. The consequences of the neolithic revolution included a population explosion and an acceleration in the pace of technological development. The history of Hinduism covers a wide variety of related religious traditions native to the Indian subcontinent. Its history overlaps or coincides with the development of religion in the Indian subcontinent since the Iron Age, with some of its traditions tracing back to prehistoric religions such as those of the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization. It has thus been called the "oldest religion" in the world. Scholars regard Hinduism as a synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no single founder. This Hindu synthesis emerged after the Vedic period, between ca. 500-200 BCE and ca. 300 CE. in the period of the Second Urbanisation and the early classical period of Hinduism, when the Epics and the first Purānas were composed.[12][22] It flourished in the medieval period, with the decline of Buddhism in India. The history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development. The first period is the pre- Vedic period, which includes the Indus Valley Civilization and local pre-historic religions, ending at about 1750 BCE. This period was followed in northern India by the Vedic period, which saw the introduction of the historical Vedic religion with the Indo-Aryan migrations, starting somewhere between 1900 BCE and 1400 BCE. The subsequent period, between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions", and a formative period for Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. The Epic and Early Puranic period, from c. 200 BCE to 500 CE, saw the classical "Golden Age" of Hinduism (c. 320-650 CE), which coincides with the Gupta Empire. In this period the six branches of Hindu philosophy evolved, namely Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedānta. Monotheistic sects like Shaivism and Vaishnavism developed during this same period through the Bhakti movement. The period from roughly 650 to 1100 CE forms the late Classical period or early Middle Ages, in which classical Puranic Hinduism is established, and Adi Shankara's influential consolidation of Advaita Vedanta. The concept of God in Hinduism varies in its diverse traditions. Hinduism spans a wide range of beliefs suchmonotheism, agnosticism, atheism and nontheism. Forms of theism find mention in the Bhagavad Gita. Emotional or loving devotion (bhakti) to a primary god such as avatars of Vishnu (Krishna for example), Shiva and Devi emerged in the early medieval period, and is now known as Bhakti movement. Contemporary Hinduism can be categorized into four major traditions: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism worship Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi - the Divine Mother — as the Supreme respectively, or consider all Hindu deities as aspects of the formless Supreme Reality or Brahman. Other minor sects such as Ganapatya and Saura focus on Ganesha and Surya as the Supreme. Hindus following Advaita Vedanta consider Ātman within every living being to be the same as Vishnu or Shiva or Devi, or alternatively identical to the eternal metaphysical Absolute, called Brahman in Hinduism. Such a philosophical system of Advaita or non-dualism as it
5 developed in the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy, especially as set out in the Upanishads and popularised by Adi Shankara in the 9th century has been influential on Hinduism. In the beginning there was only one God and that was Narayana or Vishnu and refused to accept any claims that other Hindu deities, such as Brahma or Shiva, might be equally the highest. A Mandir or Hindu temple is a symbolic house, seat and body of divinity for Hindus. It is a structure designed to bring human beings and gods together, using symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism. The symbolism and structure of a Hindu temple are rooted in Vedic traditions, deploying circles and squares. It also represents recursion and the representation of the equivalence of the macrocosm and the microcosm by astronomical numbers, and by "specific alignments related to the geography of the place and the presumed linkages of the deity and the patron". A temple incorporates all elements of the Hindu cosmos — presenting the good, the evil and the human, as well as the elements of the Hindu sense of cyclic time and the essence of life-symbolically presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksa, and karma. ARCHITECTURE & DESIGN ELEMENTS The spiritual principles symbolically represented in Hindu temples are given in the ancient Sanskrit texts of India (for example, the Vedas and Upanishads), while their structural rules are described in various ancient Sanskrit treatises on architecture (Bṛhat Saṃhitā, Vāstu Śāstras). The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism. A Hindu temple is a spiritual destination for many Hindus, as well as landmarks around which ancient arts, community celebrations and economy have flourished. Hindu temples come in many styles, are situated in diverse locations, deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs, yet almost all of them share certain core ideas, symbolism and themes. The current state and outer appearance of Hindu temples reflect arts, materials and designs as they evolved over two millennia; they also reflect the effect of conflicts between Hinduism and Islam since the 12th century. If we compare Hinduism with Judaism we can get a perspective on the design elements of the temple or mandir and its consequential inner sanctum where the idols are kept. 1 The Latin phrase sanctum sanctorum is a translation of the Hebrew term Holy of Holies which generally refers in Latin texts to the holiest place of the Tabernacle of the Israelites and later the Temple in Jerusalem, but also has some derivative use in application to imitations of the Tabernacle in church architecture.In Hinduism, a temple's innermost part where the cult image (Murti) of the deity is kept forms the Garbha griha, also referred to as a sanctum sanctorum. 1.This is my way of explaination which I feel comes closest to the sanctum designs. Others may find other ways to explain- all avenues are possible
6 According to the Hebrew Bible, the tabernacle meaning "residence" or "dwelling place", also known as the Tent of the Congregation also Tent of Meeting, etc., was the portable earthly dwelling place of Yahweh (the God of Israel) used by the Israelites from the Exodus until the conquest of Canaan. Moses was instructed at Mount Sinai to construct and transport the tabernacle with the Israelites on their journey through the wilderness and their subsequent conquest of the Promised Land. After 440 years, Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem superseded it as the dwelling-place of God. The main source describing the tabernacle is the biblical Book of Exodus, specifically Exodus 25–31 and 35–40. Those passages describe an inner sanctuary, the Holy of Holies, created by the veil suspended by four pillars. This sanctuary contained the Ark of the Covenant, with its cherubim-covered mercy seat. An outer sanctuary (the "Holy Place") contained a gold lamp- stand or candlestick. On the north side stood a table, on which lay the showbread. On the south side was the Menorah, holding seven oil lamps to give light. On the west side, just before the veil, was the golden altar of incense. It was constructed of 4 woven layers of curtains and 48 15- foot tall standing wood boards overlaid in gold and held in place by its bars and silver sockets and was richly furnished with valuable materials taken from Egypt at God's command. This description is generally identified as part of the Priestly source ("P"),written in the sixth or fifth century BCE. However while the first Priestly source takes the form of instructions, the second is largely a repetition of the first in the past tense, i.e., it describes the execution of the instructions. Many scholars contend that it is of a far later date than the time of Moses, and that the description reflects the structure of Solomon's Temple, while some hold that the description derives from memories of a real pre-monarchic shrine, perhaps the sanctuary at Shiloh.
7 Traditional scholars contend that it describes an actual tabernacle used in the time of Moses and thereafter. According to historical criticism, an earlier, pre-exilic source, the Elohist ("E"), describes the tabernacle as a simple tent-sanctuary In the Wilderness of Sinai desert, the Tablernacle was the special "tent of meeting" that God instructed Moses to build. Drawn to Bible measurements, all the important features are pointed out here in full color: the High Priest, the Brazen Altar, the Holy Place, the Holy of Holies, the Ark of the Covenant, the Pillar of Fire, etc. More than a dozen illustrations and diagrams explain the sacrificial system, symbolism that points to Jesus, and the pattern of worship. Find out the importance of these in Moses' time, Jesus' time, and today. However, For those Christian traditions which practice the rite known as Eucharist or Holy Communion, a tabernacle or sacrament house is a fixed, locked box in which the Eucharist (consecrated communion hosts) is stored as part of the "reserved sacrament" rite. A container for the same purpose, which is set directly into a wall, is called an aumbry. Within Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy and in some traditions of Anglicanism and Lutheranism, the Tabernacle is a box-like or dome-like vessel for the exclusive reservation of the consecrated Eucharist.
8 So as we can see most religions have a house of worship with a special chamber to keep the holiest physical effects that point to the idol or god and MARK HIS PRESENCE TO THE ATTENTION OF THE DEVOTEE.
9 The people of Israel have built two temples to God in Jerusalem, and both have been destroyed. What does the Bible say about a third temple? Aerial view of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. Will a third temple be built here? (Photo by Godot13 [CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons)
10 The temple of God in Jerusalem is a major theme in Bible history and prophecy. Since the second temple was destroyed in A.D. 70 and the temple currently does not exist in Jerusalem, many students of Bible prophecy wonder when it will be rebuilt. Because the Bible prophesies that end-time sacrifices will be halted (Daniel 12:11), many conclude the temple must be rebuilt before that can happen. What does the Bible say about the third temple and when it might be built? To really understand the third temple, it is helpful to understand the history and significance of the first two temples in Jerusalem. Solomon’s temple As promised by God, one of David’s sons, Solomon, built “the house of the LORD” (1 Kings 6:1). This temple was located on Mount Moriah in Jerusalem and is commonly referred to as Solomon’s temple. Upon completion, this temple became the center of religious worship in Israel. It lasted about 400 years from its construction during the reign of Solomon to its destruction by the Babylonians in 586 B.C. (2 Kings 25:9). The second temple After 70 years of captivity in the Babylonian Empire, the Jews, via a decree by King Cyrus, were allowed to return to Jerusalem and begin rebuilding the temple. God had prophesied this many years before Cyrus was even born. Isaiah 44:28 records a prophecy of God, “Who says of Cyrus, ‘He is My shepherd, and he shall perform all My pleasure, saying to Jerusalem, “You shall be built,” and to the temple, “Your foundation shall be laid.”’” Although the Jews began working on the temple almost immediately after their return, opposition by neighboring peoples and a laxness among the Jews themselves hindered the construction. Through Haggai the prophet, God admonished the Jews to finish the project. “Then the word of the LORD came by Haggai the prophet, saying, ‘Is it time for you yourselves to dwell in your paneled houses, and this temple to lie in ruins?’” (Haggai 1:3-4). Finally, in approximately 515 B.C. the temple was rebuilt on the same site on which it had previously stood. Many sources, such as the International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, refer to this second temple as the temple of Zerubbabel (article, “Temple”), the “governor of Judah” (Haggai 1:1) who helped coordinate its construction (Ezra 3:8; 5:2). This temple was standing when Jesus came to earth as a human, although it had undergone major renovations by King Herod. After these renovations, it was referred to as Herod’s temple.
11 Altogether this building stood for almost 600 years until its destruction by the Romans in A.D. 70. For additional information about the location of the temple and the history of the first and second temples, see the article “Temple Mount: Its History and Future.” A third temple? Since a temple has been such an important fixture in the history of the ancient Israelites (and especially the Jews, who are also Israelites), many have wondered what the Bible says about a third temple. While the biblical texts are not always as explicit as we would like, there are three scriptural indications of another temple. Two of these represent a literal temple; the third is symbolic. Why were temples built? Why do we worship idols? The science of Temple Construction There is no set day for worship in Hinduism. That said, different deities are linked to different days of the week and may be remembered on those days. Worship is less formal than some other forms of religious worship and those attending can come and go as they please. Hindus will often worship in the early morning or evening, at home, in a temple, or during a pilgrimage. But why were temples built? Why do we worship idols? The very nature of human perception is such that, right now, whatever a human being is involved with, that will be the only truth for him in his experience. Rulers built temples to demonstrate their devotion to various deities. They also endowed temples with grants of land and money to carry out elaborate rituals, feed pilgrims and priests and celebrate festivals. Pilgrims who flocked to the temples also made donations. Various Kings who could afford to, built temples to favour their favourite deities. For example The Cola Kings built temples such as the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur which is supposed to be the greatest achievement of Chola architects and the highlight of Dravidian architecture. The temple was built by the Chola King Rajaraja I between 1003 and 1010 AD. The sculptures and inscriptions here are related to Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism. The quality of the sculpture here is also famous and the temple is one of the most visited religious sites in Tamil Nadu.
12 The other example one can give is that of Narasingha Deva I who is mentioned as Paramamahesvara, Durga-Putra and Purushottamaputra in the Chandrashekhera temple inscription. The titles show that he was a protector and a follower of the Shaiva, Shakti and Jagannath sects during his rule. A sculpture from the Konark sun temple build by him shows bowing before the three lead deities of the sects as per his titles and a priest. The Lingaraj temple inscriptions says that he had constructed a Matha (monastery) called as Sadashiva Matha to give shelter to the fleeing refugees from Radha and Gauda after the incursion by Muslim forces there. According to the Srikurmam temple inscription, he was a sober person without any bad nature and agitation. He possessed valuable articles and was a sincere learner of art, architecture and religion. He administered the state by the traditions of Marici and Parasara while following the Niti sashtra (book of law). Due to his dedication towards faith and spirituality, he commissioned and completed the building projects for many temples like Konark, Kapilash, Khirachora Gopinatha, Srikurmam, Varaha Lakshmi Narasimha temple at Simhanchalam and Ananta Vasudeva temple which was built by the interest of his widowed sister, Chandrika. Sanskrit and Odia were both patronized as court languages during his rule and the Sanskrit masterpieces like Ekavali of Vidhydhara were written during this time. An inscription at Kapilash temple built by him compares him to the Varaha avatar (incarnation) of Vishnu who saved and raised the Vedas and the world from the oceans of uncertainty. He was the first king to use the title of 'Gajapati' or lord of war elephants among the Odishan kings. The Konark temple complex is the creation of architects of his era and is a marvel of architecture is dedicated to Indian God of Sun, Surya. The temple has been built in the shape of his chariot which is drawn by seven horses. It was built in the 13th century by Narasimhadeva. IDOL
13 Murti (Sanskrit: मूर्ति, ISO: Mūrti; lit. 'form, embodiment, or solid object')[1 is a general term for an image, statue or idol of a deity or mortal in Hindu culture. In Hindu temples, it is a symbolic icon. A murti is itself not a god in Hinduism, but it is a shape, embodiment or manifestation of a deity. Murti are also found in some nontheistic Jainism traditions, where they serve as symbols of revered mortals inside Jain temples, and are worshiped in murtipujaka rituals. A murti is typically made by carving stone, wood working, metal casting or through pottery. Ancient era texts describing their proper proportions, positions and gestures include the Puranas, Agamas and Samhitas. The expressions in a murti vary in diverse Hindu traditions, ranging from Ugra symbolism to express destruction, fear and violence (Durga, Kali), as well as Saumya symbolism to express joy, knowledge and harmony (Saraswati, Lakshmi). Saumya images are most common in Hindu temples.[8] Other murti forms found in Hinduism include the linga. A murti is an embodiment of the divine, the Ultimate Reality or Brahman to some Hindus. In religious context, they are found in Hindu temples or homes, where they may be treated as a beloved guest and serve as a participant of puja in Hinduism. In other occasions, it serves as the centre of attention in annual festive processions and these are called utsava murti. The earliest murti are mentioned by Pāṇini in 4th century BCE. Prior to that the agnicayana ritual ground seemed to served as a template for the temple. Murti is sometimes referred to as murthi, or vigraha or pratima. Murti, when produced properly, are made according to the design rules of the Shilpa Shastras. They recommend materials, measurements, proportion, decoration and symbolism of the murti. Explanation of the metaphysical significance of each stage of manufacture and the prescription of specific mantras to sanctify the process and evoke and invoke the power of the deity in the image are found in the liturgical handbooks the Agamas and Tantras. In Tantric traditions, a murti is installed by priests through the Prana pratishta ceremony, where mantras are recited sometimes with yantras (mystic diagrams), whereby state Harold Coward and David Goa, the "divine vital energy of the cosmos is infused into the sculpture" and then the divine is welcomed as one would welcome a friend. According to Gudrun Buhnemann, the esoteric Hindu tantric traditions through texts such as Tantra-tattva follow elaborate rituals to infuse life into a murti. Some tantra texts such as the Pancaratraraksa state that anyone who considers an icon of Vishnu as nothing but "an ordinary object" made of iron "goes to hell”. The use of murti and particularly the prana pratistha consecration ceremony, states Buhnemann, has been criticised by Hindu groups. These groups state that this practice came from more recent "false tantra books", and there is not a single word in the Vedas about such a ceremony. A Hindu prayer before cutting a tree for a murti Oh Tree! you have been selected for the worship of a deity, Salutations to you! I worship you per rules, kindly accept it. May all who live in this tree, find residence elsewhere, May they forgive us now, we bow to them. —Brihat Samhita 59.10 - 59.11
14 The artists who make any art or craft, including murti, were known as shilpins. The formally trained Shilpins shape the murti not in accordance with fancy but in accordance with canonical manuals such as the Agamas and the Shilpa Shastras texts such as Vishvakarma. The material of construction range from clay to wood to marble to metal alloys such as panchaloha. The sixth century Brihat Samhita and eighth century text Manasara-Silpasastra (literally: "treatise on art using method of measurement"), identify nine materials for murti construction – gold, silver, copper, stone, wood, sudha (a type of stucco, mortar plaster), sarkara (gravel, grit), abhasa (marble types), and earth (clay, terracotta). For abhasa, the texts describe working methods for various types of marble, specialised stones, colours, and a range of opacity (transparent, translucent and crystal). Brihat Samhita, a 6th-century encyclopaedia of a range of topics from horticulture to astrology to gemology to murti and temple design, specifies in Chapter 56 that the pratima (murti) height should be of the sanctum sanctorum's door height, the Pratima height and the sanctum sanctorum room's width be in the ratio of 0.292, it stand on a pedestal that is 0.146 of sanctum room width, thereafter the text describes 20 types of temples with their dimensions.[35] Chapter 58 of the text describes the ratios of various anatomical parts of a murti, from head to toe, along with the recommendation in verse 59.29 that generally accepted variations in dress, decoration and dimensions of local regional traditions for the murti is the artistic tradition. Proper murti design is described in ancient and medieval Indian texts. They describe proportions, posture, expressions among other details, often referencing to nature. The texts recommend materials of construction, proportions, postures and mudra, symbolic items the murti holds in its hands, colours, garments and ornaments to go with the murti of each god or goddess, vehicles of deities such as Garuda, bull and lion, and other details. The texts also include chapters on the design of Jaina and Buddhist murti, as well as reliefs of sages, apsaras, different types of devotees (based on bhakti yoga, jnana yoga, karma yoga, ascetics) to decorate the area near the murti. The texts recommend that the material of construction and relative scale of murti be correlated to the scale of the temple dimensions, using twelve types of comparative measurements.
15 In Southern India, the material used predominantly for murti is black granite, while material in North India is white marble. However, for some Hindus, it is not the materials used that matter, but the faith and meditation on the universal Absolute Brahman. More particularly, devotees meditate or worship on the formless God (nirguna Brahman) through murti symbolism of God (saguna Brahman) during a puja before a murti, or the meditation on a Tirthankara in the case of Jainism, thus making the material of construction or the specific shape of the murti not spiritually important. According to John Keay, "Only after achieving remarkable expertise in the portrayal of the Buddha figure and of animal and human, did Indian stonemasons turn to producing images of the orthodox 'Hindu' deities” This view is, however, not shared by other scholars. Trudy King et al. state that stone images of reverential figures and guardian spirits (yaksha) were first produced in Jainism and Hinduism, by about 2 century BCE, as suggested by Mathura region excavations, and this knowledge grew into iconographic traditions and stone monuments in India including those for Buddhism The temples face sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee is typically this east side. The mandala pada facing sunrise is dedicated to Surya deity (Sun). The Surya pada is flanked by the padas of Satya (Truth) deity on one side and Indra (king of gods) deity on other. Temples are built for deities, not gods. Deities are “attributeless, formless” energy, or often “attributed formless” energy that can be invoked and “made resident” in any material representation - a material abstraction, personification or image. This process is known as the pranapratishta. And it is done so as to make it visible & relatable for the purpose of worship, even though we know that the process of worship is entirely internal. We are all physical or material forms of deities as there is a “life force” within us. Deities in temples are thus just a physical representation of the divinity within. Divinity has many attributes, all of which can be worshipped individually or collectively based on the objective of the specific tantric practice. So while a church is a church is a church (leave aside denominations), and a mosque is a mosque, each temple is different. Churches and mosques are not places of worship, they are places of congregation. A temple however, is always a place of worship, never a place of congregation.
16 The form and function of temples is thus very variable, though they are often considered by believers to be in some sense the "house" of one or more deities. Typically offerings of some sort are made to the deity, and other rituals enacted, and a special group of clergy maintain, and operate the temple. Deities at our Temples As a universal concept Hinduism accepts all formulations of Truth, According to the universal view there is only One Reality, but no particular name shape or form can adequately describe that Reality. Though Truth is One it is also Universal, not an exclusive formulation It is an inclusive Oneness – a spiritual reality of the Supreme Being – Consciousness – Bliss, which could be called God but which transcends all names and forms. The different Gods and Goddesses of Hinduism represent various functions of this One Supreme Divinity, and they are not separate Gods. Acceptance of other faiths, tolerance and pluralism are obvious corollaries to this great socio-religious principle of antiquity, Around the 6th century BC, the great Hindu philosopher, Adi Shankara grouped the various forms of worship in Sanatana Dharma (Eternal code of conduct, Hinduism) into six sects (Shanmathas). They are:  Ganapathyam … The devotion to Lord Ganesha,  Saivam … The devotion of Lord Siva.  Vaishnavam … The devotion to Lord Vishnu.  Sauram … The devotion to the Sun God, or Fire.  Shaktham … The devotion to Sri Shakti (Durgaji)  Kaumaram … The devotion to Lord Kartikeya Our temple has physical representations of all of the above except the Sun God. However, during Yajnas, Homas and other Poojas, we always worship the Fire God. Minor Deities Administrative Gods Indra, “the King of Heaven,” was apparently very popular in early Vedic Hinduism and is considered to be in charge of the administrative demigods. Here he is offering his obeisances to Lord Krishna in connection with the pastime, “The Lifting of Govardhan Hill.”
17 In addition to the twelve main deities listed previously there are also a number of minor deities (keeping in mind that certain Hindus may consider them more exalted or even Supreme!). They are generally considered to have specific roles within this universe. The main ones are also considered to have charge over the eight directions, beginning with the East and moving clockwise (i.e. Indra is in charge of the East, Agni the South East,Yama the South, etc.).  Indra: King of Heaven/ god of rain  Agni: deity in charge of fire  Yama: deity presiding over death  Surya: presiding deity of the sun  Varuna: presiding deity of water  Vayu: presiding deity of the wind (air)  Kuvera: treasurer of the demigods (god of wealth)  Soma (Chandra): presiding deity of the moon These deities are usually associated with earlier, “Vedic” Hinduism, and are rarely worshipped today, except perhaps Surya. Still prominent, especially in South Indian temples, is the worship of the “nine planets”. Minor Deities Deva or devata means demigod. Sthala-devata specifically refers to a minor deity who has jurisdiction over a particular place – a river, forest or village. They are often worshipped in village shrines. A popular deity is Sitala (right), the goddess of smallpox, who is worshipped in the hope of avoiding the disease Other “Higher Beings” There are many other lesser deities and higher beings, who often appear in the various stories. These include:  The Asuras (demons) who always fight  The Devas (the gods or demigods)  The Apsaras (celestial nymphs)  The Nagas (celestial serpents)  The Gandharvas (heavenly singers)  The Rakshasas (a race of man-eaters)  The Prajapatis (progenitors of mankind) “Modern” Deities
18 Some deities have risen to prominence more recently. They include:  Santoshi Ma – the goddess of contentment, worshipped mainly by ladies  Ayyappan – popular in Kerala, he is considered the son of Shiva and Mohini (the female incarnation of Vishnu) Construction of a Temple The main deity was often complemented by one or more minor deities carefully positioned along the path of approach to the main deity. Looking at these structures, it is apparent that the temples were built to a certain pattern, certain understanding, and purpose, catering to the needs of the individual and the society. Scientific reasons for visiting the temples There are thousands of temples all over India in different size, shape, and locations but not all of them are considered to be built in a Vedic way. It is said that in the ancient times, a temple should be located at a place where the earth magnetic wave path passes through densely. How the energy quotient of a place was measured is not known but keeping in mind the lost advance science fundas of our ancient saints, they would have figured a way out. Location of the diety Temples are located where there is positive energy available from magnetic and electric wave distributions of north or south pole thrust. The main idol is placed in the core center of the temple. In fact, the temple structure is built after the idol has been placed. The place of the deity is where earth's magnetic waves are found to be maximum. There is a metal plate beneath the statue Did you notice a copper place beneath the main idol in the temples? what could be the reason for this? It is believed that these copper plates absorb the magnetic force and radiates it to the surroundings. The person visiting the temple would receive the beamed magnetic waves. This a very slow process and a regular visitor would eventually start feeling the positive vibes. The holy water The curd, honey, milk, sugar and coconut water made by which we clean the copper idol is believed to make the amrit a blessing. Moreover, the holy water that comprises basil leaves and karpor(camphor) help to fight diseases like cold and cough. The magic of temple bells A temple bell is another scientific phenomena; it is not just your ordinary metal; It is made of various metals earth including cadmium, lead, copper, zinc, nickel, chromium, and manganese. The proportion at which each one them mixed is real science behind a bell. Each of these bells is made to produce such a distinct sound that it can create unity of your left and right brain. What happens when you ring the temple bell The moment you ring the bell, it produces the lasting sound which lasts for a minimum of seven echo mode which is good enough to touch your 7 healing chakras. Th ebreian empties all your thoughts. Invariably you enter into a state of trans where you are very receptive. the trans-state the one with awareness. Temples as places of energy Charging: Don't just visit the temple, sit. The belief is never to visit the temple and go. traditionally, the belief is that one who visits and goes the visit would be fruitless. This is so because temples are built like a public charging place, people can charge themselves with their inner energies. People visited the temple before they entered into their daily work so that they could go about with a certain sense of balance and depth in their lives. No Footwear in Temple. Temples are a place where it contains pure vibrations of magnetic and electric fields with positive energies. In olden days the floor at the center of the temple were good conductors of these positive vibration allowing them to pass throughout feet to the body. Hence it is necessary to walk barefooted while you enter the core center of the temple. Parikrama The idol inside the chamber absorbs all the energy from the bell sound., Camphor heat and vibrates the positive energy within the chamber for a certain duration of time. When you do the
19 circumambulation at this point of time, you tend to absorb all these positive vibrations once your five senses are activated. https://www.thehansindia.com/life-style/spiritual/temple-thursdays-temple- science-shocking-science-behind-hindu-temples- 541564?infinitescroll=1https://shekharsk.wordpress.com/shocking-science-behind-hindu-temples/ Earth’s magnetic fields and Temple Construction and Location -AUTHOR Saarthak Dulgaj in Culture-Vulture, Sci-Tech, Society, 2020 Earth is a giant magnet. It has magnetic North and South poles, where the magnetic field of lines are in a dense state. People who claim dense magnetic field in temples fraudulent because they don’t have any measurement to prove their claims. It is impossible to find a magnetic field in dense state at a small place such as the moolasthanam. Magnetic poles are spread over kilometres. Earth’s liquid iron core convects because it is heated from beneath by the inner core. Because iron is a metal and conducts electricity (even when molten), its motion generates a magnetic field. Earth’s magnetic field is defined by north and south poles representing lines of magnetic force flowing into Earth in the northern hemisphere and out of Earth in the southern hemisphere (Figure 3.15). Because of the shape of the field lines, the magnetic force is oriented at different angles to the surface in different locations. The tilt, or inclination of magnetic field lines is represented by the tilt of compass needles in Figure 3.15. At the north and south poles, the force
20 is vertical. The force is horizontal at the equator. Everywhere in between, the magnetic force is at an intermediate angle to the surface. In Advances in Residential Design Related to the Influence of Geomagnetism,Francisco Glaria et al, (Int J Environ Res Public Health.(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5858456/) 2018 ) describe that geomagnetic aspects can affect health of humans if the geomagnetic field variability of the rest of the variables exceeds the minimum required dosimetry and one can conclude that the causes of architectural components that can influence, to a greater or lesser extent, geomagnetic field variability are as follows:  The arrangement of parking spaces in the basement floors of the building.  The arrangement of metal masses in the basement floors of the building.  Variability in storm water due to the flow of underground streams. You may have come across many articles and videos where they give scientific reasons behind the geography and architecture of temples. Their choice of explanation makes you feel that it is very scientific — they cleverly use appealing scientific words like energy, vibration, magnetic field and electric field, amongst others. The most persistent rumour is that temples were purposely constructed at a place where the Earth’s magnetic wave densely pass through. Apparently, these temples are located strategically at a place where there is abundant positive energy from the magnetic and electric wave distribution of the north/south pole thrust. Before jumping into the discussion about myths on Hindu temples, first, we should try to understand how these magnetic fields and electric fields originated on Earth and how they interact with the human body. As we know, iron is a magnetic material and the Earth’s core is filled with iron in a molten state, which generates a magnetic field on Earth. This is why we call our blue planet a giant magnet. Earth is surrounded by an infinite number of charged particles, or ions, and these particles, present in the core of Earth, are the source of electric field lines.
21 F= qE + q(v x B), where F is the force exerted by the electric field E and magnetic field B on the charged particle q moving with the velocity v. This is the famous Lorentz Equation that describes the effect of the magnetic and electric field on charged particles. The first term is contributed by the electric field, while the second is contributed by the magnetic field. Our body contains charged particles, and nerve cells communicate through electric signals, which can get affected by the magnetic and electric field. Now, let’s talk about some myths surrounding Hindu temples.-Temples are found deliberately at places where abundant positive energy is available from the magnetic and electric wave conveyances of north/south post push. The main idol is placed at the core centre of the temple, known as ‘Garbhagriha’, ‘Garbhagriya’ or ‘Moolasthanam’. In fact, the temple structure is built after the idol has been placed. This moolasthanam is where Earth’s magnetic waves are found to be maximum. Positive energy? What does that really mean? It sounds very scientific and attractive, surely. Energy is the measurement of the ability to do work. If this magnetic field is concentrated in temples and gives out so-called positive energy, then people who live at the magnetic poles must have this energy, too. “Copper plates are buried at the moolasthanam that absorb the Earth’s magnetic field and radiate it out to the surroundings.” Copper is a non-magnetic material, whereas iron, cobalt and nickel are attracted to magnets, as their magnetic permeability is very high. Copper doesn’t radiate magnetic field lines. “Remove footwear before entering the temple because temples are places that contain pure vibrations of magnetic and electric fields with positive energy. It will be easy to pass positive energy through the feet.” There is nothing like positive or negative vibrations. Vibrations are simply vibrations — the to and fro motion of particles. Superconductors are the only materials that show obstacles to a magnetic field. Magnetic field lines can penetrate any material except superconductors. Our body contains charged particles that can be affected by the magnetic field. If this magnetic field gives out so-called positive energy, then it will be better to go to the magnetic North or South poles. And surely, people who live there must be full of this positive energy. In Temple Science- Shocking science behind Hindu Temples -Suhasini Reddy says that the purpose behind building Temples is to create a pathway between the divine and the human- a link between God and Man. The building f temples is not just a mere art; it is a science involving every single facet of it - from the size of the idol to the directions and the sanctum.Temple architecture is and was -a highly developed science. India is the country which is known for its rich Hindu Culture and Tradition. There are hundreds of mesmerizing Hindu temples across the country in different design, shape, locations; but not all temples are built as described in Vedic literature. Temples are found deliberately at a place where the positive energy is available abundantly from the magnetic and electric wave conveyances of north/south post push. The idol of God is set in the core center of the temple, known as" Grabhagriha" or "Moolasthanam". Ideally, the structure of the temple is built after the idol has been placed in a high positive wave centric place.
22 In olden days, temples were built in such a way that the floor at the center of the temple were good conductors of these positive vibrations allowing them to pass through our feet to the body. Hence it is necessary to walk barefooted while you enter the center of the temple. Five senses of the body get activated when you are inside the temple if the positive energy inside the temple is absorbed properly that is only if you ensure that all the five senses are activated in your body while in the temple. The senses of the Human Body are Sight, Hearing, Taste, Sight, And Smell. Also, the place of worship is said to be pleased only if your five senses are pleased. A Temple is more than a Building. People put aside any constraints of money to erect inspiring structures which we can say are built on faith, science, and mystery. For most of us, the science of temples built on thousands of years of research and development has been lost.By understanding the science of Indian temples, one can experience the intelligence, power, and miracles that these structures were made from and for. The Divine aspects of a Temple: The temple is comprised of five senses and a presiding deity. The temple is an outgrowth of the deity which has its own independent intelligence and from which energy is constantly radiating. Temples are places where mind spontaneously moves within and meditation happens effortlessly. Every aspect of the temple, from the architecture to the rituals to the kinds of worship offered, has been consciously created to make this experience happen. Energy Centres If you look into the ancient past and the temples, it reveals the fundamental science and purpose behind temple building. Far from being a place of prayer or worship, temples were created as powerful spaces where an individual could imbibe the enshrined energies. Most temples were created to address a particular aspect of life and were thus consecrated to activate one or two particular chakras, the main energy centers within the human system. The chakra means “wheel” and refers to energy points in your body. They are thought to be spinning disks of energy that should stay “open” and aligned, as they correspond to bundles of nerves, major organs, and areas of our energetic body that affect our emotional and physical well-being. Deities are not gods! They are just the mirrors of spiritual reality Vedic Temple design A temple has a very unique design according to Hindu mythology. The construction of a normal house and a temple are very different. There are many points which are to be taken care of while constructing a temple. It is supposed to be connected with the nature, the universe and the Supreme Power that is controlling and driving the whole universe. We specialize in in the designing of Vedic temples. We take care of all the important points that are to be considered while constructing a fruitful Temple. A temple is considered to be a place where we connect ourselves with gods. If there is any error in building a temple, the results are exactly opposite. A temple must be promote the constructive elements of the universe and control the negative energies. The purpose of the Vedic Knowledge of Sthåpatya Veda—Våstu Vidyå—is to maintain individual life in harmony with Cosmic Life, and save the individual from being torn apart by the disharmonious influence of the surroundings he has created around him—his house, his village, his city, etc.
23 This is being mentioned here to explain the need for everyone in the world to live and workin an auspiciousVåstubuilding and enjoythe supportof NaturalLaw in daily life.In Vedic Architecture, the geographical centre of the country holds special significance for the support of Natural Law for the progressand prosperity of the whole country.ThisscienceofVedicArchitectureisnotamatter ofbelief orfaith; it is asconcrete as the burning nature of fire and the cooling nature of ice. Selecting the site We first of all examine the site to consider it to be perfect for the site for a temple. It is not an individual’s choice. One must consider the presence of other temples. If there is temple of a particular God, it is advisable to build another Temple of some other god or goddess. This is to help the society. Temples are not built only to fulfill an individual’s wish. Suppose a temple is being built to give a tribute to a beloved person whose soul is taking a rest in peace, then the site of the temple must be definitely taken care of. Facilities available near the temples must be considered. There has to be water supply 24 by 7. The soil has to be fertile. If all these parameters are getting fulfilled, then only our architects and sculptors approve the site.
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25 Direction of Idols We take good care of the direction of the placement of the deities and idols. There are different stories associated with the direction of different Gods and Goddesses. If they are placed in the respective directions, the results achieved are quick according to Vedic astrology. For example, the idols of most of the Gods and Goddesses are south facing or west facing but the idol of Lord Hanuman must be placed in the manner it faces the north direction. It is so because Lord Hanuman went to Sri Lanka and got victory over Sri Lanka. It is in the south direction. Therefore, Lord Hanuman was victorious in the southern direction. Thus, it is believed that if we worship the idol of Lord Hanuman that faces the north direction shall give the best results. It is also said that, the direction of riddles actually does not matter but it is the direction of the human beings that matters. We must face the north and the east direction while worshipping. There is one more reason to support the placement of most of the idols in north east direction. There is magnetism in this direction of any place, be it a house or a temple. We need to attract the Gods, therefore we plce their idols in this direction so that the idols for the souls of the Gods can remain attracted to the place with the help of magnetism. Determining the size Before beginning the construction, we determine the size of the idol or the deity that is to be built. There is a dome that is built in correspondence with the temple. A Hindu temple is believed to have the dome for sure. After determining the size of the idol, the architect will make a complete plan and then the construction will begin. Ganesh Pooja and Vastu Pooja We Indians never begin anything without worshipping Lord Ganesha. After worshipping Lord Ganesha, we also go for Vastu Pooja to please Vastu Devta. It is very necessary to do everything in the construction of a temple absolutely correctly. It is said that, what starts well, gets
26 completed perfectly. Consideration of Vedic astrology We consider Vedic astrology at every step of construction. Every inch is constructed keeping in mind the rules and regulations mentioned by the Vedic Shastra. Our architects and sculptors are well trained in all the aspects that are to be considered as per Vedic astrology. Using the Nakshatra Before the construction of the temple takes place, our Vedic astrologers check. The Nakshatra of the founder of the temple. It has to be in correspondence with the possibilities or yog of construction of a temple. The Nakshatra of the place or the village is also taken into consideration. Material used The kinds of material that are used for the construction of a temple are gold, silver, copper, etc; but not iron. Iron attracts negative energy. It is very necessary to avoid the usage of iron. In case iron is used in the construction of the temple, it becomes necessary to make sure that all other particulars are followed while building the temple so that it can attract the positive energy only. Formation of grid While building the temple, it is very necessary that there must be strict grids. The grids are made up of equilateral Triangles and squares. Everything has a very strong and in-depth religious significance. Even if we do not know the scientific reason behind it, we don’t hesitate in
27 following it because we have complete faith in Vedic astrology. There must be either 64 or 81 squares. The idol of the temple is with the square that is in the center. The plan or GRID The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to Vastupurusamandala. The 64 grid is the most sacred and common Hindu temple template. The bright saffron centre, where diagonals intersect above, represents the Purusha of Hindu philosophy. The design, especially the floor plan, of the part of a Hindu temple around the sanctum or shrine follows a geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala. The name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan. Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling structure. Vastupurushamandala is a yantra.[32] The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles. The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a perfect square in the space available. The circle of mandala circumscribes the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other. The square is divided into perfect square grids. In large temples, this is often a 8x8 or 64 grid structure. In ceremonial temple superstructures, this is an 81 sub-square grid. The squares are called ‘‘padas’’. The square is symbolic and has Vedic origins from fire altar, Agni. The alignment along cardinal direction, similarly is an extension of Vedic rituals of three fires. This symbolism is also found among Greek and other ancient civilizations, through the gnomon. In Hindu temple manuals, design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate on, do yoga, or make
28 offerings with Vedic fire in front. The second design of 4 padas has a symbolic central core at the diagonal intersection, and is also a meditative layout. The 9 pada design has a sacred surrounded centre, and is the template for the smallest temple. Older Hindu temple vastumandalas may use the 9 through 49 pada series, but 64 is considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is also called Manduka, Bhekapada or Ajira in various ancient Sanskrit texts. Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity or to a spirit or apasara. The central square(s) of the 64 is dedicated to the Brahman (not to be confused with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas In a Hindu temple's structure of symmetry and concentric squares, each concentric layer has significance. The outermost layer, Paisachika padas, signify aspects of Asuras and evil; the next inner concentric layer is Manusha padas signifying human life; while Devika padas signify aspects of Devas and good. The Manusha padas typically houses the ambulatory. The devotees, as they walk around in clockwise fashion through this ambulatory to complete Parikrama (or Pradakshina), walk between good on inner side and evil on the outer side. In smaller temples, the Paisachika pada is not part of the temple superstructure, but may be on the boundary of the temple or just symbolically represented. The Paisachika padas, Manusha padas and Devika padas surround Brahma padas, which signifies creative energy and serves as the location for temple's primary idol for darsana. Finally at the very centre of Brahma padas is Garbhagruha(Garbha- Centre, gruha- house; literally the centre of the house) (Purusa Space), signifying Universal Principle present in everything and everyone.[2] The spire of a Hindu temple, called Shikhara in north India and Vimana in south India, is perfectly aligned above the Brahma pada(s). A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core of the temple. These spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have mathematical precision and geometric symbolism. One of the common principles found in Hindu temple spires is circles and turning-squares theme (left), and a concentric layering design (right) that flows from one to the other as it rises towards the sky. Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the formless shapeless all pervasive all connecting Universal Spirit, the Purusha. This space is sometimes referred to as garbha- griya (literally womb house) - a small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space without ornamentation that represents universal essence. In or near this space is typically a murti. This is the main deity image, and this varies with each temple. Often it is this idol that gives it a local name, such as Vishnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana temple, Siva temple, Lakshmi temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple, and others. It
29 is this garbha-griya which devotees seek for ‘‘darsana’’ (literally, a sight of knowledge, or vision[). Above the vastu-purusha-mandala is a high superstructure called the shikhara in north India, and vimana in south India, that stretches towards the sky.[31] Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the superstructure may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical dimension's cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid, conical or other mountain-like shape, once again using principle of concentric circles and squares (see below). Scholars such as Lewandowski state that this shape is inspired by cosmic mountain of Mount Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of gods according to its ancient mythology. Mandapa of a temple in South India. Much temple sculpture was originally painted. In larger temples, the outer three padas are visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images meant to inspire the devotee. In some temples, these images or wall reliefs may be stories from Hindu Epics, in others they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice, in some they may be idols of minor or regional deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life—kama, artha, dharma, and moksa. This walk around is called pradakshina. Large temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapa may be a separate structure in older temples, but in newer temples this space is integrated into the temple superstructure. Mega temple sites have a main temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. An important principle found in the layout of Hindu temples is mirroring and repeating fractal-like design structure, each unique yet also repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as “an organism of repeating cells” Exceptions to the square grid principle Predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect square grid principle. However, there are some exceptions. For example, the Teli ka Mandir in Gwalior, built in the 8th century CE is not a square but is a rectangle consisting of stacked squares. Further, the temple explores a number of structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting the architect intended to use these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and Nakti-Mata temple near Jaipur, Rajasthan. Michael Meister states that these exceptions mean the ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in expression and aesthetic independence.
30 The Hindu text Sthapatya Veda describes many plans and styles of temples of which the following are found in other derivative literature: Chaturasra (square), Ashtasra (octagonal), Vritta (circular), Ayatasra (rectangular), A yata Ashtasra (rectangular-octagonal fusion), Ayata Vritta (elliptical), Hasti Prishta (apsidal), Dwayasra Vrita (rectangular-circular fusion); in Tamil literature, the Prana Vikara (shaped like a Tamil Om sign, ) is also found. Methods of combining squares and circles to produce all of these plans are described in the Hindu texts. Entrance: North or East It is preferred that the entrance of the temple must be in the east direction. It means that the sunlight of the rising Sun must enter the temple. Sunlight has the power to kill the bacteria and microbes present in the air. Therefore it is very good, if sunlight can enter the temple. The purity of a place is decided with cleanliness. All the rights and rituals are directed towards killing the bacteria and microbes and ultimately the negative energy. This makes the environment positive and therefore people feel nice and light-hearted when they come to a temple. If it is not possible to make the entrance of the temple from the east direction, at least it must be the north direction. Major elements of a temple There are four important elements of a temple. The first one is the porch. The porch has to be at the entrance of the temple. The second element is a Mandap or hall. This Mandap can be attached with the temple or detached. But it has to be there. The third element happens to be Garbh Griha. It can be understood as the womb chamber or the inner sanctum. The fourth element is the Dom or the tower that is constructed directly above the womb chamber. Importance of proper orientation It is very necessary to understand that a temple that is not built in in accordance with the proper orientation may bring misfortunes. Please take the services of Himani Agyani to save you from the destructive results. Show that whenever the spiritual rites and rituals are performed, only the positive results and blessings I received by the people. If the construction does not take place in the right manner, it will be difficult for the souls of human beings to get connected with the souls of gods and it will result in the attraction of negative energy. Checking the geo thermal energy
31 Every place has its own geo thermal energy. We take care of the different kinds of energies and the construction of the temple should take in the manner that the negative energies get purified and the temples constructed give the positive results. First used in Italy in 1904, geothermal has been a consistent – and expanding – source of energy in recent years. According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), geothermal energy has grown steadily from around 10GW worldwide in 2010 to 13.3GW in 2018. So what is geothermal energy, how does it work and where is it prevalent? Where does geothermal energy come from? Geothermal energy is the heat that comes from the sub-surface of the earth. It is contained in the rocks and fluids beneath the earth’s crust and can be found as far down to the earth’s hot molten rock, magma. To produce power from geothermal energy, wells are dug a mile deep into underground reservoirs to access the steam and hot water there, which can then be used to drive turbines connected to electricity generators. There are three types of geothermal power plants; dry steam, flash and binary. Dry steam is the oldest form of geothermal technology and takes steam out of the ground and uses it to directly drive a turbine. Flash plants use high-pressure hot water into cool, low-pressure water whilst binary plants pass hot water through a secondary liquid with a lower boiling point, which turns to vapour to drive the turbine. Where it’s used Geothermal energy is used in over 20 countries. The United States is the largest producer of geothermal energy in the world, and hosts the largest geothermal field. Known as “The Geysers” in California, the field is spread over 117 square kilometres and formed of 22 power plants, with an installed capacity of over 1.5GW. The energy source is also prevalent in Iceland, where it has been used since 1907. Describing itself as a ‘pioneer’ of geothermal power, the country produces 25% of its energy from five geothermal power plants. This is due to the 600 hot springs and 200 volcanoes in the country. Problems due to wrong construction There can be many problems faced by the founder of the temple or the family associated with the temple if there is any error in construction of the temple or the placement of the idol or statue. 1) Restlessness and tensions at home and workplace 2) Health issues 3) More unnecessary expenses 4) Poor relations among family members 5) Poverty, anxiety, aggression and constant fear 6) Unnecessary struggle 7) Less income
32 Intricacy: The prominent feature The designs of the temples must be highly intricate. You can see the complexity in the designs of the temples in the ancient times also. It is very minute work. It takes a long time and effort to construct a temple. It is not so easy to create the complex designs with accuracy. Himani Agyani has a lot of experience in designing such intricate temples.
33 Very few people know that in the Hindu temple, once ot is concecrated, the diety is supposed to live in the sanctum sanctorum as if a living bring,hence the temple closes in the afternoon to let the God take a nap;closes at night, the clothes of the diety are changed and he is given a bath etc. Even during doing a puja at home or in the temple, bathing is a pronounced ritual. Hindu kings had a close link between the deities they worshipped and their own political authority. As Richard H. David, professor of Religion and Asian Studies, Bard College, writes in his essay, Indian Art Objects as Loot, “In the prevailing ideological formations of medieval India, worshippers of Vishnu, Shiva, or Durga considered ruling authority to emanate from the lord of the cosmos downward to the human lords of more limited domains such as empires, kingdoms, territories, or villages.” Shared sovereignty From this perspective, the king and the deity had a shared sovereignty; the king’s authority was legitimised because it emanated from the deity he patronised. This conception turned the deity into the most exalted symbol of the state. To vanquish the king was therefore not enough. Victory was complete only when the victorious took away the state deity, effectively sundering the vanquished from the very source from which he drew his authority. As early as 642 CE (or Common Era, equivalent to AD), the Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman I vanquished the Chalukyas, sacked their capital of Vatapi, and brought the image of Ganesha to his kingdom in Tamil Nadu. The image acquired the sobriquet of Vatapi Ganapati. At times, temple images passed on from one king to another because of their fortunes fluctuating in battlefields, known to us because of the inscriptions proudly detailing who the previous owners were. Thus, in 950 CE, the Chandella ruler Yashovarman built the Lakshman temple at Khajuraho to house the Vishnu Vaikunth, made of gold. This image was obtained from Mount Kailash by the “Lord of Tibet”, from whom the Sahi King of Orissa wrested it. It was seized from the Sahis after they were defeated by the Pratihara ruler Herambapala. Yashovarman then overwhelmed Herambapala’s son, Devapala, and ferreted it away to Khajuraho.
34 Among the most charming stories of image appropriation is one narrated by the Buddhist chronicler Dhammakitti. According to him, the Pandyan ruler Srimara Srivallabha invaded Sri Lanka around 835 CE and routed the army of the Sinhala king, Sena I, who fled to the mountains. Srimara plundered the royal treasury and took away, among other things, “the statue of the Teacher (Buddha)”, which had been made in gold and placed on a pedestal in the Jewel Palace about 50 years earlier. Once the Pandyan army departed, Sena I returned and, to quote Prof Davis, “took up sovereignty once again, but sovereignty of a decidedly diminished nature.” Sena I was succeeded by his nephew, Sena II (ruled between 851-885 CE), who found it odd that the pedestal was empty and asked his ministers about it. Dhammakitti quotes ministers telling Sena II, “Does the king not know? During the time of your uncle…the Pandyan king came here, laid waste to the island, and left, taking that which had become valuable to us.” On hearing this Sena II felt so ashamed he ordered the minister to assemble troops forthwith. By then, the Pandyan army had been weakened because of the three battles it had fought against the Pallavas. The Lankan army swept its way to Madurai, and Srimara died of the wounds sustained in the conflict. The Lankan army entered Madurai, sacked the city, and took back the gold statue of the Buddha. Amidst much festivity, the statue was placed on the pedestal in the Jewel Palace. Prof Davis sees a deeper meaning between the image and sovereignty. As he writes, “The stolen image, disclosed to the young king by its empty pedestal, serves as an objectification of defeat not only for his uncle, who had suffered the loss, but for the very institution of Sinhala sovereignty.” Voluntary gifting of images to a challenging power implied accepting his superiority. A couple of decades before the expropriation of the statue of Buddha, the rise of the Rashtrakuta king Govinda III alarmed the Lankan king Aggabodhi VIII into buying peace. He sent to Govinda two images. The meaning of this voluntary submission a Rashtrakuta inscription celebrates thus: “Govinda received from Lanka two images of their Lord and then set them up” in a Shiva temple at his capital city of Manyakheta, “like two pillars of his fame.” Image appropriation Another charming instance of image appropriation is the insistence of three Deccan dynasties – the Chalukyas of Vatapi, the Rashtrakutas, and the Cholas – that they brought the Ganga and Yamuna to the south. Only those who share the Hindutva literalism will believe the three dynasties had changed the course of the two rivers! Historians feel what the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas did was to appropriate the images of the two rivers often found even today at the entrance of temples of North India. Or perhaps these rivers were represented as insignias on the royal banners of the rulers from whom it was taken after their defeat. But the Chola king Rajendra I went a step further. In the 11th century, his army defeated an array
35 of rulers in the North and reached the banks of the holy river Ganga. Chola inscriptions will have us believe that the vanquished were made to carry water in golden pots all the way to the South. A “liquid pillar of victory” made of Ganga water, called the Chola-Ganga, was constructed in the new capital city of Gangaikondacholapuram, or the city of the Chola king who took the Ganga, where Rajendra I also built a Shiva temple. In it were placed images he had captured from other kings – Durga and Ganesha images from the Chalukyas; Bhairava, Bhairavi, and Kali images from the Kalingas of Orrisa, a bronze Shiva image from the Palas of Bengal, etc. To this list of images the Chola kings appropriated was added yet another one in 1045 CE, when the Chola King Rajadhiraja defeated the Chalukyas, which prompted its ruler Somesvara to flee. Before reducing to ashes the Chalukyan capital of Kalyani, Rajadhiraja carted away a massive stone-guardian, made in black stone, to Gangaikondacholapuram. It is a mystery why Rajadhiraja appropriated the stone-guardian, not the presiding deity of the Chalukyas. It is suggested he was merely following a historical precedent established a good three centuries earlier. Then, roughly in the mid-eighth century, the Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga had defeated the Gurjara-Pratihara king, Nagabhata I, and marched to the latter’s capital city of Ujjain. There Dantidurga performed the royal gift-giving ceremony, the Golden-Womb ritual, for which the vanquished Nagabhata and other chieftains were compelled to serve as door-keepers. Likewise, in Kalyani, Rajadhiraja performed the ritual of Royal Consecration. Since the Kalyani ruler Somesvara had fled, he couldn’t be made to serve as a door-keeper. Therefore, Rajadhiraja took away the stone-guardian. Both Somesvara and the door-guardian were united through their failures. As Prof Davis says, “The hapless door-guardian had been unable to stop the destruction of its temple, and likewise Somesvara had failed to prevent the Chola armies from entering and destroying his capital.” As the Lord, so the king, you’d say. Demolition of temples The dominant trend in the pre-Islamic period was of Hindu kings looting temples and whisking away images, but there are also instances of demolition of temples and idols. In the early 10th century, the Rashtrakuta king Indra III destroyed the temple of Kalapriya, which their arch enemy, the Pratiharas, patronised. Then again, when the Kashmiri ruler Lalitaditya treacherously killed the king of Gauda (Bengal), his attendants sought to seek revenge. They clandestinely entered Lalitaditya’s capital and made their way to the temple of Vishnu Parihasakesava, the principal deity of the Kashmiri kingdom. However, they mistook a silver image of another deity for Parihasakesava, and took to grounding it to dust even as Kashmiri soldiers fell upon them. Though the Gaudas failed to achieve the desired result, their act of retribution does illustrate the symbolism inherent in destroying the image the ruler worshipped. “There is no question that medieval Hindu kings frequently destroyed religious images as part of more general rampages,” notes Davis.
36 The above account shows that the iconoclasm of Muslim invaders from the 11th century onwards was already an established political behaviour in large parts of India. The destruction of temples by Muslim rulers couldn’t have been consequently traumatic, as the proponents of Hindutva argue. As mentioned earlier,the oldest written references to temples are from 300 and 400 CE, and the earliest surviving temple structures date back to 500 and 600 CE. The temple was not a Vedic institution. The unique understanding in Hinduism is that God is not far away, living in a remote heaven, but is inside each and every soul, in the heart and consciousness, waiting to be discovered. And the goal of Hinduism is knowing God in this intimate and experiential way. Hinduism is both monotheistic and henotheistic. Hinduism is not polytheistic. Henotheism (literally “one God”) better defines the Hindu view. It means the worship of one God without denying the existence of other Gods. Hindus believe in the one all-pervasive God who energizes the entire universe. It is believed that God is both in the world and beyond it. That is the highest Hindu view Hinduism gives the freedom to approach God in one’s own way, encouraging a multiplicity of paths, not asking for conformity to just one. It allows people to believe in and pray to their own conceptualizations of the Divine in whatever form they choose, while at the same time elevating all of them to their ultimate reality, which is the singular omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient Divinity, who demands no allegiance, punishes no one for lack of belief, yet provides wisdom, comfort, compassion and freedom to those who seek it. All they need to do is look within, according to Ramdas Lamb, an associate professor at the University of Hawaii specializing in religious studies, mysticism, Indic religions, the interface between religions and society, and field-studies. Garbhagriha( Womb Chamber) or Deoghar( house of God) It literally means 'womb-house' and is a cave like a sanctum. In the earliest temples, it was a small cubical structure with a single entrance. Later it grew into a larger complex. The Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of much ritual attention. The garbhagriha in Hindu temple architecture (a shrine inside a temple complex where the main deity is installed in a separate building by itself inside the complex) has also been compared to a "sanctum sanctorum" in texts on Hindu temple architecture, though the Sanskrit term actually means "enclosed house" or "the deep interior of the house". However, some Indian English authors seem to have translated the Sanskrit term literally as "womb house"
37 Vimana is the structure over the garbhagriha or inner sanctum in the Hindu temples of South India and Odisha in East India. By contrast, in large South Indian temples, it is typically smaller than the great gatehouses or gopuram, which are the most immediately striking architectural elements in a temple complex. If we trace the Hindu Temple design we come across early elliptical shrines discovered in Besnagar (3rd-2nd century BCE) and Nagari (1st century BCE), may be the earliest known Hindu temple structures, associated to the early Bhagavata tradition, a precursor of Vaishnavism. The earliest preserved Hindu temples are simple cell-like stone temples, some rock-cut and others structural, as at Temple 17 at Sanchi. By the 6th or 7th century, these evolved into high shikhara stone superstructures. However, there is inscriptional evidence such as the ancient Gangadhara inscription from about 424, states Meister, that towering temples existed before this time and these were possibly made from more perishable material. These temples have not survived. Earlier structures in timber-based architecture preceded the Gupta period. and there are hardly any remains of stone Hindu temples before the Gupta dynasty in the 5th century CE, there probably were The rock-cut Udayagiri Caves (401 CE) are among the most important early sites, built with royal sponsorship, recorded by inscriptions, and with impressive sculpture.
38
39 Cave like Temple In every religion the devotees and the designers wanted to place the image of the Diety/ God in manner most attractive to those who looked upon it. The Garbagriha of the temples shown above point towards the system of courtyard structures with assorted buildings surrounding the main diety place- much like the South Indian temples showing the universality of thought associated with Holy Structures regardless of the religion.
40 The three religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam readily fit the definition of monotheism, which is to worship one god while denying the existence of other gods. But, the relationship of the three religions is closer than that: They claim to worship the same god. There are four main types of worship that Christians can engage in:  Liturgical worship.  Non-liturgical worship.  Informal worship.  Private worship. Hindu worship is also liturgical. In its verbal form, liturgy can be sung, chanted, repeated, or communicated in words that are grounded in a frequently sacred language such as Sanskrit for Hinduism. ... Besides reciting hymns of the various Vedic texts and singing verses of praise, priests today recite sacred mantras. PRIVATE WORSHIP IN HINDUISM A lot of Hindus worship every day at home, at a shrine in their house. Other objects placed in a home shrine can include water and diva candles or lights. The bell is rung, which indicates the start of the puja ceremony. The incense is lit, which fills the room with a scent to show that God is everywhere. What is Hindu worship at home called? Hindus may worship at home or in temples called mandirs. Hindus tend to worship at home more often than they worship in a temple. They commonly use their home shrine to make offerings. The shrine is considered the most holy area of the home. Worship at holy places – In Hinduism, worship does not need to be undertaken in a temple or other building. One important type of puja in Indian temple and private worship is arati, the waving of lighted lamps before an image of a deity or a person to be honoured. In performing the rite, the worshipper circles the lamp three or more times in a clockwise direction while chanting a prayer or singing a hymn.
41 Puja Hindu worship, or puja, involves images (murtis), prayers (mantras) and diagrams of the universe (yantras). Central to Hindu worship is the image, or icon, which can be worshipped either at home or in the temple. A shrine to Ganesh Individual rather than communal Hindu worship is primarily an individual act rather than a communal one, as it involves making personal offerings to the deity. Worshippers repeat the names of their favourite gods and goddesses, and repeat mantras. Water, fruit, flowers and incense are offered to god. Worship at home The majority of Hindu homes have a shrine where offerings are made and prayers are said. A shrine can be anything: a room, a small altar or simply pictures or statues of the deity. Family members often worship together. Rituals should strictly speaking be performed three times a day. Some Hindus, but not all, worship wearing the sacred thread (over the left shoulder and hanging to the right hip). This is cotton for the Brahmin (priest), hemp for the Kshatriya (ruler) and wool for the vaishya (merchants). At the temple for a festival Temple worship
42 At a Hindu temple, different parts of the building have a different spiritual or symbolic meaning.  The central shrine is the heart of the worshipper  The tower represents the flight of the spirit to heaven  A priest may read, or more usually recite, the Vedas to the assembled worshippers, but any "twice-born" Hindu can perform the reading of prayers and mantras Religious rites Hindu religious rites are classified into three categories:  Nitya  Nitya rituals are performed daily and consist in offerings made at the home shrine or performing puja to the family deities.  Naimittika  Naimittika rituals are important but only occur at certain times during the year, such as celebrations of the festivals, thanksgiving and so on.  Kamya  Kamya are rituals which are "optional" but highly desirable. Pilgrimage is one such. Worship and pilgrimage Pilgrimage is an important aspect of Hinduism. It's an undertaking to see and be seen by the deity. Indian women worshipping Shiva on the Ganges Popular pilgrimage places are rivers, but temples, mountains, and other sacred sites in India are also destinations for pilgrimages, as sites where the gods may have appeared or become manifest in the world.
43 Fig. 6. The plate shows the evolution of the sanctum sanctorum (hereafter 'shrine') during Momentum II (ca. 460-ca. 470 ce) through Bāgh, Dhārāshiva, Mahāḍ, Ajanta, and Banōṭī. There were at least five stages: (1) stupa-shrine with ambulatory, but, without antechamber; (2) stupa- shrine with ambulatory, and, antechamber; (3) 'central block' for stupa; (4) stupa supplanted by Buddha figure; (5) central block and ambulatory supplanted by Bodhisattva, gandharva, and donor figures. The above are the earliest shrines to have been commenced after Rup-ture I in W. India (ca. 300-ca. 460 ce). Except Bāgh and Banōṭī, the above caves had begun as Type II (dormitories), but were converted midway into Type V (res-idence-cum-temple). Bāgh caves 4 and 2 were the first projects that brought Type V from the margins of Momentum I (ca. 250 bce- ca. 300 ce) and established as the most preferred variety of the rock-cut temples for all times, regions, and religions. The Bāgh blueprints had not only the shrines but also the stupas and ambulatories to which the initial planners of the above Ajanta caves were quite oblivious during the same Momentum II. Figs. 6.1-6.4: These sancta sanctorum were commenced earlier because there is no antechamber. Figs. 6.5-6.11: Commenced somewhat later because they have antechambers (in Cave 16, antechamber excavation was aborted). Figs. 6.1-6.5: Remarkably, the first rock-cut temples initiated after a gap of nearly one and a half century of Rupture I (ca. 300- ca. 460 ce) was not planned as the standard Type I (apsidal-and-vault-roofed) of Momentum I. The Bāgh planners radically chose Type V (residence-cum-temple) variety, partly because of the porous rock but mostly because Type V was much more economical and practical. One building
44 was enough for two functions: worship and lodging. Fig. 6.2: Although a Jaina temple, Dhārāshiva Cave 2 followed the Type V variety of the Buddhists. The central block was reserved for the figure of God Pārśvanāth Śeṣaphanī, but then the work was halted due to Rupture II (ca. 470-ca. 472 ce), and the image could only be carved at the end of Momentum III (ca. late 460s- ca. 480 ce). Fig. 6.3: The older dormitory, Mahāḍ 1 (Type II.B.iii.b) was retrofitted with a stupa- shrine during Momentum II. Like Dhārāshiva 2 (Fig. 2), the ambulatory was mostly excavated while reserving the central block for the stupa. Then, the work was similarly halted due to Rupture II, and the image could only be carved at the end of Momentum III. Fig. 6.4: The erstwhile cell 'c' was re-worked to retrofit a stupa shrine. The ambulatory 'a' and stupa 's' were being ex-cavated when came the Rupture II. However, during Momentum III, the planners had changed the mind; they neither completed the stupa nor the ambulatory. Instead, a Buddha image 'b' was carved on the front of the stupa. The central block had not been concieved so far. Fig. 6.5: The shrine-antechamber, first seen in Nasik Cave 17 (Burgess No. 2) of Momentum I was re- introduced. From here on it became a standard component of the Indian temple architecture. Whereas the same could not have been retrofitted in the shrines already excavated (Figs. 1-4) it was retrofitted in those that commenced a bit later (Figs. 7-10). Fig. 6.6: The shrine of Ajanta Cave 16 had five distinct stages: (1) The doorways of the five rear cells 'c' having equal gaps among them were already excavated before the frenzy of converting Type II into Type V gripped Ajanta. (2) After Bāgh Cave 2, a shrine antechamber was planned for retrofitment, which was partly excavated with two antechamber pillars. (3) But, the work on the antechamber was abort- ed for unknown reason. (4) Focus now to carve out the stupa and ambulatory. From the available matrix of rock a 'central block' was somehow shaped up for the stupa, which automatically created the so-called ambulatory. The adjacent cells posed limitations. So, they worked on the walls in between to create the pillars inside the shrine. Soon came Rupture II. (5) In Momentum III, the idea of the stupa was dead. Instead, a colossal Buddha figure was created. Work on the so-called ambulatory never resumed. It had become an eyesore long ago, for it consumed much space that was needed (later) for the new ideas of the Bodhisattva, gandharva, and donor figures. Thus, the rear side of the central block 'sf' did not require an apsidal shape. Hence, there remained the 'corridors.' These stages, more or less, are a pattern seen in other shrines too. Figs. 6.7-6.9: During certain years of Momentum II, the moonstone before the shrine antechamber had made a temporary appearance. Figs. 6.7-6.8: The central blocks 'cb' meant for the stupas were already excavated when the idea to replace the stupa with the Buddha figure 'b' descended the site. Nothing could be done about the ambulatories but the Buddha figures were somehow accommodated within the central blocks. Fig. 6.7: The evidence of the erstwhile stupa is the unique inverted lotus above the Buddha's head (see inset), which originally was the umbrella of the stupa. Another evidence is the enigmatic 'loft' over the rear wall, which resulted due to the deeper cut for reaching down to the planned depth of the chamber at a time when they were working downwards from the top to excavate the stupa and ambulatory. Figs. 6.9-6.11: What appears to be the 'half ambulatories' are actually the aborted extent of the excavations at a time when they were revealing the central block. The work was simultaneously progressing on the stupa blocks when suddenly the idea came that the Buddha figure was better than the stupa. The cut is shallow in Fig. 9 and deeper in Figs. 10 & 11. They had, subsequently, to level up the horizontal and vertical surfaces of the half-cut ambulatories to cleverly hide the aborted plans. Fig. 6.11: Banōṭī cave, Phase I, ca. late 460s-the conjectural plan is unmistakably close to Ajanta Cave 7, for the hall is absent and the pillared shrine antechamber is present. But the absence of the central block, stupa, or image connects the interior to the shrine of Ajanta Cave 8. Was a
45 portable Buddha image likewise installed upon the platform abutting the rear wall? Phase II, late 6th c. ce: based on the Type VI caves of Aurangabad, there was retrofitted a quadrangular ambulatory outside, and surrounding, the inner chamber. Residential cells were also being excavated. Phase III, 8th c. ce?: perhaps an attempt was made to convert the cave to a Śaivite temple indicated by a Naṭarāja image on the right porch pilaster. Was the Buddha image, if it was there inside the shrine, removed for a Śivalinga, as in Ellora caves 15, 19B, and 27? Hinduism under Islam (11th–19th century)-Temple building and challenge of Islam and popular religion The advent of Islam in the Ganges basin at the end of the 12th century resulted in the withdrawal of royal patronage from Hinduism in much of the area. The attitude of the Muslim rulers toward Hinduism varied. Some, like Fīrūz Tughluq (ruled 1351–88) and Aurangzeb (ruled 1658–1707), were strongly anti-Hindu and enforced payment of jizya, a poll tax on unbelievers. Others, like the Bengali sultan Ḥusayn Shah ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn (reigned 1493–1519) and the great Akbar (reigned 1556–1605), were well disposed toward their Hindu subjects. Many temples were destroyed by the more fanatical rulers, however. Conversion to Islam was more common in areas where Buddhism had once been strongest—Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Kashmir. On the eve of the Muslim occupation, Hinduism was by no means sterile in northern India, but its vitality was centred in the southern areas. Throughout the centuries, the system of class and caste had become more rigid; in each region there was a complex hierarchy of castes strictly forbidden to intermarry or dine together, controlled and regulated by secular powers who acted on the advice of the court Brahmans. The large-scale Vedic sacrifices had practically vanished, but simple domestic Vedic sacrifices continued, and new forms of animal, and sometimes vegetable, sacrifice had appeared, especially connected with the worship of the mother goddess. By that time, most of the main divinities of later Hinduism were worshipped. Rama, the hero of the epic poem, had become the eighth avatar of Vishnu, and his popularity was growing, though it was not yet as prominent as it later became. Similarly, Rama’s monkey helper, Hanuman, now one of the most popular divinities of India and the most ready helper in time of need, was rising in importance. Krishna was worshipped, though his consort, Radha, did not become popular until after the 12th century. Harihara, a combination of Vishnu and Shiva, and Ardhanarishvara, a synthesis of Shiva and his consort Shakti, also became popular deities. Temple complexes Although early temples in south India may have been made of disposable materials as early as the first few centuries of the Common Era, permanent temple structures appear about the 3rd and 4th centuries, as attested in early Tamil literature. From the Gupta period onward, Hindu temples became larger and more prominent, and their architecture developed in distinctive regional styles. In northern India the best remaining Hindu temples are found in the Orissa region and in the town of Khajuraho in northern Madhya Pradesh. The best example of Orissan temple architecture is the Lingaraja temple of Bhubaneswar, built about 1000. The largest temple of the region, however, is the famous Black Pagoda, the Sun Temple (Surya Deula) of Konarak, built in the mid-13th century. Its tower has long since collapsed, and only the assembly hall remains. The
46 most important Khajuraho temples were built during the 11th century. Individual architectural styles also arose in Gujarat and Rajasthan, but their surviving products are less impressive than those of Orissa and Khajuraho. By the end of the 1st millennium CE the south Indian style had reached its apogee in the great Brihadeshwara temple of Thanjavur (Tanjore). Surya Deula, Konarak, Orissa, India.Frederick M. Asher In the temple the god was worshipped by the rites of puja or archana (reverencing a sacred being or object) as though the worshipers were serving a great king. In the important temples a large staff of trained officiants waited on the god. He was awakened in the morning along with his goddess; washed, clothed, and fed; placed in his shrine to give audience to his subjects; praised and entertained throughout the day; and ceremoniously fed, undressed, and put to bed at night. Worshipers sang, burned lamps, waved lights before the divine image, and performed other acts of homage. The god’s handmaidens (devadasis) performed before him at regular intervals, watched by the officiants and lay worshipers, who were his courtiers. The association of dedicated prostitutes with certain Hindu shrines may be traceable to the beginning of the Common Era. It became more widespread in post-Gupta times, especially in south India, and aroused the reprobation of 19th-century Europeans. Through the efforts of Hindu reformers, the office of the devadasis was discontinued. The role of devadasi is best understood in the context of the analogy between the temple and the royal court, for the Hindu king also had his dancing girls, who bestowed their favours on his courtiers. Parallels between the temple and the royal palace also were in evidence in the Rathayatras (Chariot Festivals). The deity was paraded in a splendid procession, together with the lesser gods of the minor shrines, in a manner similar to that of the king, who issued from his palace on festival days and paraded around his city, escorted by courtiers, troops, and musicians. The deity rode on a tremendous and ornate moving shrine (ratha), which was often pulled by large bands of devotees. Rathayatras still take place in many cities of India. The best-known is the annual procession of Jagannatha (“Juggernaut”), a form of Vishnu, at Puri in Orissa.
47 The Chariot Festival of the Jagannatha temple, Puri, Orissa, India.© Dinodia/Dinodia Photo Library The great temples were—and still are—wealthy institutions. The patrons who endowed them with land, money, and cattle included royalty as well as men and women from several classes of society. As early as the 5th century, Kulaprabhavati, a Cambodian queen, endowed a Vishnu temple in her realm. The temples were also supported by the transfer of the taxes levied by kings on specific areas of the nearby countryside, by donations of the pious, and by the fees of worshipers. Their immense wealth was one of the factors that encouraged the Ghaznavid and Ghūrid Turks to invade India after the 11th century. The temples were controlled by self-perpetuating committees—whose membership was usually a hereditary privilege—and by a large staff of priests and temple servants under a high priest who wielded tremendous power and influence. In keeping with their wealth, the great walled temple complexes of south India were—and still are—small cities, containing the central and numerous lesser shrines, bathing tanks, administrative offices, homes of the temple employees, workshops, bazaars, and public buildings of many kinds. As some of the largest employers and greatest landowners in their areas, the temples played an important part in the economy. They also performed valuable social functions, serving as schools, dispensaries, poorhouses, banks, and concert halls. The temple complexes suffered during the Muslim occupation. In the sacred cities of Varanasi (Benares) and Mathura, no large temple from any period before the 17th century has survived. The same is true of most of the main religious centres of northern India but not of the regions where the Muslim hold was less firm, such as Orissa, Rajasthan, and south India. Despite the widespread destruction of the temples, Hinduism endured, in part because of the absence of a centralized authority; rituals and sacrifices were performed in places other than temples. The purohitas, or family priests who performed the domestic rituals and personal sacraments for the laypeople, continued to function, as did the thousands of ascetics.
48 Sectarian movements Before the Muslim invasion of the subcontinent, the new forms of south Indian bhakti had spread beyond the bounds of the Tamil-, Kannada-, and Telugu-speaking areas. Certain Vaishnava theologians of the Pancharatra and Bhagavata schools gave the growing Vaishnava bhakti cults a philosophical framework that also influenced some Shaivite schools. Several Vaishnava teachers deserve mention, including Ramanuja, a Tamil Brahman of the 11th century who was for a time chief priest of the Vaishnava temple of Srirangam, and Nimbarka, a Telugu Brahman of the 12th or 13th century who spread the cult of the divine cowherd and of Radha, his favourite gopi (cowherdess, especially associated with the legends of Krishna’s youth). His sect survives near Mathura but has made little impact elsewhere. More important was Vallabha (Vallabhacharya; 1479–1531), who emphasized the erotic imagery of the Vaishnava doctrine of grace and established a sect that stressed absolute obedience to the guru (teacher). Early in its existence the sect was organized with a hierarchy of senior leaders (gosvami), many of whom became very rich. The Vallabhacharya sect, once very influential in the western half of north India, declined in the 19th century, in part because of a number of lawsuits against the chief guru, the descendant of Vallabha. The Shaiva sects also developed from the 10th century onward. In south India there emerged the school of Shaiva-siddhanta, still one of the most significant religious forces in that region and one that, unlike the school of Shankara, does not accept the full identity of the soul and God. A completely monistic school of Shaivism appeared in Kashmir in the early 9th century. Its doctrines differ from those of Shankara chiefly because it attributes personality to the absolute spirit, who is the god Shiva and not the impersonal brahman. An important sect, founded in the 12th century in the Kannada-speaking area of the Deccan, was that of the Lingayats, or Virashaivas (“Heroes of the Shaiva Religion”). Its traditional founder, Basava, taught doctrines and practices of surprising unorthodoxy: he opposed all forms of image worship and accepted only the lingam of Shiva as a sacred symbol. Virashaivism rejected the Vedas, the Brahman priesthood, and all caste distinctions. It also consciously rejected several religious and social conventions, such as the ban against the remarriage of widows, and practiced burial rather than cremation of the dead. Shaivism underwent significant growth in northern India. In the 13th century Gorakhnath (also known as Gorakshanatha), who became leader of a sect of Shaivite ascetics known as Nathas (“Lords”) from the title of their chief teachers, introduced new ideas and practices to Shaivism. The Gorakhnathis were particularly important as propagators of Hatha Yoga, a form of Yoga that requires complex and difficult physical exercises and that has become popular in the West. These yogis, who are still numerous, influenced the teachings of several of the bhakti poets. Bhakti movements The poets and saints (highly respected ascetics who were at times believed to be incarnations of a deity) of medieval bhakti appeared throughout India. Although all had their individual genius, the bhakti lyricists shared a number of common features. Unlike Sanskrit authors, mainly well-
49 educated members of the Brahman class whose learning and status shaped their outlook, bhakti poets were not restricted to a single language or class. They brought to their poetry a familiarity with folk religion unknown or ignored in the Sanskrit texts. The use of the spoken language, even though it was formalized, made possible the expression of an unmediated vision that needed no further context; thus, the lyrics are intensely personal and precise. These works illustrate the localistic and reformist tendency evidenced throughout India in the vernacular literatures, especially in Tamil, Bengali, and Hindi. (See below Vernacular literatures.) It is possible that the presence of rulers of alien faith in northern India and the withdrawal of royal patronage from the temples and Brahmanic colleges encouraged the spread of new, more popular forms of Hinduism. The psychological effect of the Muslim conquest may also have predisposed the people to accept the powerful teachings of the poets. Much has been said about the synthesis of Hinduism and Islam in the period of Muslim dominance. Numerous Muslim social customs were adopted, and Persian and Arabic words entered the vocabularies of Indian languages. The teachings of such men as Basava and Kabir may have been influenced by Muslim observances and social customs. A still greater synthesis took place among the Muslims, most of whom were Indian by blood. In Tamil, Hindi, Bengali, Gujarati, Punjabi, and Marathi there is much poetry, written by Muslims and commencing with the Islamic invocation of Allah, which nevertheless betrays strong Hindu influence. Some works, such as Umaru Pulavar’s Tamil Sira puranam (late 18th–early 19th century), which provides a detailed life of the Prophet, display the strong literary influence of Kamban’s Iramavataram (c. 9th–11th century), a rendering of the Ramayana in Tamil. While these works were strikingly similar in literary strategy and arrangement of chapters, there was no theological syncretism in the Sira puranam. However, there are texts in northern India that proclaim Krishna as being in the line of the prophets of Islam and as the teacher of the unity of God. Much mystical poetry, though written by authors with Muslim names, uses Hindu imagery and Hindu terminology. This literature originated in the accommodating character of early Indian Sufism, which, well before Kabir, proclaimed that Muslim, Christian, Jew, Zoroastrian, and Hindu were all striving toward the same goal and that the outward observances that kept them apart were false. Some Indian Sufis were greatly influenced by Hindu customs. For example, a school of Kashmiri Sufis—whose members call themselves Rishis, after the legendary Hindu sages of the same name—respect and repeat the verses of Lal Ded, a 14th- century poet and holy woman from Kashmir, and are strict vegetarians. Tolerant Muslim rulers encouraged syncretic tendencies, which reached their zenith in the reign of Akbar (1556–1605). Taking a great interest in the religion of his Hindu subjects, Akbar tried to establish a single, all-embracing religion for his empire. Although his efforts failed, they influenced India for more than 50 years after his death. Orthodox Muslim theologians complained about the growth of heresy, however, and the emperor Aurangzeb (reigned 1658– 1707) did all in his power to discourage it. Popular Muslim preachers throughout the 18th and 19th centuries worked to restore orthodoxy. Thus, syncretic tendencies were somewhat reduced before the imposition of British power in the mid-18th century. Furthermore, British rule emphasized the distinctions between Hindu and Muslim and did not encourage efforts to harmonize the two religions.
50 The modern period (from the 19th century) From their small coastal settlements in southern India, the Portuguese promoted Roman Catholic missionary activity and made converts, most of whom were of low caste; the majority of caste Hindus were unaffected. Small Protestant missions operated from the Danish factories of Tranquebar in Tamil Nadu and Serampore in Bengal, but they were even less influential. The British East India Company, conscious of the disadvantages of unnecessarily antagonizing its Indian subjects, excluded all Christian missionary activity from its territories. Indeed, the company continued the patronage accorded by indigenous rulers to many Hindu temples and forbade its Indian troops to embrace Christianity. The growing evangelical conscience in England brought this policy to an end with the renewal of the company’s charter in 1813. The company’s policy then became one of strict impartiality in matters of religion, but missionaries were allowed to work throughout its territory. Thus, Christian ideas began to spread.
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52 South-East Asian Hindu temples Prambanan in Java, Indonesia (9th century) and Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century), examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture. Both temples were modelled after Mount Meru in Hindu cosmology. The cultural sphere often called Greater India extended into South-East Asia. The earliest evidence trace to Sanskrit stone inscriptions found on the islands and the mainland Southeast Asia is Võ Cạnh inscription dated to 2nd or 3rd century CE in Vietnam or in Cambodia between 4th and 5th-century CE. Prior to the 14th-century local versions of Hindu temples were built in Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. These developed several national traditions, and often mixed Hinduism and Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism prevailed in many parts of the South-East Asia, except Malaysia and Indonesia where Islam displaced them both. Possibly the oldest Hindu temples in South East Asia dates back to 2nd century BCE from the Oc Eo culture of Mekong Delta from southern Vietnam. They were probably dedicated to a sun god, Shiva and Vishnu. The temple were constructed using granite blocks and bricks, one with a small stepped pond. Hindu temples in South-East Asia developed their own distinct versions, mostly based on Indian architectural models, both North Indian and South Indian styles. However, the Southeast Asian temple architecture styles are different and there is no known single temple in India that can be the source of the Southeast Asian temples. According to Michell, it is as if the Southeast Asian architects learned from "the theoretical prescriptions about temple building" from Indian texts, but never saw one. They reassembled the elements with their own creative interpretations. The Hindu temples found in Southeast Asia are more conservative and far more strongly link the Mount Meru-related cosmological elements of Indian thought than the Hindu temples found in the subcontinent. Additionally, unlike the Indian temples, the sacred architecture in Southeast Asia associated the ruler (devaraja) with the divine, with the temple serving as a memorial to the king as much as being house of gods. Notable examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture are the Shivaist Prambanan Trimurti temple compound in Java, Indonesia (9th century), and the Vishnuite Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century). Hindu influences reached the Indonesian Archipelago as early as the first century. At this time, India started to strongly influence Southeast Asian countries. Trade routes linked India with southern Burma, central and southern Siam, lower Cambodia and southern Vietnam and numerous urbanised coastal settlements were established there. For more than a thousand years, Indian Hindu/Buddhist influence was, therefore, the major factor that brought a certain level of cultural unity to the various countries of the region. The Pali and Sanskrit languages and the Indian script, together
53 with Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism, Brahmanism and Hinduism, were transmitted from direct contact as well as through sacred texts and Indian literature, such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata epics. From the 5th to the 13th century, South-East Asia had very powerful Indian colonial empires and became extremely active in Hindu and Buddhist architectural and artistic creation. The Sri Vijaya Empire to the south and the Khmer Empire to the north competed for influence. Langkasuka (-langkha Sanskrit for "resplendent land" -sukkha of "bliss") was an ancient Hindu kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula. The kingdom, along with Old Kedah settlement, are probably the earliest territorial footholds founded on the Malay Peninsula. According to tradition, the founding of the kingdom happened in the 2nd century; Malay legends claim that Langkasuka was founded at Kedah, and later moved to Pattani. From the 5th to 15th centuries Sri Vijayan empire, a maritime empire centred on the island of Sumatra in Indonesia, had adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism under a line of rulers named the Sailendras. The Empire of Sri Vijaya declined due to conflicts with the Chola rulers of India. The Majapahit Empire succeeded the Singhasari empire. It was one of the last and greatest Hindu empires in maritime Southeast Asia. Funan was a pre-Angkor Cambodian kingdom, located around the Mekong delta, probably established by Mon-Khmer settlers speaking an Austroasiatic language. According to reports by two Chinese envoys, K'ang T'ai and Chu Ying, the state was established by an Indian Brahmin named Kaundinya, who in the 1st century CE was given instruction in a dream to take a magic bow from a temple and defeat a Khmer queen, Soma. Soma, the daughter of the king of the Nagas, married Kaundinya and their lineage became the royal dynasty of Funan. The myth had the advantage of providing the legitimacy of both an Indian Brahmin and the divinity of the cobras, who at that time were held in religious regard by the inhabitants of the region. The kingdom of Champa (or Lin-yi in Chinese records) controlled what is now south and central Vietnam from approximately 192 through 1697. The dominant religion of the Cham people was Hinduism and the culture was heavily influenced by India. Later, from the 9th to the 13th century, the Mahayana Buddhist and Hindu Khmer Empire dominated much of the South-East Asian peninsula. Under the Khmer, more than 900 temples were built in Cambodia and in neighboring Thailand. Angkor was at the centre of this development, with a temple complex and urban organisation able to support around one million urban dwellers. The largest temple complex of the world, Angkor Wat, stands here; built by the king Vishnuvardhan. Typical Balinese temples Hinduism, and the Sanskrit language through which it was transmitted, became highly prestigious in Java. Hindu influences reached the Indonesian Archipelago as early as the first century CE Many Hindu temples were built, including Prambanan near Yogyakarta, which has been designated a World Heritage Site; and Hindu kingdoms flourished, of which the most important was Majapahit. Typical Balinese temples are divided into three areas, as shown in the photo to the left. They are the Jaba or outer courtyard, the Jaba Tengah middle courtyard, and the Jeroan--the innermost and sacred courtyard. The features of these three courtyards can be seen more clearly in the larger diagram below:
54 This hill is sprinkled generously with a large number of temples, archways and pavilions. The whole of the hill was fortified with tall wide stonewalls, the ruined remains of which can be still be seen. Once you have reached the top (about 15 minutes climb) , it’s almost a flat expanse of rocky sheet with occasional ups and downs. This design is in close proximity to the Hebrew Temple discussedearlier. It also corresponds to some of the larger Hindu Temple layouts of what today is Indian territory
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56 Its a garbhagriha doorway, of Chennakeshava temple, Belur. Just look at it , the whole structure is so beautifully carved not leaving behind any piece of stone blank. Sanctum sanctorum” or Garbagrha of Hindu Temples Garbhagṛha, “sanctum” is the nucleus of the temple. It is the place where the main deity of the temple is installed. The Canons prescribe that the shape of the garbhagṛha may be (on plan): 1. caturaśra (square), 2. āyata (rectangular), 3. vṛtta (cicular), 4. āyatavṛtta (elliptical) 5. or vṛttāyata (ovoid). The square and circular garbhagṛhas are constructed for the installation of the deities in sthāṇaka (standing) or āsīna (seated) postures. While in the other varieties, deities in śayana (reclining) posture or group of deities standing or sitting in a row are to be installed.
57 Mānasāra mentions that if the plan of the garbhagṛha is square or circular, it is called puruṣa (Male) and if it is rectangular it is called vanitā (Female). Male deities can be installed in a square, circular or rectangular garbhagṛha, while the female deity should always be installed in a rectangular garbhagṛha. Garbhagṛha ( “womb-house”).—When combined the two words [garbha (womb) and gṛha (accommodation)] become garbhagṛha (womb-house). It denotes the sanctum sanctorum, or shrine of a sacred space, especially that of a Hindu temples. The sanctum sanctorum is the most central and fundamental component of any sacred architecture. What garbha (womb) is to the human body gṛha (accommodation) and guhā (cave) are to the world of habitation. What gṛha is to the world of habitation garbhagṛha is to the sacred architecture. In garbha resides the foetus, the genesis of a being. In gṛha, resides the gṛhastha, the family man—the microcosm, a unit, of which the multiples make a society, and which is opposed to the macrocosmic sphere of civilization. In the microcosmic sphere of the garbhagṛha, the God resides, who is referred to as the macrocosm in religions, the omnipresent, all-pervading entity. Garbhagṛha refers to the “sanctum sanctorum”, a common concept found in the ancient Indian “science of architecture” (vāstuvidyā).—Garbhagṛha is the sanctum sanctorum, where the presiding deity is installed. Garbhagṛha Mūlasthāna sanctum-sanctorum of the Hindu Temple.—Each temple has a mūlasthāna or garbhagṛha (sanctum-sanctorum) and many subsidiary sanctums. The temples here selected for the study of the mūla beras are temples specially dedicated to Śiva, Viṣṇu, Subrahmaṇya, and Pārvatī. In these garbhagṛhas, there are icons of gods and goddesses, namely, Śiva and His manifestations like Naṭarāja; Pārvatī and the Śakti avatāras; Viṣṇu and His other forms and incarnations; Brahmā, Lakṣmī, Sarasvatī, Subrahmaṇya, Valli, Deivāṇai (also known as Deviyāni or Devasena), and Gaṇapati. Vastushastra refers to the ancient Indian science (shastra) of architecture (vastu), dealing with topics such architecture, sculpture, town-building, fort building and various other constructions. Vastu also deals with the philosophy of the architectural relation with the cosmic universe. Shilpashastra (iconography)
58 Shilpashastra represents the ancient Indian science (shastra) of creative arts (shilpa) such as sculpture, iconography and painting. Closely related to Vastushastra (architecture), they often share the same literature. Discover the meaning of garbhagriha or garbhagrha in the context of Shilpashastra from relevant books on Exotic India In Shaivism (Shaiva philosophy) Shaiva represents a tradition of Hinduism worshiping Shiva as the supreme being. Closely related to Shaktism, Shaiva literature includes a range of scriptures, including Tantras, while the root of this tradition may be traced back to the ancient VedasIt is only the physical structure. It is transformed into sannidhi after the invoking of the Lord. This explains why, in the Śaiva Siddhānta tradition, the temple is conceived as a space where the deity is invited to reside in the garbhagṛha. The temple’s spiritual energy can be sustained only if the deity’s sāniddhya remains unsullied. Therefore the most important dharma of the Ādiśaiva priest is to maintain the “presence” and sanctity of the deity by offering regular pūjā as prescribed. Only then can the temple be a storehouse of energy for the public. Only then can the devotees find their God in the sanctum. This he does through pūjā. Location: It is the location in the temple where the primary form of a deity resides) is only the physical structure. It is transformed into sannidhi (Sanctum Sanctorum) after the invoking of the Lord. This explains why, in the Śaiva Siddhānta tradition, the temple is conceived as a space where the deity is a special guest invited to reside in the garbhagṛha .
59 . Girbhagriha in Tamil: In Tamil language Girbha griha is called karuvarai meaning the interior of the sanctumnsanctorum. It is the iner- most of the sanctum and focus of the temple, where the image of the primary deity resides. The word karuarai means "womb chamber". The word' karu' means foetus and arai means a room. Only the priests are allowed to enter this innermost chamber. Female Deities: temples of feminine deities, the garbagriha is rectangular. For example, in the temple of Varahi Deula in Chaurasi.The present structure of most of these temples is a two- storeyed vimana with a square garbhagriha and a surrounding circumambulatory path, an ardha- mandapa and a narrower maha-mandapa. The Latin word sanctum is the neuter form of the adjective "holy", and sanctorum its genitive plural. Thus the term sanctum sanctorum literally means "the holy [place/thing] of the holy [places/things]", replicating in Latin the Hebrew construction for the superlative, with the intended meaning "the most holy [place/thing]". The Latin phrase sanctum sanctorum has wrongly been considered the translation of the Hebrew term Qṓḏeš HaQŏḏāšîm (Holy of Holies) which generally refers in Latin texts to the holiest place of the Tabernacle of the Israelites and later the Temples in Jerusalem, but also has some derivative use in application to imitations of the Tabernacle in church architecture. The correct translation is the plural form sancta sanctorum, arguably as a synecdoche, used also to refer to the holy relics contained in the sanctuary. The Vulgate translation of the Bible uses sancta sanctorum for the Holy of Holies.[1] Hence the derivative usage to denote the Sancta Sanctorum chapel in the complex of the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, Rome. In Hinduism, a temple's innermost part where the cult image (Murti) of the deity is kept forms the Garbha griha, also referred to as a sanctum sanctorum. The Enclosed House: The garbhagriha in Hindu temple architecture (a shrine inside a temple complex where the main deity is installed in a separate building by itself inside the complex) has
60 also been compared to a "sanctum sanctorum" in texts on Hindu temple architecture, though the Sanskrit term actually means "enclosed house" or "the deep interior of the house". However, some Indian English authors seem to have translated the Sanskrit term literally as "womb house". sanctum sanctorum, Garbhagriha is the sanctum sanctorum, the innermost sanctuary of a Hindu and Jain temples where resides the murti (idol or icon) of the primary deity of the temple. In Jainism, the main deity is known as the Mulnayaka. Literally the word means "womb chamber", from the Sanskrit words garbha for womb and griha for house. Generally in Hinduism only 'priests' (pujari) are allowed to enter this chamber. Although the term is often associated with Hindu temples, it is also found in Jain and Buddhist temples. Jain temple architecture is generally close to Hindu temple architecture, and in ancient times Buddhist architecture. Normally the same builders and carvers worked for all religions, and regional and period styles are generally similar. For over 1,000 years the basic layout of a Hindu or most Jain temples has consisted of a small garbhagriha or sanctuary for the main murti or cult images, over which the high superstructure rises, then one or more larger mandapa halls. Architecture: The Garbagriha has a single entrance, normally facing east to be accessed by the rising sun, and no windows. It is normally square, and at least approximately a cube, with the representation of the temple's deity placed in the centre, so that it can be seen by worshippers outside. Relative to the size of the temple, and especially the large tower arising over it, it is a rather small room, and there is no view from below up into the shikhara or tower, which is treated as completely solid, although in fact for structural reasons it very often includes a hollow space.
61 In the great majority of temples with a tower superstructure, a shikhara (in the north) or vimana (in the south), this chamber is placed directly underneath it, and the two of them form the main vertical axis of the temple. These together may be understood to represent the axis of the world through Mount Meru. The garbha griham is usually also on the main horizontal axis of the temple which generally is an east–west axis. In those temples where there is also a cross-axis, the garbha gṛha is generally at their intersection. Generally the garbhagriha is a windowless and sparsely lit chamber, intentionally created thus to focus the devotee's mind on the tangible form of the divine within it. Entrance to the Hindu garbhagrha is very often restricted to priests who perform the services there, and in temples in active worship (as opposed to historic monuments) normally to Hindus at the least. In Jain temples all suitably bathed and purified Jains are allowed inside. In the Dravida style, the garbhagriha took the form of a miniature vimana with other features exclusive to southern Indian temple architecture such as the inner wall together with the outer wall creating a pradakshina around the garbhagriha. The entrance is highly decorated. The inner garbhagriha or shrine became a separate structure, more elaborately adorned over time. The garbhagriha is normally square and sits on a plinth, its location calculated to be a point of total equilibrium and harmony as it is representative of a microcosm of the Universe. In the centre is placed the image of the deity. In some early temples it is not quite square, and in some later ones may be rectangular where more than one deity is worshipped and has an image there.There are a very few examples of larger variance; the chamber at Gudimallam is both semi-circular at the rear, and set below the main floor level of the temple. The famous 7th-century Durga temple, Aihole has a rounded apse at the garbagriha end, which is echoed in the shape of the chamber. In any Hindu temple, this is the most important and the most sacred area as it hosts the deity itself. All the puja i.e. offerings like flowers, fruits etc are made inside this area. In some of the temples, it is strictly forbidden to enter this area. Examples are the temples in Kerala like guruvayur, temples in dakshina kannada and udupi districts of Karnataka etc. In other temples, one can enter this area up to a certain extent, but is not allowed to go near or touch the idols. Most of the temples in India follow this. The third category is where one can enter this area and even touch the idols. Examples are temple like vittala temple in pandharpur.
62 Garbagriha- Nirmaljhar temple
63 Sanctum Generally the garbhagrihas are square in shape. Some garbhagrihas, which are longer, and against the principle 84 axis, also can be seen. Garbhagriha used to be very small in the beginning and could admit only one worshipper at a time, though the shrine was meant for public and the basic shrine, sanctum alone constituted the real temple. This type of single cell shrines also can be seen in the present day temple architecture, which are mainly dedicated to the Mother Goddess or gramadevatha or gramapurush. The temple should consist of a sanctum in which the icon is to be installed and housed. The structural involvements nearby the temple are also essential for the principal worship and rituals. Texts like Sri Prasna describes that the sanctum is the body of the divinity and the icon is its soul (Jiva). Usually it is a stone structure, square in shape and simply plain with some projected slabs in the wall or niches. There should not be any pillars in the sanctum hall. The sanctum should be provided with windows for air and light, which eventually help in preservation of the icon. In olden days, the wooden stucco or clay windows were provided to the sanctum. The sanctum represented then by an empty low platform (Vedi) in the dark room. A copper vessel (kumbha), a sacrificial fire place (kunda) or a sculpted icon (bimba) used to be placed on a seat in the dark room to prevent ill effects of weathering besides the mystery of the divine presence in the sanctum. The sanctum was usually built in stone, but constructions in brick are not rare 6 . Vishnu Tilaka mentions that while the stone sanctum is the best, the brick one is the next best. The wooden sanctum however is inferior and the mud sanctum is to be considered the worst '. 85 The sanctum of the temple must be constructed first. Before construction of the sanctum a significant ceremony known as 'impregnating' (Garbha-dana or Garbha-Nyasa) should be performed. This ritual involves letting into the earth a ceremonial copper pot containing nine precious stones, several metals and minerals, herbs and soil (purified earth by ants), symbolizing creation and prosperity. The building that contains the womb is said to be prosperous. After completion of this ritual, a stone slab (Adhara-sila) is placed over the spot. The copper pot here symbolizes the womb and the icon symbolizes the soul. This is the significance of the sanctum, which is called the 'womb-house' 8 . Texts like Silparatna, Tantra- Samuchchaya and Isana-Shivaguru Paddhati give an elaborate account of this ritual. When the arrangement of the garbhagriha is more than one in some temples, they are called as a Dwikutachala, Trikutachala temples and so on. In a few temples, projecting slabs and niches are found in the walls of garbhagrihas. (e.g. Tambdi Surla temple has projecting slabs and in Mahadeva Temple at Curdi have niches). The functional aspects of these are for providing space for keeping certain objects used for worship. These niches and projected slabs are provided according to their convenience and orientation of the temple entrance e.g. projected slabs in Mahadeva temple Tambdi Surla were fixed in the western wall of the sanctum (rear wall), while a recessed niche was provided in the Mahadeva Temple at Curdi in the southern wall of the sanctum. Some garbhagrihas will have a stone projection from the rear wall of sanctum touching the image kept at the centre. The images of deities in standing posture are of considerable height. The centre of gravity of such images falls backwards 86 away from the centre because the weight of the rear portion of the Prahhavali is heavier than that of the front portion of the image. Though images are fixed on pithas by inserting projecting tenon into the sockets, the possibility of their fall cannot be ruled out. Under these circumstances, the images need support at a higher level from the rear wall (e.g., Temple of Lakshminarayana at Balaganur and Sangameswar at Kurdi in
64 Raichur district of Karnataka). Most of the temples in Goa have the main deity at the centre of the sanctum and placed over pranala. Some garbhagrihas, which are longer, and against the principle 84 axis, also can be seen. Garbhagriha used to be very small in the beginning and could admit only one worshipper at a time, though the shrine was meant for public and the basic shrine, sanctum alone constituted the real temple. This type of single cell shrines also can be seen in the present day temple architecture, which are mainly dedicated to the Mother Goddess or gramadevatha or gramapurush. The temple should consist of a sanctum in which the icon is to be installed and housed. The structural involvements nearby the temple are also essential for the principal worship and rituals. Texts like Sri Prasna describes that the sanctum is the body of the divinity and the icon is its soul (Jiva). Usually it is a stone structure, square in shape and simply plain with some projected slabs in the wall or niches. There should not be any pillars in the sanctum hall. The sanctum should be provided with windows for air and light, which eventually help in preservation of the icon. In olden days, the wooden stucco or clay windows were provided to the sanctum. The sanctum represented then by an empty low platform (Vedi) in the dark room. A copper vessel (kumbha), a sacrificial fire place (kunda) or a sculpted icon (bimba) used to be placed on a seat in the dark room to prevent ill effects of weathering besides the mystery of the divine presence in the sanctum. The sanctum was usually built in stone, but constructions in brick are not rare 6 . Vishnu Tilaka mentions that while the stone sanctum is the best, the brick one is the next best. The wooden sanctum however is inferior and the mud sanctum is to be considered the worst '. 85 The sanctum of the temple must be constructed first. Before construction of the sanctum a significant ceremony known as 'impregnating' (Garbha-dana or Garbha-Nyasa) should be performed. This ritual involves letting into the earth a ceremonial copper pot containing nine precious stones, several metals and minerals, herbs and soil (purified earth by ants), symbolizing creation and prosperity. The building that contains the womb is said to be prosperous. After completion of this ritual, a stone slab (Adhara-sila) is placed over the spot. The copper pot here symbolizes the womb and the icon symbolizes the soul. This is the significance of the sanctum, which is called the 'womb-house' 8 . Texts like Silparatna, Tantra- Samuchchaya and Isana-Shivaguru Paddhati give an elaborate account of this ritual. When the arrangement of the garbhagriha is more than one in some temples, they are called as a Dwikutachala, Trikutachala temples and so on. In a few temples, projecting slabs and niches are found in the walls of garbhagrihas. (e.g. Tambdi Surla temple has projecting slabs and in Mahadeva Temple at Curdi have niches). The functional aspects of these are for providing space for keeping certain objects used for worship. These niches and projected slabs are provided according to their convenience and orientation of the temple entrance e.g. projected slabs in Mahadeva temple Tambdi Surla were fixed in the western wall of the sanctum (rear wall), while a recessed niche was provided in the Mahadeva Temple at Curdi in the southern wall of the sanctum 9* Some garbhagrihas will have a stone projection from the rear wall of sanctum touching the image kept at the centre. The images of deities in standing posture are of considerable height. The centre of gravity of such images falls backwards 86 away from the centre because the weight of the rear portion of the Prahhavali is heavier than that of the front portion of the image. Though images are fixed on pithas by inserting projecting tenon into the sockets, the possibility of their fall cannot be ruled out. Under these circumstances, the images need support at a higher level from the rear wall
65 (e.g., Temple of Lakshminarayana at Balaganur and Sangameswar at Kurdi in Raichur district of Karnataka) 11)Most of the temples in Goa have the main deity at the centre of the sanctum and placed over pranala. Pradakshinipatha: All around the sanctum a passage is kept often narrow, permitting the devotees to pass round the sanctum in the customary act of devotion. This circumambulatory path (Pradakshinirpath or hhrama) subsequently became a structural involvement as the temple grew in size; it was more open naturally, as it was in the early phase. The temple, which has the circumbulatory passage, is known as Sandhara temple, e.g. Jain temple at Kudne and the temples of Ponda and Bardez talukas have this feature. The temple, which doesn't have pradakshinapatha is known as Niradhara temple e.g. Mahadeva temples of Curdi and Tambdi Surla, Saptakoteswar temple at Opa, Agasthipur temple etc.". 87 Sikhara Sikhara or superstructureis the top member of a shrine. A flat roof stone slab that covers the sanctum is also called as Kapota. Flat roof (Kapota) of the sanctum on which the tower rests and rises is over-laid by a single stone slab, known in the texts as 'Brahma randra sila' (the stone). This serves as the base (adhisthana) for the superstructure that rises above the sanctum known as Vimana or Sikhara', which forms the important part of the temple. Following is reproduction of my earlier paper on- Garbhagiha means the House of the womb Technical paper on Garbhagriha of the hindu temples Fron the Tech Papers series of the Indo Nordic Author’s Collective Garbhagiha means the Home of the womb- to call it sanctum anctorum which is the term in Hebrew for Holy of the Holies and refers to the Jewish temples is erroneous but has been going on since the time Indian Temple Architecture has been written about in English. Garbha is womb and Griha is house. Let me give another example. A pregnant women is called a GARBHAVATI in Sanskrit which means one who carries the WOMB“ Gravid in Swedish. enceinte in French meaning enclosed. A Hindu temple has various parts: Garbhagriha” refers to the womb chamber which is the innermost chamber of any temple where the deity resides. It is mainly square in layout and is entered through eastern side. It has a tower called a vimana over it. “Pradakshina Patha” refers to the ambulatory passageway for circumambulation and comprises of enclosed corridor outside the garbhagriha. The devotees walk around the deity in clockwise direction, paying their respect to the deity
66 The ardha-mandapa and maha-mandapa are in front of the garbha-griha (inner sanctum). The front porch in the main entrance of the temple which leads to the main temple Some other essential structural elements found in the Hindu temples are Mainly found in the south Indian temples. The gopurams are entrance towers. Temples try to have Gopurams that are monumental and ornate entrance to the temple premises.. Pitha or the plinths of the main temple. Toranas”:The gateways typical to north Indian temples are,”Toranas”. “Mandapa”, is the pillared hall in front of the garbha- griha, used as assembling point by devotees for chant; rituals meditate or observe the priests perform the rituals. • Sometimes, “Natamandira” is also provided in some temples which mean the hall for dancing. In some early temple structures, the mandapa was isolated and separate structure from the sanctuary. “Antarala”, refers to the intermediate chamber which joins the main sanctuary and the pillared hall of the temple premises. The veranda next to the inside walls of the pradakshina path. Tanks and wells, which are either sacred or for bathing purposes. Subsidiary deities and shrines dedicated to minor gods. This paper deals with the styles, design and geometry, structural system and construction technology of the Innermost sanctum of Indian temples.  In this context, the Hindu Temples are epitome of knowledge, art, architecture, culture and represents the advancement of building science of the ancient Indian subcontinent.  Each culture and era has a distinctive construction practice which is unique and represents the ideology, development, art and architecture of that particular era or culture. The cerebral exploration of interlocking geometries based on mandala diagrams was to become the defining characteristic of Hindu temple form in the centuries to come. Mandalas are derived from original Vedic altars and are used in both the Hindu and Buddhist religions as diagrams to map the cosmos for astrological observations. These diagrams are abstract, without scale, and can take any number of forms derived from a combination of superimposed squares and circles. Garbha griha Subsiduary shrines. Example of the Elephanta caves The Elephanta Caves are located in Western India on Elephanta Island (otherwise known as the Island of Gharapuri), which features two hillocks separated by a narrow valley. The small island is dotted with numerous ancient archaeological remains that are the sole testimonies to its rich cultural past. These archaeological remains reveal evidence of occupation from as early as the 2nd century BC. The rock-cut Elephanta Caves were constructed about the mid-5th to 6th centuries AD. Elephanta is a Hindu shrine adapted from the older Buddhist rock-cut structures The Elephanta caves has a real mountain in which it is embedded. It is having square garbha-griha, Hindu Architecture and has the Shiva Lingam at its center. From the middle, four axes radiate out,
67 defining access paths. Elephanta is open on all four sides, though east is its primary direction of access. Elephanta has a much more complex geometry, with four sets of nine-square mandalas interlocking to define two major axes of access, one from the west and the other from the north. he north-south axis, aligned with the main entrance, terminates in three gigantic Shiva sculptures in deeply recessed niches. This triptych, occupies the entire width and height of the end wall, and, compared to the rough-hewn character of the rest of structure, was carved with greater care. The Elephanta Caves contain rock cut stone sculptures, mostly in high relief, that show syncretism of Hindu and Buddhist ideas and iconography. The caves are hewn from solid basalt rock. Except for a few exceptions, much of the artwork is defaced and damaged. The main temple's orientation as well as the relative location of other temples are placed in a mandala pattern. The carvings narrate Hindu mythologies, with the large monolithic 20 feet (6.1 m) Trimurti Sadashiva (three-faced Shiva), Nataraja (Lord of dance) and Yogishvara (Lord of Yoga) being the most celebrated. The island has two groups of rock-cut caves, hewn from solid basalt rock. The
68 larger group of caves, which consists of five caves on the western hill of the island, is well known for its Hindu sculptures. The primary cave, numbered as Cave 1, is about 1.0 km (0.62 mi) up a hillside, facing the Mumbai harbour. Caves 2 through 5 are next to Cave 1 further southeast, arranged in a row. Cave 6 and 7 are about 200 m (660 ft) northeast of Cave 1 and 2, but geologically on the edge of the eastern hill. The two hills are connected by a walkway. The eastern hill is also called the Stupa hill, while the western hill is called the Canon hill, reflecting their historic colonial-era names, the ancient Stupa and the Portuguese era firing Canons they host respectively. rock-cut temples : All the caves are rock-cut temples that together have an area of 5,600 m2 (60,000 sq ft). At their most elaborate, they have a main chamber, two lateral chambers, courtyards, and subsidiary shrines, but not all are so fully developed. Cave 1 is the largest and is 39 metres (128 ft) deep from the front entrance to the back. The temple complex is primarily the abode of Shiva, depicted in widely celebrated carvings which narrate legends and mythologies of Shaivism.However, the artwork reverentially displays themes from Shaktism and Vaishnavism traditions of Hinduism . The temple is enclosed in the cave, it has interior walls but no exterior wall. The pillars create space and symmetric rhythm as they support the weight of the hill above. The main mandapa recesses into a pillared vestibule (ardha-mandapa) on the south side, while a pillared portico (mukha-mandapa) connects it to the main entrance. Embedded within the Great Cave are dedicated shrines, the largest of which is the square plan Linga shrine (see 16 in plan).[10] It is a square garbha-griya (womb house) with four entrances, located in the right section of the main hall. Steps lead from the four doorways into the sanctum, which has a linga in the mulavigraha style. Each doorway is guarded by a dvarapala on each side, for a total of eight dvarapalas, their heights spanning floor to the ceiling.[ These were badly damaged when the Portuguese ceded control of this region to the British. The linga shrine is surrounded by a mandapa and circumambulation path (pradakshina-patha) as in other Hindu temples. The pillars are similarly aligned east–west to this shrine and have an east entrance. Overlaid, as if fused, on the architecture of this temple is another open temple aligned to the north–south direction with three faced Sadashiva as its focal centre. One features the abstract, unmanifest, aniconic symbol of Shiva, the other anthropomorphic, manifest, iconic symbol of Shiva. The mandapa pillars of the two align up. All the caves are rock-cut temples that together have an area of 5,600 m2 (60,000 sq ft). At their most elaborate, they have a main chamber, two lateral chambers, courtyards, and subsidiary shrines, but not all are so fully developed. Cave 1 is the largest and is 39 metres (128 ft) deep from the front entrance to the back. The temple complex is primarily the abode of Shiva, depicted in widely celebrated carvings which narrate legends and mythologies of Shaivism.[8][18] However, the artwork reverentially displays themes from Shaktism and Vaishnavism traditions of Hinduism as well
69 Layout 1. Ravananugraha 2. Shiva-Parvati, Mount Kailash 3. Ardhanarishvara 4. Sadashiva Trimurti 5. Gangadhara 6. Wedding of Shiva 7. Shiva slaying Andhaka 8. Nataraja 9. Yogishvara 16. Linga East Wing Shrine 10. Kartikeya 11. Matrikas 12. Ganesha 13. Dvarapala West Wing Shrine 14. Yogishvara 15. Nataraja
70 The northern entrance to the cave is flanked by two panels of Shiva dated to the Gupta period, both damaged. The left panel depicts Yogishvara (Shiva as the Lord of Yoga) and the right shows Nataraja (Shiva as the Lord of Dance). The Sadashiva is flanked by two large friezes, one of Ardhanarishvara and the other of Gangadhara. The walls of the mandapa feature other Shaivism legends. All the friezes, states Stella Kramrisch, feature the vyaktavyakta concept of Samkhya, where the state of spiritual existence transitions between the unmanifest-manifest, the figures leap out of the cave walls towards the spectator as if trying to greet the narrative. Even the manifested Sadashiva is shown to be rising out of the rocks. Each wall has large carvings of Shiva-related legends, more than 5 metres (16 ft) in height. The central Shiva relief Trimurti is located on the south wall opposite the main entrance. Also called the Sadashiva, it is the iconic form of a pancamukha linga is set in a mandala pattern with the abstract linga form of Shiva. The Sadashiva is a colossal carving, a bit over 6.27 metres (20.6 ft), depicting Tatpurusha (Mahadeva), Aghora (Bhairava), Vamadeva (Uma) and Sadyojata (Nandin). The carving is unusual because the standard ancient Hindu texts for murti design state that the Tatpursha should face east, but in Elephanta it is the north face (pointing towards the main entrance). Smaller shrines are located at the east and west ends of the caves. The eastern sanctuary serves as a ceremonial entrance, and its shrine shows iconography of Shaktism tradition The island has two groups of rock- cut caves, hewn from solid basalt rock. The larger group of caves, which consists of five caves on the western hill of the island, is well known for its Hindu sculptures. The primary cave, numbered as Cave 1, is about 1.0 km (0.62 mi) up a hillside, facing the Mumbai harbour. Caves 2 through 5 are next to Cave 1 further southeast, arranged in a row. Cave 6 and 7 are about 200 m (660 ft) northeast of Cave 1 and 2, but geologically on the edge of the eastern hill. The two hills are connected by a walkway. The eastern hill is also called the Stupa hill, while the western hill is called the Canon hill, reflecting their historic colonial-era names, the ancient Stupa and the Portuguese era firing Canons they host respectivel
71 The garbha-griha is surrounded by a well- defined and fully enclosed parikrama path, It has nine subsidiary shrines arrayed in constellation around it The garbhagriha is located in the most important among the caves is the great Cave 1, which measures 39 metres from the front entrance to the back. In plan, this cave in the western hill closely resembles Dumar Lena cave at Ellora, in India. The main body of the cave, excluding the porticos on the three open sides and the back aisle, is 27 metres square and is supported by rows of six columns each. The 7-metre-high masterpiece “Sadashiva” dominates the entrance to Cave 1. The sculpture represents three aspects of Shiva: the Creator, the Preserver, and the Destroyer, identified, respectively, with Aghora or Bhairava (left half), Taptapurusha or Mahadeva (central full face), and Vamadeva or Uma (right half). Representations of Nataraja, Yogishvara, Andhakasuravadha, Ardhanarishwara, Kalyanasundaramurti, Gangadharamurti, and Ravanaanugrahamurti are also noteworthy for their forms, dimensions, themes, representations, content, alignment and execution. The layout of the caves, including the pillar components, the placement and division of the caves into different parts, and the provision of a sanctum or Garbhagriha of sarvatobhadra plan, are important developments in rock-cut architecture. The Elephanta Caves emerged from a long artistic tradition, but demonstrate refreshing innovation. The combination of aesthetic beauty and sculptural art, replete with respondent Rasas, reached an apogee at the Elephanta Caves. Hindu spiritualistic beliefs and symbology are finely utilized in the overall planning of the caves. This main cave, also called Cave 1, Grand Cave or the Great Cave, is 39.63 metres (130.0 ft) square in plan with a hall (mandapa). The basic plan of the cave can be traced back to the plan of the ancient Buddhist viharas, consisting of a square court surrounded by cells, built from about 500 to 600 years before in India. The Cave has several entrances, the main entrance is unassumingly small and hides the grand hall inside. The main entrance faces north, while two side entrances face east and west. The cave's main entrance is aligned with the north–south axis, unusual for a Shiva shrine (normally east–west). However, inside is an integrated square plan Linga shrine (garbha-griya) that is aligned east–west, opening to the sunrise. To reach the main cave, a visitor or pilgrim has to walk up 120 steep steps from the beach or take the tourist toy train. At the main entrance are four pillars, with three open porticoes and an aisle at the back. Pillars, six in each row, divide the hall into a series of smaller chambers. The roof of the hall has concealed beams supported by stone columns joined together by capitals.
72 Main entrance, Cave 1/ Side entrance/ Main mandapa and pillars The temple is enclosed in the cave, it has interior walls but no exterior wall. The pillars create space and symmetric rhythm as they support the weight of the hill above. The main mandapa recesses into a pillared vestibule (ardha-mandapa) on the south side, while a pillared portico (mukha-mandapa) connects it to the main entrance. Embedded within the Great Cave are dedicated shrines, the largest of which is the square plan Linga shrine (see 16 in plan). It is a square garbha-griya (womb house) with four entrances, located in the right section of the main hall. Steps lead from the four doorways into the sanctum, which has a linga in the mulavigraha style. Each doorway is guarded by a dvarapala on each side, for a total of eight dvarapalas, their heights spanning floor to the ceiling.[23] These were badly damaged when the Portuguese ceded control of this region to the British. The linga shrine is surrounded by a mandapa and circumambulation path (pradakshina-patha) as in other Hindu temples. The pillars are similarly aligned east–west to this shrine and have an east entrance. Overlaid, as if fused, on the architecture of this temple is another open temple aligned to the north–south direction with three faced Sadashiva as its focal centre. One features the abstract, unmanifest, aniconic symbol of Shiva, the other anthropomorphic, manifest, iconic symbol of Shiva. The mandapa pillars of the two align up. The northern entrance to the cave is flanked by two panels of Shiva dated to the Gupta period, both damaged. The left panel depicts Yogishvara (Shiva as the Lord of Yoga) and the right shows Nataraja (Shiva as the Lord of Dance).] The Sadashiva is flanked by two large friezes, one of Ardhanarishvara and the other of Gangadhara. The walls of the mandapa feature other Shaivism legends. All the friezes, states Stella Kramrisch, feature the vyaktavyakta concept of Samkhya, where the state of spiritual existence transitions between the unmanifest-manifest, the figures leap out of the cave walls towards the spectator as if trying to greet the narrative. Even the manifested Sadashiva is shown to be rising out of the rocks. Each wall has large carvings of Shiva-related legends, each more than 5 metres (16 ft) in height. The central Shiva relief Trimurti is located on the south wall opposite the main entrance. Also called the Sadashiva, it is the iconic form of a pancamukha linga is set in a mandala pattern with the abstract linga form of Shiva.[26] The Sadashiva is a colossal carving, a bit over 6.27 metres (20.6 ft), depicting Tatpurusha (Mahadeva), Aghora (Bhairava), Vamadeva (Uma) and Sadyojata (Nandin). The carving is unusual because the standard ancient Hindu texts for murti design state that the Tatpursha should face east, but in Elephanta it is the north face (pointing towards the main entrance). Smaller shrines are located at the east and west ends of the caves. The eastern sanctuary serves as a ceremonial entrance, and its shrine shows iconography of Shaktism tradition. Sadasiva: Trimurt
73 GARBHAGRIHA the enclosed SHIVLINGA can also be seen
74 Cave No 1 pictures Trimurti Shiva flanked by the dvarapalas.
75 The Trimurti is considered a masterpiece and the most important sculpture in the caves. It is carved in relief on the south wall of the cave facing the north entrance, along the north–south axis. It is also known as Sadashiva and Maheshmurti. The image, 6 m (20 ft) in height, depicts a three-headed Shiva, representing Panchamukha Shiva. The three heads represent three essential aspects of Shiva: creation, protection, and destruction. As per another version, the three heads symbolize compassion and wisdom. The right half-face (west face) shows him holding a lotus bud, depicting the promise of life and creativity. This face is symbolism for Brahma, the creator or Uma or Vamadeva, the feminine side of Shiva and creator. The left half-face (east face) is that of a moustached young man. This is Shiva as the terrifying Aghora or Bhairava, the chaos creator and destroyer. This is also known as Rudra- Shiva, the Destroyer. The central face, benign and meditative Tatpurusha, resembles the preserver Vishnu. This is the Shiva form as the "master of positive and negative principles of existence and preserver of their harmony".The three-headed Shiva are his creator, preserver and destroyer aspects in Shaivism. They are equivalently symbolism for Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma, they being equivalent of the three aspects found in Shaivism. Garbagriha at Ellora Rock Cut Caves: Located in the Sahyadri hills near Aurangabad, Ellora is the most important second-wave site of ancient rock-cut architecture in India. In the western face of one hill, composed of volcanic Basalt rock, there are 35 caves and rock-cut temples, largely produced during the reign of the Kalachuri dynasty in the 6th and 7th centuries CE. The earliest cave, the Hindu Ramesvara (no. 21), dates to the 6th century CE. Typical of early Hindu temples there is an inner sanctum (garbhagriha), a circumambulatory corridor for worshippers to walk around, vestibules with double porticoes, and extensive decoration via high-relief friezes and carvings depicting scenes from the Puranas sacred texts. This cave alsonhas carved river goddesses on the exterior, a Nandi sculpture at the entrance and inside are both a large dancing Shiva surrounded by musicians and Durga slaying the buffalo demon king. Other points of interest are the use of couple figures for brackets (salabhanjikas) as well as reliefs of elephants and mithuna (lover) figures. The Dhumar Lena cave (no. 29) seems to replicate the famous cave at Elephanta suggesting a connection between Ellora and the Kalachuris. The figure brackets of cave 21 are additional evidence of a cultural link between the two sites. Late Chalukyan Period Rajasimhesvara Temple. It Has attached mandapas, and Rajasimhesvara Temple’s two enclosed mandapas set up a single longitudinal axis.Rajasimhesvara’s precinct is packed with a phalanx of subsidiary shrines, and in fact has the beginnings of a second precinct enclosure also made of subsidiary shrines, The inner columns of the Rajasimhesvara have a simple arithmetic geometry. Garbagriha: The temple complex is complete in all respects as it has garbagriha (sanctum sanctorum), antarala (inner enclosure), mandapa, a high compound wall, and an entrance gate, the gopuram. The mandapa, which was initially detached, was made part of the main shrine by
76 interposing an ardhamantapa (smaller hall). The pillars of the mandapa have the repetitive features of mythical lion mounts. The structure has a simple layout with a tower or vimana at the center of the complex. The vimana of the temple, above the main shrine (sanctum sanctorum), is square in plan and rises up in a pyramidal shape. The tower has many levels rising proportionately. At the top of this tower, there is a small
77 roof in the shape of a dome. The pillar elements with mythical animal shapes (lions on the base) are extra features in Pallava style. At the entrance, the gopuram walls are plastered. Its entrance wall has eight small shrines and a gopura, precursor to the main gopura. At some later stage, the mandapa and the sanctuary were joined by an intermediate hall called the ardhamantapa, which is reported to have marred the beauty of the temple to some extent. The temple is enclosed within walls in a rectangular layout. A sculpture in one of the niches of the 58 subshrines./Sculpture depicting Shiva as Gangadhara capturing the river Ganges with a strand of his hair./Sculpture depicting Goddess Durga. The main shrine has a 16 sided Shivalinga in black granite stone deified in the sanctum sanctorum. Within the walls of the main shrine there is padabhanda adhisthana (main pedestal) with very elegantly carved images of gods with a sculpted Nandi, a little distance away giving guard to the deity. On each face of the outer walls of the main shrine there are many carvings of deities. The south facing wall the sculpture depicts Shiva as Umamaheshavara (Shiva with his consort Parvati) with Lingodbhava (emergence of Shiva as fiery pillar - linga) surrounded by Brahma and Vishnu and flying amaras on the lower level. The west facing hall has sculptures of Shiva in the form of Sandhya Tandavamurti and Urdhava Tandvamurti and the ensemble is completed with images of ganas in dancing poses and also with images of Brahma, Vishnu, Nandi and Parvati. The carving of Shiva on the north facing wall is a composition of Tripurantaka flanked by three ganas, goddess Durga with three ganas, and goddesses Bhairavi, Kaushiki and Jyestha. The exterior faces of the vimana (tower) have images of aspects of Shiva - Bhikshatana, Somaskanda and in Samhara-Tandava (destructive dancing) pose. In the inner walls of the prakara (circumambulatory passage) there is galaxy of images of Durga, Kartikeya, Bhavati, Tripurantaka, Garudarudha-Vishnu, Asura Samhara (slaying of demons), Narasimha (Vishnu's avatar), Trivikrama (another Vishnu's avatar), Shiva Tandava (Shiva in a dancing pose), Shiva severing the fifth head of Brahma, desecration of Yagna of Daksha, Brahma and his wife, Gangadhara, Urdhava tandava, Vishnu flanked by Bhudevi and Sridevi, Lingodbhava, Bhikshatana, Ravana, and Vali offering prayers to Atmalinga Chandikeshvara. The image of Ardhanariswara sitting on a bull is considered the most noteworthy among all images.
78 Mandapa showing the entrance to the garbhagriha Ornate pillars in the Saraswati temple at Gadag Vimana's south facing wall has very elegant image of Shiva in a sitting posture of peace and quietude known as Dakshinamurthy, and its west wall has Shiva in the form of Lingodbhava. The tower has multiple shrines embodied on all its external faces which have the appearance of miniature shrines. These shrines have three features, the sala (rectangular), kuta (square) and panjara (apsidal) styles. Eight small shrines also decorate the entrance wall. The 58 small shrines are built into the niches of the compound wall that encloses the main shrine;hey depict Somaskanada reliefs of Shiva and his consort Parvathi in many dance forms. The temple maybe built using a geopolymer that looks like sandstone
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80 A circumambulatory passage, around the Garbagriha with a symbolic meaning is situated along the compound wall. In order to make the circumambulation, there is a narrow entry passage which devotees must crawl through. Seven steps must be climbed in order to reach the passage. Passing through the narrow passage is indicative of passage through life. After the circumambulation, the exit is through a pit or another narrow passage symbolic of death. The entry point for this passage is called Gate of Death (Tamil: இறப்பு வாசல்). It is believed that making the circumambulation round the various deities would usher the same blessings as visiting paradise. During completion of circumambulation - Crawling and coming out of the passage also indicates that your coming out of mother's womb and also explains Hindu's belief of rebirth. Hence, exit is called Gate of Birth (Tamil: பிறப்பு வாசல்). There is another belief that by completing this circumambulatory passage the possibility of rebirth is not there and you shall attain Moksha. Such passage is UNIQUE, explaining the life cycle including aging process, death and rebirth. Inverted lotus-base plinth. Of Sun Temple in Modhera The Sun Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to the solar deity Surya located at Modhera village of Mehsana district, Gujarat, India. It is situated on the bank of the river Pushpavati. It was built after 1026-27 CE during the reign of Bhima I of the Chaulukya dynasty. No worship is offered now and is protected monument maintained by Archaeological Survey of India. The temple complex has three components: Gudhamandapa, the shrine hall; Sabhamandapa, the assembly hall and Kunda, the reservoir. The halls have intricately carved exterior and pillars. The reservoir has steps to reach the bottom and numerous small shrines. PLAN; SANCTUM SANCTORUM This is called the main temple or the sanctum sanctorum of the temple. Lotus opens with sunrise and closes itself with sunset. Hence, it is considered to be sun's flower. The entire temple is therefore based on an inverted lotus-base plinth. It was designed such that the rays of the rising and setting sun on the day of equinox (length of day and night is nearly equal - 20 March and 21 September generally), fell on the bejeweled pure gold idol of Sun riding on his chariot driven by Saarthi Arun. Sun's chariot has 7 horses and Saarthi Arun sits on the 4th horse. The entire idol made of gold (including the charioteer, chariot and horses) was placed on a pit that was 15 feet deep and filled with gold coins. It was built by the Solankis in honour of their ancestral God. It was plundered by Mahmud Gazni.
81 Rajasthan’s only hill station, Mount Abu, is located in the Aravalli Mountains. This makes it a popular getaway for vacationers in the region, as it promises respite from the desert heat. Apart from the conventional ‘hill station activities’, there’s a lot of sightseeing that can be done in Mount Abu. The Dilwara Jain Temples, located about 2 kilometers from here, are a respected pilgrimage destination for Jains in the region and across India. The Dilwara Jain temples are located in the lap of nature, surrounded by the canopy lush green hills and mango trees. According to historical records, these temples were built between the eleventh and the thirteenth century AD. Along with a regular influx of tourists that is steadily increasing, it is visited every year by devout Jains. The white marble temples are said to be a dedication to Jain saints. When viewed from a distance, one might wonder why these temples are respected so much for their beauty. Though the temples seem to be ordinary from the outside, it’s only when one steps inside them will one be able to marvel at the feats of artistry. The incredibly ornate marble stone carvings and the precise engraving on the temple ceilings and pillars are a photographers’ delight. The ceilings feature ornate gold leaf work, and one will possibly need to zoom in with a pair of binoculars (photography is forbidden inside the temple complex) to appreciate the finer details of the ceiling paintings. The paintings depict the stories of Jain history and mythology. Open between noon and 3 pm, the entry to these temples is free. While there are other Jain temples across Rajasthan, the Dilwara temples are unmatched in their architectural perfection. They are not only monuments – but fully functional temples that see hordes of Jains come to offer regular prayers. The temples have facilities for bathing, a necessary pre-requisite to the
82 performance of ‘puja’ (prayer). In the winter months, the bathing facilities are heated by solar power for bathing. The five temples have their own unique identity and are named after the villages they are located in. They are all dedicated to important Tirthankaras (saints). Vimal Vasahi: first Jain, Adinath. Luna Vasahi: 22nd Jain Tirthankara, Neminatha. Pithalhar: first Jain Tirthankar, Rishabha Parshvanath: 23rd Jain Tirthankara, Parshva. Mahavir Swami: last Jain Tirthankara, Mahavira Among these, Vimal Vasahi and Luna Vasahi are the most famed. The Vimal Vasahi Temple is made completely out of white marble. It was made by Vimal Shah, a minister of a King of Gujarat, and is dedicated to Lord Rishabha. The temple is famed for its corridors, pillars, arches, which feature miniature intricate carving. The ‘mandaps’ or the temple porticos are famous for their artistry. The Rang mandap, a grand hall, features ornate pillars and arches, an amazing central dome. The Gudh mandap is extremely simple, and houses the Adi Nath (or Lord Rishabdev’s) idol and sees regular prayer to the deity. Luna Vasahi is dedicated to Lord Neminath. It was built by brothers Vastupal and Tejpal, who were ministers of a Vaghela ruler of Gujarat. The overall design is similar to the Vimal Vashi temple. The Rang mandap’s central dome features a massive pendent with ornate carving. 72 Tirthankara figures sit in a circular band and below them are small Jain monk figures. The Navchowki features stunning marble cutting. The Gudh mandap houses a black marble 22nd Jain Tirthankar Neminatha idol. The remaining three temples of Dilwara (Pittalhar Temple, Parshvanatha Temple, and Mahavir Swami Temple) are small in size but match the elegance of the above mentioned temples. PLAN 1st Jain Tirthankara 22nd Jain Tirthankara 23rd Jain Tirthankara: There are 5 Unique Temples of Dilwara each with its own unique identity and each named after the small village in which it is located. These are: 1. Vimal Vasahi, dedicated to the first Jain Tirthankara, Rishabha. 2. Luna Vasahi, dedicated to the 22nd Jain Tirthankara, 3. Neminatha. Pithalhar, dedicated to the first Jain Tirthankar, 4. Rishabha Khartar Vasahi, dedicated to the 23rd Jain Tirthankara, 5. Parshva. Mahavir Swami, dedicated to the last Jain Tirthankara, Mahavira. The most famous of these being the Vimal Vasahi and Luna Vasahi temples. Vimal Vasahi Temple This temple carved entirely out of white marble was built in 1021 by Vimal Shah, a minister of Bhimidev I, the Chalukya King (Solanki Maharaja) of Gujarat. The temple is dedicated to Rishabha. The temple stands in an open courtyard surrounded by a corridor, which has numerous cells containing smaller idols of the Tirthankaras. The richly carved corridors, pillars, arches, and 'mandaps' or porticoes of the temple are simply amazing. The ceilings feature engraved designs of lotus-buds, petals, flowers and scenes from Jain and Hindu mythology. The Rang manda is a grand hall supported by 12 decorated
83 pillars and nicely carved out arches with a breathtaking central dome. On the pillars are carved female figurines playing musical instruments and 16 Vidhyadevis, or the goddesses of knowledge, each one holding her own symbol which is believed to be memorial of victorious Brahma Kumaris follower from last Kalpa. Garbhagriha seen Rajasthan’s only hill station, Mount Abu, is located in the Aravalli Mountains. This makes it a popular getaway for vacationers in the region, as it promises respite from the desert heat. Apart from the conventional ‘hill station activities’, there’s a lot of sightseeing that can be done in Mount Abu. The Dilwara Jain Temples, located about 2 kilometers from here, are a respected pilgrimage destination for Jains in the region and across India. The Dilwara Jain temples are located in the lap of nature, surrounded by the canopy lush green hills and mango trees. According to historical records, these temples were built between the eleventh and the thirteenth century AD. Along with a regular influx of tourists that is steadily increasing, it is visited every year by devout Jains. The white marble temples are said to be a dedication to Jain saints. When viewed from a distance, one might wonder why these temples are respected so much for their beauty. Though the temples seem to be ordinary from the outside, it’s only when one steps inside them will one be able to marvel at the feats of artistry. The incredibly ornate marble stone carvings and the precise engraving on the temple ceilings and pillars are a photographers’ delight.
84 The ceilings feature ornate gold leaf work, and one will possibly need to zoom in with a pair of binoculars (photography is forbidden inside the temple complex) to appreciate the finer details of the ceiling paintings. The paintings depict the stories of Jain history and mythology. Open between noon and 3 pm, the entry to these temples is free. While there are other Jain temples across Rajasthan, the Dilwara temples are unmatched in their architectural perfection. They are not only monuments – but fully functional temples that see hordes of Jains come to offer regular prayers. The temples have facilities for bathing, a necessary pre-requisite to the performance of ‘puja’ (prayer). In the winter months, the bathing facilities are heated by solar power for bathing. The Vimal Vasahi Temple is made completely out of white marble. It was made by Vimal Shah, a minister of a King of Gujarat, and is dedicated to Lord Rishabha. The temple is famed for its corridors, pillars, arches, which feature miniature intricate carving. The ‘mandaps’ or the temple porticos are famous for their artistry. The Rang mandap, a grand hall, features ornate pillars and arches, an amazing central dome. The Gudh mandap is extremely simple, and houses the Adi Nath (or Lord Rishabdev’s) idol and sees regular prayer to the deity. Luna Vasahi is dedicated to Lord Neminath. It was built by brothers Vastupal and Tejpal, who were ministers of a Vaghela ruler of Gujarat. The overall design is similar to the Vimal Vashi temple. The Rang mandap’s central dome features a massive pendent with ornate carving. 72 Tirthankara figures sit in a circular band and below them are small Jain monk figures. The Navchowki features stunning marble cutting. The Gudh mandap houses a black marble 22nd Jain Tirthankar Neminatha idol. The remaining three temples of Dilwara (Pittalhar Temple, Parshvanatha Temple, and Mahavir Swami Temple) are small in size but match the elegance of the above mentioned temples. The Navchowki is a collection of nine rectangular ceilings, each one containing beautiful carvings of different designs supported on ornate pillars. The Gudh mandap is a simple hall once you step inside its heavily decorated doorway. Installed here is the idol of Adi Nath or Lord Rishabdev, as he is also known. The mandap is meant for Aarti to the deity. The Hastishala (Elephant Cell) was constructed by Prithvipal, a descendant of Vimal Shah in 1147-49 and features a row of elephants in sculpture. Ranga mandapa – Ceiling Luna Vasahi The Luna Vashi temple is dedicated to Neminath. This magnificent temple was built in 1230 by two Porwad brothers - Vastupal and Tejpal - both ministers of a Virdhaval, the Vaghela ruler of Gujarat. The temple built in memory of their late brother Luna was designed after the Vimal Vashi temple. The main hall or Rang mandap features a central dome from which hangs a big ornamental pendent featuring elaborate carving. Arranged in a circular band are 72 figures of Tirthankars in sitting posture and just below this band are 360 small figures of Jain monks in another circular band. The Navchowki features some of the
85 most magnificent and delicate marble stone cutting work of the temple. Each of the nine ceilings here seems to exceed the others in beauty and grace. The Gudh mandap features a black marble idol of the 22nd Jain Tirthankar Neminatha. The Kirthi Stambha is a big black stone pillar that stands on the left side of the temple. The pillar was constructed by Maharana Kumbha of Mewar. The remaining three temples of Dilwara are smaller but just as elegant as the other two. This temple was built by Bhama Shah kavdia [Rajasthan]. A massive metal statue of first Jain Tirthankara Rishabha Dev (Adinath), cast in five metals, is installed in the temple. The main metal used in this statue is 'Pital' (brass), hence the name 'Pittalhar'. The Shrine consists of a main Garbhagriha, Gudh mandap and Navchowki. It seems that the construction of Rangmandap and the corridor was left unfinished. The old mutilated idol was replaced and installed in 1468- 69 AD weighing 108 maunds (about 40 quintals or four metric tons) according to the inscription on it. The image was cast by an artist 'Deta' which is 8 ft (2.4 m). high, 5.5 ft (1.7 m). broad and the figure is 41 inches (1,000 mm) in height. In Gudh Mandap on one side, a big marble Panch- Tirthi sculpture of Adinath is installed. Pittalhar Temple. The striking feature of this temple is its dome, which stands on 8 pillars. The pendant of the dome drops from the ceiling looking like a cluster of half open lotuses. Next is the Garbhagriha, which when lighted reveals the massive idol of Neminatha. There are 39 cells here each containing one or more images. Most of the ceilings in front of the cells are highly ornamented. The reliefs in the porticoes of the cells depict incidents from the life of Neminatha, his marriage, deification etc. The representation of the marriage pavilion describes the scene and portrays the reason for the conversion of Neminatha who was betrothed to Rajimati, the daughter of the king of Girnar. The Rang Mandap has a central dome from which hangs a beautifully carved ornamental pendent. 72 figures of seated Tirthankaras are portrayed in a circular band and just below this band are 360 small figures of Jain monks. The Hathishala or elephant cell features 10 beautiful marble elephants neatly polished and realistically modelled.
86 CHOLA ARCHITECTURE Brihadeeswara Temple Thanjavur – 1000 AD . The key inscription on the base of the vimana where Rajaraja Chola says he built the stone temple and records the gifts that he, his sister, his queens and others gave the temple. Pichard called the vimana an “architectural audacity”. Brihadeeswarar Temple has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site under the list of ‘Great Living Chola Temples’. An approximate of 130,000 tons of granite was used in the formation of this temple. The holy shrine has a temple tower (vimana) that is built at a height of 216 feet. Being the tallest in the world, it symbolizes Mount Peru. ‘Gopuras’ or the two gateways are located at the eastern entrance of the temple. The temple’s entrance has a large statue of Nandi (sacred bull) that measures about 16 feet in length and 13 feet in height. This statue has been carved out of a single stone. ‘Kumbam’ is the topmost component of the holy shrine and weighs about 60 tons. It has been also carved out from a single granite stone. A huge idol of Lord Shiva with three eyes is present inside the temple along with the 108 dance forms or ‘karmas’. The exterior part on the other end is decorated with sculptures. There are 250 lingams in the entire temple compound. This famous sanctuary is made up of a pillared hall and an assembly hall which is known as mandapas and many sub-shrines. 8 Dikapalas: Dik- means direction; paalaka means ruler. Therefore, dikpalaka means the person who is the ruler of that direction/disha/dik. We know that there are eight direction of a
87 plane surface. Also thare are two directions vertically that is above/oordhwa/zenith/aakash and below/adho/nadir/paatal.The vertical directions are not taken into consideration in Vaasthu shastra. The inner part of the mandapas is noteworthy and is divided into various categories with the help of sculptures and pilasters. Being one of the rarest temples in India, the idols of ‘Ashta- dikpaalakas’ or guardians of directions can be found here. The six feet effigies of Agni, Varuna, Indra, Yama, Isana, Kubera and Nirriti are placed in a separate temple. Being a masterpiece in itself, the shadow of the tower over the gateway of the shrine never falls on the ground, more significantly in the premises of the temple. The altar situated at the entrance of this holy shrine has two idols of Lord Ganesha. When a person taps on any one of the idols, a sound occurs that travels towards the other idol slanting through the stone at one end and the metal to another. There are many pillars of the temple that produce such musical sounds. It has a double portico of 450 m perimeter running all around the structure contains 252 lingas in black stone arranged under corbelled vaults carried on 400 pillars all around The wall behind the portico is beautifully painted Technicals of the Garbagrha of Hindu Temples Garbhagṛha, “sanctum” is the nucleus of the temple. It is the place where the main deity of the temple is installed. The Canons prescribe that the shape of the garbhagṛha may be (on plan): 6. caturaśra (square), 7. āyata (rectangular), 8. vṛtta (cicular), 9. āyatavṛtta (elliptical) 10. or vṛttāyata (ovoid). The square and circular garbhagṛhas are constructed for the installation of the deities in sthāṇaka (standing) or āsīna (seated) postures. While in the other varieties, deities in śayana (reclining) posture or group of deities standing or sitting in a row are to be installed. Mānasāra mentions that if the plan of the garbhagṛha is square or circular, it is called puruṣa (Male) and if it is rectangular it is called vanitā (Female). Male deities can be installed in a square, circular or rectangular garbhagṛha, while the female deity should always be installed in a rectangular garbhagṛha. Garbhagṛha ( “womb-house”).—When combined the two words [garbha (womb) and gṛha (accommodation)] become garbhagṛha (womb-house). It denotes the sanctum sanctorum, or shrine of a sacred space, especially that of a Hindu temples. The sanctum sanctorum is the most central and fundamental component of any sacred architecture. What garbha (womb) is to the human body gṛha (accommodation) and guhā (cave) are to the world of habitation. What gṛha is to the world of habitation garbhagṛha is to the sacred architecture. In garbha resides the foetus, the genesis of a being. In gṛha, resides the gṛhastha, the family man—the microcosm, a unit, of which the multiples make a society, and which is opposed to the macrocosmic sphere of civilization. In the microcosmic sphere of
88 the garbhagṛha, the God resides, who is referred to as the macrocosm in religions, the omnipresent, all-pervading entity. Garbhagṛha refers to the “sanctum sanctorum”, a common concept found in the ancient Indian “science of architecture” (vāstuvidyā).—Garbhagṛha is the sanctum sanctorum, where the presiding deity is installed. Garbhagṛha Mūlasthāna sanctum-sanctorum of the Hindu Temple.—Each temple has a mūlasthāna or garbhagṛha (sanctum-sanctorum) and many subsidiary sanctums. The temples here selected for the study of the mūla beras are temples specially dedicated to Śiva, Viṣṇu, Subrahmaṇya, and Pārvatī. In these garbhagṛhas, there are icons of gods and goddesses, namely, Śiva and His manifestations like Naṭarāja; Pārvatī and the Śakti avatāras; Viṣṇu and His other forms and incarnations; Brahmā, Lakṣmī, Sarasvatī, Subrahmaṇya, Valli, Deivāṇai (also known as Deviyāni or Devasena), and Gaṇapati. Vastushastra refers to the ancient Indian science (shastra) of architecture (vastu), dealing with topics such architecture, sculpture, town-building, fort building and various other constructions. Vastu also deals with the philosophy of the architectural relation with the cosmic universe. Shilpashastra (iconography) Shilpashastra represents the ancient Indian science (shastra) of creative arts (shilpa) such as sculpture, iconography and painting. Closely related to Vastushastra (architecture), they often share the same literature. Discover the meaning of garbhagriha or garbhagrha in the context of Shilpashastra from relevant books on Exotic India
89 In Shaivism (Shaiva philosophy) Shaiva represents a tradition of Hinduism worshiping Shiva as the supreme being. Closely related to Shaktism, Shaiva literature includes a range of scriptures, including Tantras, while the root of this tradition may be traced back to the ancient VedasIt is only the physical structure. It is transformed into sannidhi after the invoking of the Lord. This explains why, in the Śaiva Siddhānta tradition, the temple is conceived as a space where the deity is invited to reside in the garbhagṛha. The temple’s spiritual energy can be sustained only if the deity’s sāniddhya remains unsullied. Therefore the most important dharma of the Ādiśaiva priest is to maintain the “presence” and sanctity of the deity by offering regular pūjā as prescribed. Only then can the temple be a storehouse of energy for the public. Only then can the devotees find their God in the sanctum. This he does through pūjā. Location: It is the location in the temple where the primary form of a deity resides) is only the physical structure. It is transformed into sannidhi (Sanctum Sanctorum) after the invoking of the Lord. This explains why, in the Śaiva Siddhānta tradition, the temple is conceived as a space where the deity is a special guest invited to reside in the garbhagṛha . . Girbhagriha in Tamil: In Tamil language Girbha griha is called karuvarai meaning the interior of the sanctumnsanctorum. It is the iner- most of the sanctum and focus of the temple, where the image of the primary deity resides. The word karuarai means "womb chamber". The word' karu' means foetus and arai means a room. Only the priests are allowed to enter this innermost chamber. Female Deities: temples of feminine deities, the garbagriha is rectangular. For example, in the temple of Varahi Deula in Chaurasi.The present structure of most of these temples is a two-
90 storeyed vimana with a square garbhagriha and a surrounding circumambulatory path, an ardha- mandapa and a narrower maha-mandapa. The Latin word sanctum is the neuter form of the adjective "holy", and sanctorum its genitive plural. Thus the term sanctum sanctorum literally means "the holy [place/thing] of the holy [places/things]", replicating in Latin the Hebrew construction for the superlative, with the intended meaning "the most holy [place/thing]". The Latin phrase sanctum sanctorum has wrongly been considered the translation of the Hebrew term Qṓḏeš HaQŏḏāšîm (Holy of Holies) which generally refers in Latin texts to the holiest place of the Tabernacle of the Israelites and later the Temples in Jerusalem, but also has some derivative use in application to imitations of the Tabernacle in church architecture. The correct translation is the plural form sancta sanctorum, arguably as a synecdoche, used also to refer to the holy relics contained in the sanctuary. The Vulgate translation of the Bible uses sancta sanctorum for the Holy of Holies. Hence the derivative usage to denote the Sancta Sanctorum chapel in the complex of the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, Rome. In Hinduism, a temple's innermost part where the cult image (Murti) of the deity is kept forms the Garbha griha, also referred to as a sanctum sanctorum. The Enclosed House: The garbhagriha in Hindu temple architecture (a shrine inside a temple complex where the main deity is installed in a separate building by itself inside the complex) has also been compared to a "sanctum sanctorum" in texts on Hindu temple architecture, though the Sanskrit term actually means "enclosed house" or "the deep interior of the house". However, some Indian English authors seem to have translated the Sanskrit term literally as "womb house". sanctum sanctorum, Garbhagriha is the sanctum sanctorum, the innermost sanctuary of a Hindu and Jain temples where resides the murti (idol or icon) of the primary deity of the temple. In Jainism, the main deity is known as the Mulnayaka. Literally the word means "womb chamber", from the Sanskrit words garbha for womb and griha for house. Generally in Hinduism only 'priests' (pujari) are allowed to enter this chamber. Although the term is often associated with Hindu temples, it is also found in Jain and Buddhist temples. Jain temple architecture is generally close to Hindu temple architecture, and in ancient times Buddhist architecture. Normally the same builders and carvers worked for all religions, and regional and period styles are generally similar. For over 1,000 years the basic layout of a Hindu or most Jain temples has consisted of a small garbhagriha or sanctuary for the main murti or cult images, over which the high superstructure rises, then one or more larger mandapa halls Architecture: The Garbagriha has a single entrance, normally facing east to be accessed by the rising sun, and no windows. It is normally square, and at least approximately a cube, with the representation of the temple's deity placed in the centre, so that it can be seen by worshippers outside. Relative to the size of the temple, and especially the large tower arising over it, it is a rather small room, and there is no view from below up into the shikhara or tower, which is treated as completely solid, although in fact for structural reasons it very often includes a hollow space. In the great majority of temples with a tower superstructure, a shikhara (in the north) or vimana (in the south), this chamber is placed directly underneath it, and the two of them form the main vertical axis of the temple. These together may be understood to represent the axis of the world through Mount Meru. The garbha griham is usually also on the main horizontal axis of
91 the temple which generally is an east–west axis. In those temples where there is also a cross-axis, the garbha gṛha is generally at their intersection. Generally the garbhagriha is a windowless and sparsely lit chamber, intentionally created thus to focus the devotee's mind on the tangible form of the divine within it. Entrance to the Hindu garbhagrha is very often restricted to priests who perform the services there, and in temples in active worship (as opposed to historic monuments) normally to Hindus at the least. In Jain temples all suitably bathed and purified Jains are allowed inside. In the Dravida style, the garbhagriha took the form of a miniature vimana with other features exclusive to southern Indian temple architecture such as the . inner wall together with the outer wall creating a pradakshina around the garbhagriha. The entrance is highly decorated. The inner garbhagriha or shrine became a separate structure, more elaborately adorned over time. The garbhagriha is normally square and sits on a plinth, its location calculated to be a point of total equilibrium and harmony as it is representative of a microcosm of the Universe. In the centre is placed the image of the deity. In some early temples it is not quite square, and in some later ones may be rectangular where more than one deity is worshipped and has an image there. There are a very few examples of
92 larger variance; the chamber at Gudimallam is both semi-circular at the rear, and set below the main floor level of the temple. The famous 7th-century Durga temple, Aihole has a rounded apse at the garbagriha end, which is echoed in the shape of the chamber. Garbagriha- Nirmaljhar temple In any Hindu temple, this is the most important and the most sacred area as it hosts the deity itself. All the puja i.e. offerings like flowers, fruits etc are made inside this area. In some of the temples, it is strictly forbidden to enter this area. Examples are the temples in Kerala like guruvayur, temples in dakshina kannada and udupi districts of Karnataka etc. In other temples, one can enter this area up to a certain extent, but is not allowed to go near or touch the idols. Most of the temples in India follow this. The third category is where one can enter this area and even touch the idols. Examples are temple like vittala temple in pandharpur. Sanctum Generally the garbhagrihas are square in shape. Some garbhagrihas, which are longer, and against the principle 84 axis, also can be seen. Garbhagriha used to be very small in the beginning and could admit only one worshipper at a time, though the shrine was meant for public and the basic shrine, sanctum alone constituted the real temple. This type of single cell shrines also can be seen in the present day temple architecture, which are mainly dedicated to the Mother Goddess or gramadevatha or gramapurush. The temple should consist of a sanctum in which the icon is to be installed and housed. The structural involvements nearby the temple are also essential for the principal worship and rituals. Texts like Sri Prasna describes that the sanctum is the body of the divinity and the icon is its soul (Jiva). Usually it is a stone structure, square in shape and simply plain with some projected slabs in the wall or niches. There should not be any pillars in the sanctum hall. The sanctum should be provided with windows for air and light, which eventually help in preservation of the icon. In olden days, the wooden stucco or clay windows were provided to the sanctum. The sanctum represented then by an empty low platform (Vedi) in the dark room. A copper vessel (kumbha), a sacrificial fire place (kunda) or a sculpted icon (bimba) used to be placed on a seat in the dark room to prevent ill effects of weathering besides the mystery of the
93 divine presence in the sanctum. The sanctum was usually built in stone, but constructions in brick are not rare 6 . Vishnu Tilaka mentions that while the stone sanctum is the best, the brick one is the next best. The wooden sanctum however is inferior and the mud sanctum is to be considered the worst '. 85 The sanctum of the temple must be constructed first. Before construction of the sanctum a significant ceremony known as 'impregnating' (Garbha-dana or Garbha-Nyasa) should be performed. This ritual involves letting into the earth a ceremonial copper pot containing nine precious stones, several metals and minerals, herbs and soil (purified earth by ants), symbolizing creation and prosperity. The building that contains the womb is said to be prosperous. After completion of this ritual, a stone slab (Adhara-sila) is placed over the spot. The copper pot here symbolizes the womb and the icon symbolizes the soul. This is the significance of the sanctum, which is called the 'womb-house' 8 . Texts like Silparatna, Tantra- Samuchchaya and Isana-Shivaguru Paddhati give an elaborate account of this ritual. When the arrangement of the garbhagriha is more than one in some temples, they are called as a Dwikutachala, Trikutachala temples and so on. In a few temples, projecting slabs and niches are found in the walls of garbhagrihas. (e.g. Tambdi Surla temple has projecting slabs and in Mahadeva Temple at Curdi have niches). The functional aspects of these are for providing space for keeping certain objects used for worship. These niches and projected slabs are provided according to their convenience and orientation of the temple entrance e.g. projected slabs in Mahadeva temple Tambdi Surla were fixed in the western wall of the sanctum (rear wall), while a recessed niche was provided in the Mahadeva Temple at Curdi in the southern wall of the sanctum. Some garbhagrihas will have a stone projection from the rear wall of sanctum touching the image kept at the centre. The images of deities in standing posture are of considerable height. The centre of gravity of such images falls backwards away from the centre because the weight of the rear portion of the Prahhavali is heavier than that of the front portion of the image. Though images are fixed on pithas by inserting projecting tenon into the sockets, the possibility of their fall cannot be ruled out. Under these circumstances, the images need support at a higher level from the rear wall (e.g., Temple of Lakshminarayana at Balaganur and Sangameswar at Kurdi in Raichur district of Karnataka). Most of the temples in Goa have the main deity at the centre of the sanctum and placed over pranala. Some garbhagrihas, which are longer, and against the principle 84 axis, also can be seen. Garbhagriha used to be very small in the beginning and could admit only one worshipper at a time, though the shrine was meant for public and the basic shrine, sanctum alone constituted the real temple. This type of single cell shrines also can be seen in the present day temple architecture, which are mainly dedicated to the Mother Goddess or gramadevatha or gramapurush. The temple should consist of a sanctum in which the icon is to be installed and housed. The structural involvements nearby the temple are also essential for the principal worship and rituals. Texts like Sri Prasna describes that the sanctum is the body of the divinity and the icon is its soul (Jiva). Usually it is a stone structure, square in shape and simply plain with some projected slabs in the wall or niches. There should not be any pillars in the sanctum hall. The sanctum should be provided with windows for air and light, which eventually help in preservation of the icon. In olden days, the wooden stucco or clay windows were provided to the sanctum.
94 The sanctum represented then by an empty low platform (Vedi) in the dark room. A copper vessel (kumbha), a sacrificial fire place (kunda) or a sculpted icon (bimba) used to be placed on a seat in the dark room to prevent ill effects of weathering besides the mystery of the divine presence in the sanctum. The sanctum was usually built in stone, but constructions in brick are not rare 6 . Vishnu Tilaka mentions that while the stone sanctum is the best, the brick one is the next best. The wooden sanctum however is inferior and the mud sanctum is to be considered the worst '. The sanctum of the temple must be constructed first. Before construction of the sanctum a significant ceremony known as 'impregnating' (Garbha-dana or Garbha-Nyasa) should be performed. This ritual involves letting into the earth a ceremonial copper pot containing nine precious stones, several metals and minerals, herbs and soil (purified earth by ants), symbolizing creation and prosperity. The building that contains the womb is said to be prosperous. After completion of this ritual, a stone slab (Adhara-sila) is placed over the spot. The copper pot here symbolizes the womb and the icon symbolizes the soul. This is the significance of the sanctum, which is called the 'womb-house' 8 . Texts like Silparatna, Tantra-Samuchchaya and Isana- Shivaguru Paddhati give an elaborate account of this ritual. When the arrangement of the garbhagriha is more than one in some temples, they are called as a Dwikutachala, Trikutachala temples and so on. In a few temples, projecting slabs and niches are found in the walls of garbhagrihas. (e.g. Tambdi Surla temple has projecting slabs and in Mahadeva Temple at Curdi have niches). The functional aspects of these are for providing space for keeping certain objects used for worship. These niches and projected slabs are provided according to their convenience and orientation of the temple entrance e.g. projected slabs in Mahadeva temple Tambdi Surla were fixed in the western wall of the sanctum (rear wall), while a recessed niche was provided in the Mahadeva Temple at Curdi in the southern wall of the sanctum. Some garbhagrihas will have a stone projection from the rear wall of sanctum touching the image kept at the centre. The images of deities in standing posture are of considerable height. The centre of gravity of such images falls backwards away from the centre because the weight of the rear portion of the Prahhavali is heavier than that of the front portion of the image. Though images are fixed on pithas by inserting projecting tenon into the sockets, the possibility of their fall cannot be ruled out. Under these circumstances, the images need support at a higher level from the rear wall (e.g., Temple of Lakshminarayana at Balaganur and Sangameswar at Kurdi in Raichur district of Karnataka). Most of the temples in Goa have the main deity at the centre of the sanctum and placed over pranala. Pradakshinipatha: All around the sanctum a passage is kept often narrow, permitting the devotees to pass round the sanctum in the customary act of devotion. This circumambulatory path (Pradakshinirpath or hhrama) subsequently became a structural involvement as the temple grew in size; it was more open naturally, as it was in the early phase. The temple, which has the circumbulatory passage, is known as Sandhara temple, e.g. Jain temple at Kudne and the temples of Ponda and Bardez talukas have this feature. The temple, which doesn't have pradakshinapatha is known as Niradhara temple e.g. Mahadeva temples of Curdi and Tambdi Surla, Saptakoteswar temple at Opa, Agasthipur temple etc.". Sikhara Sikhara or superstructureis the top member of a shrine. A flat roof stone slab that covers the sanctum is also called as Kapota. Flat roof (Kapota) of the sanctum on which the tower rests and rises is over-laid by a single stone slab, known in the
95 texts as 'Brahma randra sila' (the stone). This serves as the base (adhisthana) for the superstructure that rises above the sanctum known as Vimana or Sikhara', which forms the important part of the temple.
96 According to Shivpuran, only a half-parikrama of Shivalinga should be carried out. This is because Shiva is Anadi and Anant himself. He has immense energy and the energy or Shakti flowing out is represented through Nirmili (the outlet for milk and water designed in modern-day Shivlinga). Image Credits: Patrika News It’s said that Shiva’s Shakti is so fierce that none could ever interfere or come in the line of it. Whoever does it has to face the wrath of Lord Shiva. As per an old legend, once King Gandharva who was a Shiva devotee over-stepped the Nirmili while performing the ‘Abhishek’ on Shivlinga during the Parikrama. This resulted in losing all his might, power and intellect. Nirmili is a sacred part of the Shivling and must never be over-stepped. Therefore, it is advised to only perform half-parikrama of Shivlinga to avoid stepping over the Nirmili.
97 Another reason according to Shastras : The Shastras prescribe only a half pradkashina for Shiva.That is why we do not complete the pradakshina. For the Pancha Devata Deities therules(for pradakshina ) are as follows: Eka Chandaya Raveh Sapta Tirstra Karya Vinayake|| Hareschatarstrah Kartabyah Shivasya ardha Pradkshina|| (For Durga(Chandi) (one should do) 1 pradkshina,for Surya(Ravi) 7,for Ganesha(Vinayaka) 3,for Vishnu(Hari) 4 & for Shiva only 1/2. Refer to image above.The pradakshina should not go beyond the "Gomukhi".As the holy water constantly drips and gets collected there(this is the most rational reason i can think of). By half pradakshina is meant a "SomaSutra Pradakshina" as stated in the next Sloka: Shivam PradaksiniKurvanSomasutram na Langhayeth,Iti Vachanantaraat.
98 (While doing Shiva Pradakshina the order(of Shastras) is that one should not break the Somasutra). By Somasutra is meant the Half Moon like curve that is traced out in the process. n Shiva temples, the devotees start the Pradakshina as usual from the front and go clockwise till they reach the gomukhi (the outlet for abhisheka water) from the Sanctum Sanctorum. As usual, the clockwise perambulation is maintained outside of the Bali stones. The outlet for the ritual ablution offered on the Shiva Linga with water, milk, curd, coconut water, ghee, ashes (bhasma), etc. is not to be crossed. So the worshippers have to return in an anti-clockwise direction till they reach the other side of the outlet to complete the circle. During this anti-clockwise perambulation, the devotee should tread a path inside of the Bali stones. The Bali stones are always to be kept on the right side of the devotees. After reaching the drainage outlet, they have to return to the front in the clockwise direction keeping the path outside the Bali stones. Thus one Pradakshina is completed. No women in Garbagriha: Siva temples are built based on the Saiva agama (essentially the rule book for building a temple). Any temple that is built according to this system usually does not allow anyone entering the sanctum sanctorum. Primarily because Saiva agama says that anyone who steps on the Abhisheka jalam on foot will lose all his/her punya accumulated thus far. The result of Punya is comfort and since we lose all punya, we won’t be left with any comforts for the remainder of lives.
99 For a Siva lingam abhishekam is an always on process. It never ceases. It is a rule that always the Dhaara Patra must keep dropping water on It. The exception to this is the priest since according to the agama, Siva resides in 8 parts in the temple and priest is one of them. Secondly, to perform worship of Siva Lingam is one step above the idol worship. It is not same as an idol. It is called ‘Aruparupi’, meaning one with and without form. Worship of Siva Lingam requires more levels of meditation than the idol worship. The rule is that one who is not Siva cannot worship Siva. Therefore, to perform Abhishekam, one must follow a process of submission called ‘Mahanyasam’. In this process, one has a dress code that no upper cloth is allowed. One has to instill different forms of the Lord on different parts of the body along with the application of Bhasma on the body. For all practical reasons, this is not possible for women. Therefore, only men are suggested to be allowed inside the Garbha Griha. One more reason for not allowing people inside is that there is no ‘punah pratishtah’ for a siva lingam unlike temples with idols. However, there are exceptions where some temples allow everyone to visit and touch the Siva Lingam. Kasi Viswanath temple allows and Grusneswar temple in Maharashtra also allows. Instead of worrying about being not allowed inside, it is better if we (regardless of gender) pray from outside with the hope that it is for our best interest. Lastly and most importantly, our worship has to have an essential ingredient called ‘devotion’. The one with devotion will only be accepted by Lord and one without devotion cannot please the Lord even by worshipping Him with diamonds or anything one feels is the most precious. Others allow- I have done the Lord Shiva pooja in Garbha gruha, normally during Monday's and specifically on Shivaratri. Ladies were always allowed to attend the pooja in Garbha gruha. So not sure as why question came up. Could be a specific Temple issue! Please do not genaralise this. Woman have equal rights in Hindu darma. Actually speaking, woman have more rights, only during last 1000 years, due to various invasions faced by India, things have changed. This must be the case of a few specific temples. In all the Shiva temples I have been to, either the garbha griha is off the limits for all visitors, or men and women may enter them alike. Apart from the many smaller Shiva Temples I have visited, the above is true of all the major Shiva temples to which I have been a pilgrim - including Kashi Vishwanath, Vaidyanath Dham in Deoghar, Mahakaleshwar in Ujjain, Omkareshwar, Nageshwar in Gujarat, and the Dvadash Shivas in Dakshineshwar.There are no restrictions in some other temples. I cannot think of any possible reason except sexism, by a handful of people. Women, since the ages, have been the most enthusiastic devotees of Shiva. Shiva Ratri rituals are dominated by women across the country. His biggest worshipper, the One Who could break His trance, is Goddess Parvati, and She was no male.
100 No statute but a symbol: In all Shiva temples, the identity of Lord Shiva. Lord Shiva is also called as Jyotirlingam that means, His original /real form (shape, design, frame) is a Divine Light. He does not have a physical body like us, because, He is ajanma (the one who has no birth). He is also known as swoyambhu (that appears on its own) because when He comes from Supreme abode (Brahm Lok) to this earth to rejuvenate and purify (Patitpavan) it, He does not take birth (ayonija) like us, but enters into an experienced old man and imparts Brahm Gyan to all. Subsequently, He names the old man as Brahma (that's why Lord Brahma is shown with white beards and moustaches; no other deities are shown with beards etc). So, this Jyotirlingam is Parambrahm (Supreme Soul). We should not confuse and say that, Shiva (Parambrahm) and Shankar (Mahadev) is one and the same. Please recall your school days prayers which says “Guru Brahma guru Vishnu guru Dev Maheswara, Guru sakshat Parambrahm tasmey Sri gurave namah”. It clearly says that Parambrahm is different from Maheswar/Mahadev”. So, I hope, you got your answer that, since Jyotirlingam God Shiva does not have a physical body, no statue like other deities is shown in Shivalaya (not Shankaralaya). The ovel shaped statue that is shown in Shivalaya is coined from the flame (Light) of a sacred earthen lamp (Deepam) to represent Divine Light. It is said that, prior to invade of foreign rulers over India, the ovel shaped statues of Lord Shiva were made of diamonds to represent the glowing light of Jyotirlingam. But when the invaders looted those glowing diamonds, the devotees compelled to go for black marble statues.
101 2Examplesofbeautiful Temples(Mandirs) with arock andthenawoodenGarbagriha ordevaghar
102 1. ROCK TEMPLE Chennakeshava Temple, also referred to as Keshava, Kesava or Vijayanarayana Temple of Belur
103 Chennakeshava Temple, also referredto as Keshava, Kesava or Vijayanarayana Temple of Belur, is a 12th-century Hindu temple in the Hassan district of Karnataka state, India. It was commissioned by King Vishnuvardhana in 1117 CE, on the banks of the Yagachi River in Belur also called Velapura, an early Hoysala Empire capital. The temple was built over three generations and took 103 years to finish. It was repeatedly damaged and plundered during wars, repeatedly rebuilt and repaired over its history. It is 35 km from Hassan city and about 200 km from Bengaluru. Chennakesava (lit, "handsome Kesava") is a form of the Hindu god Vishnu. The temple is dedicated to Vishnu and has been an active Hindu temple since its founding. It is reverentially described in medieval Hindu texts, and remains an important pilgrimage site in Vaishnavism. The temple is remarkable for its architecture, sculptures, reliefs, friezes as well its iconography, inscriptions and history. The temple artwork depicts scenes of secular life in the 12th century, dancers and musicians, as well as a pictorial narration of Hindu texts such as the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas through numerous friezes.[1][4][5] It is a Vaishnava temple that reverentially includes many themes from Shaivism and Shaktism, as well as images of a Jina from Jainism and the Buddha from Buddhism. The Chennakeshava temple is a testimony to the artistic, cultural and theological perspectives in 12th century South India and the Hoysala Empire rule. The Belur temple complex along with the nearby Hindu and Jain Temples at Halebidu have been proposed to be listed under UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
104 The Chennakeshava Temple is an active Hindu temple and a major Vaishnava pilgrimage site. It is located on the banks of Yagachi River (also called Badari River in historic texts), a tributary of Hemavati River. Example Belur temple inscription in Sanskrit, written in Old Kannada script/ Artwork at Chennakeshava temple. The Hoysala period of South Indian history began about 1000 CE and continued through 1346 CE. In this period, they built around 1,500 temples in 958 centres. Belur is called Beluhur, Velur or Velapura in old inscriptions and medieval era texts. It was the early capital of the Hoysala kings. The city was so esteemed by the Hoysalas that it is referred to as "earthly Vaikuntha" (Vishnu's abode) and "dakshina Varanasi" (southern holy city of Hindus) in later inscriptions. One of the Hoyasala kings was Vishnuvardhana, who came to power in 1110 CE. He commissioned the Chennakeshava temple dedicated to Vishnu in 1117 CE, a temple considered as one of "five foundations" of his legacy. According to Dhaky – a scholar of Indian temple architecture and temple history, this temple reflects the rising opulence, political power, deep spiritual dedication to Sri Vaishnavism of Ramanujacharya, and it is his magnum opus. The main temple is called Vijaya-Narayana and the smaller temple next to it built by his queen Santala Devi is called Chennakesava in the inscriptions of his era, but these two temples are now called the Chennakesava temple and Chennigaraya temple respectively. The main Chennakeshava temple at Belur was complete and consecrated in 1117 CE,[10] though the complex continued to expand over 100 some years.[1] Vishnuvardhana moved his capital to Dorasamudra, (also referred to as Dvarasamudra, now Halebidu), famous for the Hoysaleswara Temple dedicated to Shiva. Its construction continued till he died in 1140 CE. His legacy was continued by his descendants who completed the Hoysaleswara Temple in 1150 CE, and other temples about 200 kilometers away such as the Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura in 1258 CE. The Hoysalas employed many noted architects and artisans who developed a new architectural tradition, which art historian Adam Hardy calls the Karnata Dravida tradition.
105 The Hoysala Empire and its capital was invaded, plundered and destroyed in the early 14th century by Malik Kafur, a commander of the Delhi Sultanate ruler Alauddin Khalji.[12] Belur and Halebidu became the target of plunder and destruction in 1326 CE by another Delhi Sultanate army.[13] The territory was taken over by the Vijayanagara Empire. The Hoysala style, states James C. Harle, came to an end in the mid 14th century, when Hoysala king Veera Ballala III was killed in a war with the Muslim Madurai Sultanate followed by his son. Inscriptions Historians have found 118 inscriptions in the temple complex, dated between 1117 CE to the 18th century, which provide a history of the temple, the grants made to the Chennakeshava temple for its upkeep and the repairs during later times.  An inscription found on the east wall near the north entrance of the temple's main mandapa (hall) states that Vishnuvardhana commissioned the temple for god Vijayanarayana in 1117 CE. Some historians have interpreted this inscription as stating that the Chennakeshava Temple was completed in 1117 CE.  The Chennigaraya temple was built concurrently with the main temple, and the queen sponsored it.  Narasimha I of Hoysala dynasty made grants to the temple for its maintenance and operation.  Ballala II in 1175 CE added temple buildings for kitchen and grain storage in the southeast corner, and a water tank in the northeast corner of the temple.  The original temple was without boundary wall. The main mandapa was also open for the devotees to view and appreciate the intricate carvings inside the temple. For security of the temple, a high wall was constructed around the temple, a wood-and-brick gateway and doors added by Somayya Danayaka during the rule of Veera Ballala III (1292–1343), as well as the open mandapa was covered with perforated stone screens. The new screens darkened the inside of the temple making it difficult to see the artwork but allowed enough light for the darshana of the garbha griya.  The temple was raided, damaged and its gateway was burnt down in a raid by a Muslim general Salar and his army working for Muhammed bin Tughlaq (1324-1351).  The temple was repaired by the Vijayanagara Empire under the sponsorship of Harihara II (1377–1404). In 1381, they added four granite pillars; in 1387, a gold plated kalasa was added by Malagarasa to a new tower above the sanctum; it added a new seven storey brick gopurum in 1397 replacing the destroyed gateway.  An Andal shrine, the Saumyanayaki shrine, the dipa-stambha at the entrance, the Rama and Narasimha shrines were added during the Vijayanagara Empire era.  The main temple had a shikara (superstructure tower) but it is now missing and the temple looks flat. The original tower, suggest the inscriptions, was made of a combination of wood, brick and mortar. It was destroyed and rebuilt several times.  The Vijayanagara Empire sponsored the addition of smaller shrines dedicated to goddesses and the Naganayakana mandapa within the temple complex. These were constructed by collecting the war ruins of other demolished temples in Belur area and reusing them.  The temple premises were again damaged after the destruction of Vijayanagara Empire by a coalition of Sultanates. The first repairs were done in 1709, followed by additions in 1717 and 1736. The temple was repaired in 1774 by an officer of Hyder Ali during a period when Hyder Ali was the de facto ruler on behalf of the Wadiyar dynasty.
106  In late 19th-century, the collapsing tower above the sanctum was removed to save the lower levels and never replaced. In 1935, parts of the temple was cleaned and restored with financing by the Mysore government and grants by the Wadiyar dynasty. The Chennigaraya shrine was rebuilt, new images of Ramanuja and Garuda added along with many other facility improvements and repairs to the complex. These repairs were inscribed in stone for a historical record, just like earlier inscriptions. Chennakeshava temples and monuments layout The Chennakeshava complex at Belur consists of a 443.5 feet by 396 feet court with several Hindu temples and minor shrines inside a walled compound. The compound is entered from the east through a Gopuram added during the repairs of the Vijayanagar empire era. The temples and monuments found inside the walled complex are:  Chennakesava temple, also called as Kesava temple, is the main temple. It is in the middle of the complex, faces east, in front of the gopuram. Including the improvements added later, it is 178 feet by 156 feet. The temple stands on a wide platform terrace (jagati) about 3 feet high. The temple is dedicated to Vishnu in the form of Kesava.
107  To the south of the Kesava temple is the Kappe Chennigaraya temple measuring 124 feet by 105 feet. It has two sanctums inside, one dedicated to Venugopala and the other to Chennigaraya (local popular name of Chennakeshava, Vishnu). The temple is called Kappe Chennigaraya because, according to a local legend, a Kappe (frog) was once found near its navel. This smaller temple was built by the queen concurrently with the main temple, and is believed to be similar smaller version  A stone slab with a couple standing side by side in a namaste posture under a canopy. The monument is damaged. Temples and monuments of Chennakeshava complex Eastern gopuram Kesavatemple View from center-southwest Templesin the west end Andal temple Water tank inside the complex The Chennakeshava temple includes a number of smaller shrines and monuments. To the west of the Kesava temple is the Viranarayana temple measuring 70 feet by 56 feet. It is a small but complete temple with a navaranga (nine square hall) and a garbha griya (sanctum) with 59 large reliefs on the outer walls. These reliefs are dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma, Bhairava (angry Shiva), Lakshmi, Parvati, Saraswati and others. Some panels depict the Bhima story from the Mahabharata. The temple is also dated to the 12th century.
108 To the southwest of the Kesava temple is a small temple to Somyanayaki (form of the goddess Lakshmi), also dated to the 12th century. However, the temple was expanded and enhanced later. This temple is notable because the local tradition holds that its tower is miniature version of the major tower that once rose above the main Kesava temple. The Andal temple, also called Ranganayaki shrine, is to the northwest of the Kesava temple. Its outer wall are decorated with artwork such as elephants and nature. It also displays 31 large images of deities from the Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism traditions of Hinduism. It also has intricately carved Venugopala, Mohini and Lakshmi, as well as friezes showing legends in the Puranas. The complex has a number of small shrines. To the east of Kappe-Chennigaraya temple are shrines for Narasimha, Rama, Jiyar and Alvars of the Bhakti movement fame. To the east of Andal temple are shrines for Krishna, and Vaishnavism scholars Desikar, Bhashyakara and Ramanuja of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta fame. On the base of the shrines for Alvars are friezes showing stories from the Ramayana. Some of these shrines were added later because few of these scholars such as Desikar lived after the 12th century. Two main sthambha (pillars) are found in the temple complex. The pillar facing the main temple, the Garuda (eagle) sthambha was erected in the Vijayanagar period while the pillar on the right, the Deepa sthambha (pillar with lamp) dates from the Hoysala period. Near the Viranarayana temple is a mandapa where annual procession ratha and temple vehicles have traditionally been stored. It is called vahana mandapa. The complex also has a kalyana-mandapa in the southeast corner for ceremonies. It was added in the 17th century. A granary for storing food reserves is found in the northwest corner of the complex. There is smaller northern gate to the complex, near which is a pakasale or community kitchen built in the 13th century. A stepped water tank, called kalyani or Vasudeva-sarovara in inscriptions, is found in the northeast corner with two stone elephants on its side. The complex has many other small monuments and features, such as the ane-bagilu or "elephant's gate" just south of the gopuram and a memorial of past destruction in the form of pillars and statues in the northwestern part of the complex. Main temple: Kesava The temple is a ekakuta vimana design (single shrine) of 10.5 m by 10.5 m size. It combines elements of North Indian Nagara and South Indian Karnata style architecture. The temple stands on an open and wide platform designed to be a circumambulatory path around the sanctum. The
109 temple and platform were without walls and the platform surrounded an open mantapa, following the contour of the temple. A visitor would have been able to see the ornate pillars of the open mantapa from the platform. Later walls and stone screens were added, creating an enclosed vestibule and mantapa, providing security but creating too much dark to appreciate the artwork inside. The vestibule connects the circumambulatory platform to the mandapa (hall). There is intricate and abundant artwork both on the outside and inside the temple. The temple has a simple Hoysala plan and features one sanctum. The building material used in the Chennakesava temple is chloritic schist, more commonly known as soapstone. It is soft when quarried and allows artists to more easily carve details. Over time the material hardens. This Hoysala temple, according to the art critic and historian Settar, deployed the Western Chalukyan artists and their tradition that originally developed in Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal. It is simpler than later Hoysala temples (including the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu and the Keshava temple at Somanathapura). Bands of carvings on one side of the circumambulatory platform. Platform The temple is built on a jagati (literally, "worldly"), a symbolic worldly platform with a wide walking space for circumambulation (pradakshina-patha). There is one flight of steps leading to the jagati and another flight of steps into the mantapa. The jagati provides the devotee the opportunity to do a pradakshina around the temple before entering it. The jagati carefully follows the staggered square design of the mantapa[35] and the star shape of the shrine. Exterior walls The visitor sees numerous artwork during the circumambulation of the temple over the jagati platform in horizontal bands. The bottom band is of elephants with different expressions, as symbolic supporters of the entire structure. Above it is an empty layer, followed by cornice work with a periodic lion face. Above it is another band of scroll and then cornice band, except at the back of the temple where a row of horsemen in various riding positions are depicted.
110 The fifth carved band is of small figurines, mostly females with various expressions facing the viewer, while periodically the band includes Yakshas who face towards the inside of the temple. This layer also has numerous dancers and musicians, as well as professionals with their toolsThe band above has pilasters between some of which are carved secular figures mostly females and couples. A nature and creepers band wraps the temple above the pilaster band, with scenes of the Ramayana epic included in this band. Above this layer are scenes from common life depicting kama, artha and dharma. Included here are couples in courtship, eroticism and sexual scenes, followed by couples with children, economic and festive activities. Towards the north outer wall, friezes with scenes from the Mahabharata are portrayed. Two styles of light screens used in Kesava temple: geometric artwork (left) and Puranic stories artwork. Above these bands is later construction that added 10 perforated stone windows and screens to north side and 10 to the south side of the temple. The later artists engraved Purana scenes in ten of these later additions, and the other ten have geometric floral designs. The perforated screens with characters show:[39] 1. Hoysala court scene, with the king, queen, officers, attendants and two gurus with their students 2. Kesava with Hanuman and Garuda, 3. the Vamana dwarf, Bali and Trivikrama legend, 4. the Krishna Kaliyamardana legend, Shiva on Nandi with Ganesha and Kartikeya, 5. the Prahlada, Hiranyakashipu and Narasimha legend (notable for Thenkalai namam style Urdhava pundra symbols on Prahlada's forehead), 6. Yoga-Narasimha with Hanuman and Garuda, 7. the Samudra manthan legend, 8. the Krishna killing Kamsa legend, 9. Ranganatha reclining on Sesha, 10. the Hanuman and Garuda fighting over Shiva linga legend.
111 Statues on capital support the temple eaves. 38 of the original 40 have survived in Belur. Above the perforated screens, on capitals of the supporting pillars, are madanakai (Salabhanjika) figures. There were originally 40 madanakai, of which 38 have survived in damaged or good form. Two of these are Durga, three huntresses (with bow), others are dancers in Natya Shastra abhinaya mudra (acting posture), musicians, women dressing or doing make up, a woman with a pet parrot, men making music. A majority of these madanakai figures are also carved into miniatures in the sixth band of the outer wall around the pradakshina patha. The wall also features 80 large reliefs around the temple. Of these 32 are of Vishnu, 9 of his avatars (Narasimha, Varaha, Vamana, Ranganatha, Balarama); 4 of Shiva in various forms including Nataraja (with or without Parvati); 2 of Bhairava (Shiva); 2 of Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu); 4 of Surya (Sun god); 5 of Durga and Mahishasuramardini; 1 of Kama and Rati; 1 of Ganesha, Brahma, Saraswati, Garuda and Chandra. Other major reliefs are of Arjuna shooting an arrow to win Draupadi; Ravana lifting the Kailasha; Daksha, Bali and Sukracharya. Some of the statues present exceptional details. For example, one madanakai figure is shown with a fruit tree canopy, where a small fly is shown sitting on the fruit and nearby a lizard is preparing to pounce on the fly. In another, an eagle is shown attacking a sarabha, which in turn is attacking a lion, which in turn is pouncing on an elephant, which itself is seizing a snake, which in turn is shown in the act of swallowing a rat – a sight that includes a pondering sage. Secular life is shown in these images, such as an artist making a drawing or musicians lost in their music. A notable image is the depiction of 12th century Rudra-vina and a Lasya dance posture. Also included is the image of a Jina of Jainism. The outer wall on the side of the eastern entrance into the temple inside shows Bhairava and Durga. The outer wall on the side of the southern entrance into the temple shows Tandavesvara and Brahmani. The outer sides at the northern entrance into the temple show Vishnu and Mahishasuramardini. Interior
112 The Chennakesava temple has three entrances and their doorways have decorated sculptures called dvarapalaka (doorkeepers) on either side. The central hall (navaranga) was originally open on all sides except the west where the sanctum is, but all sides were later closed with perforated screens. This reduced the amount of light significantly and the intricate art work is difficult to appreciate without secondary light. The artwork starts on entry to the three entrances to the hall. Each leads to raised verandas on both sides. The hall has carved pillars with a large domed ceiling in the center. The mandapa has 60 "bays" (compartments). The navaranga in Kesava temple at Belur is the largest of any Hoysala temple, is of triratha diamond-shaped layout, according to James Harle. Ornate lathe turned pillars in mantapa. Sanctum The mandapa leads to the garbha griya past the pillars and a doorway. The door is flanked by dvarapala, Jaya and Vijaya. Its pediment has Lakshminarayana in center. Below it are musicians playing 12th-century musical instruments. On the side are two makaras with Varuna and Varuni together riding on them. Inside the square sanctum is the image of Keshava, or as inscriptions call it "Vijayanarayana". It stands on a 3 feet high pedestal, is about 6 feet high with a halo. It has four hands, with chakra and shankha in the upper hands and a gada and lotus in his lower hands. The halo has cyclical carving of the ten avatars of Vishnu – Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parasurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha and Kalki. The temple is active house of worship, with Keshava dressed and decorated, priests present and devotees doing darshana. Pillars and ceiling The navaranga hall has forty eight pillars. All except the central four are carved in a unique way. The central four are later additions, added in 1381 CE during the Vijayanagara Empire era, to support the internal structure of a damaged temple. The pillars are of three sizes. Two pillars are particularly notable. One is the so-called Narasimha pillar which is carved with miniature figures from top to bottom, such as a tiny bull (kadale basava). The local legend states that this pillar once could rotate because of how it was supported, but it no longer can be rotated. The other pillar is the Mohini pillar. Other than the female avatar of Vishnu, the pillar has eight bands of carvings, including those of Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, then ten avatars of Vishnu, the eight
113 direction deities, mythical animals with the body of a lion but the face of other wildlife. The four central pillars are notable for having been hand carved while the others were lathe turned. One of four ceiling dome madanikas, with an inscription on pedestal./ temple is famous for its rendering of Mohini, the female avatar of Vishnu. In the center of the hall is a large open square, above which is a domed ceiling about 10 feet in diameter and 6 feet deep. At the top is a lotus bud with Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva carved on it. At the bottom of the dome is a series of friezes with the Ramayana story. On the capitals of the four pillars are madanikas (Salabhanjika). One represents dancing Saraswati, the Hindu god of knowledge, arts and music. The others are regular dancers, but with different expressions. One is dressing her hair, the other in a Natya posture, and the fourth has a parrot seated on her hand. The head and neck jewelry made of rock are freely mounted and can be moved. The bracelets similarly are moveable. The design of the ceiling follows the Hindu texts, and is a modified utksipta style with images placed in concentric rings. Other reliefs inside the hall include large images of Vishnu avatars, friezes of the Vedic and Puranic histories, and more scenes of the Ramayana. Superstructure The temple had a tower, which was repeated damaged and destroyed, rebuilt and restored. In the 19th-century restorations, the temple was left without a tower. According to Foekema, the tower when it existed would have been of the Bhumija style when it existed and not the regular star shaped tower that followed the shape of the vimana. The Bhumija towers, which are intact on the miniature shrines at the entrance of the hall are actually a type of nagara (North Indian) tower, being curvilinear in shape. This shape of tower is quite uncommon in pure dravidian architecture. Artists Some of the Hoysala artists signed their work in the form of inscriptions. In doing so, they sometimes revealed details about themselves, their families, guilds and place of origin. Stone inscriptions and copper plate inscriptions provide more information about them. Ruvari
114 Mallitamma was a prolific artist to whom more than 40 sculptures are attributed. Dasoja and his son Chavana who were from Balligavi in modern Shimoga district made important contributions. Chavana is credited with the work on five madanikas and Dasoja accomplished four of them. Malliyanna and Nagoja created birds and animals in their sculptures. Artists such as Chikkahampa and Malloja are credited with some of the sculptures in the mantapa. These artists also contributed to the artwork found in other major Hoysala temples found within 50 kilometers of Belur. Hemakuta Hill is one among the best places in Hampi to see the sunrise and sunset; and not as tedious to reach the top say compared to the Matanga Hill nearby, which is boasted as the best location to watch sunset in Hampi. So if you find it difficult to make it to Matanga Hill for sunset view, try from Hemakuta Hill. The Myths of Hampi have it that it’s on this hill that Lord Siva (the god of destruction) did penance before marrying a local girl Pampa. Siva was impressed by her dedication for him and consent to marry her. On this it rained gold on this hill. Hema in Sanskrit language means gold. The name of the hill thus connects with this legend. Also this is the place where Siva burnt Kama (the god of lust) with his third (fire) eye. In helping Pampa to marry Shiva, Kama distracted Shiva from his penance. This attracted the wrath of Siva and eventually killed Kama by fire. Later Rathi (goddess of passion and Kama’s wife) pleaded for the life of Kama. Siva brought him back to life but only in character not as a physical being. Hence a number of temples in this area are dedicated to Lord Siva, the major one being the Virupaksha temple at the north of this hill. This place packed with the largest number of pre Vijayanagara temples. Atop is the Moola Virupaksha Temple with a pool infront, considered to be the original Virupaksha Temple One can access it mainly through two ways. The first is through the tower located close to the Virupaksha temple’s main entrance. From the very end of the Hampi Bazaar that terminates in front of the Virupaksha temple, take the left (southward) alley. You can see the giant but topless tower to the hilltop. On the way you see the Hampi post office on your right. The second access point is through the twin storied archway located near the Sasivekalu Ganesha & Kadalekalu Ganesha shrines. The top locations near this archway is a great place to get an aerial view of the Krishna Temple campus just south of it; and the Lakshmi Narasimha & Badivilinga shrines located beyond the Krishna temple.
115 Vijayanagara architecture can be broadly classified into religious, courtly and civic architecture, as can the associated sculptures and paintings. The Vijayanagara style is a combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles which evolved earlier in the centuries when these empires ruled and is characterised by a return to the simplistic and serene art of the past. STONES- 3 Chambered Temples of Hampi For the approximately 400 years during the rule of the Western Chalukya and the Hoysalas empires, the most popular material for temple construction was chloritic schist or soapstone. This was also true for sculpture as soapstone is soft and easily carved. During the Vijayanagar period the local hard granite was preferred in the Badami Chalukya style, although soapstone was used for a few reliefs and sculptures. While the use of granite reduced the density of sculptured works, granite was a more durable material for the temple structure. Because granite is prone to flaking, few pieces of individual sculptures reached the high levels of quality seen in previous centuries. To cover the unevenness of the stone used in sculptures, artists employed plaster to give the rough surface a smooth finish and then painted it with lively colours. Vijayanagara temples are usually surrounded by a strong enclosure. Small shrines consist simply of a garbhagriha (sanctum)
116 and a porch. Medium-sized temples have a garbhagriha, shukanasi (antechamber), a navaranga (antrala) connecting the sanctum and outer mandapa (hall), and a rangamantapa (enclosed pillared hall). Large temples have tall Rayagopuram built with wood, brick and stucco in Chola style. The term Raya is added to indicate a gopura built by Vijayanagar Rayas. The top of the gopuram has a shalashikhara resembling a barrel made to rest on its side. Large life-size figures of men, woman, Gods and Goddesses adorn the gopuram. This Tamil dravida-influenced style became popular during the rule of king Krishnadevaraya and is seen in South Indian temples constructed over the next 200 years. Examples of Rayagopuram are the Chennakesava Temple in Belur and the temples at Srisailam and Srirangam. In addition to these structures, medium-size temples have a closed circumambulatory (Pradakshinapatha) passage around the sanctum, an open mahamantapa (large hall), a kalyanamantapa (ceremonial hall) and a temple tank to serve the needs of annual celebrations. Temple pillars often have engravings of charging horses or hippogryphs (Yali) — horses standing on hind legs with their fore legs lifted and riders on their backs. The horses on some pillars stand seven to eight feet tall. On the other side of the pillar are usually carvings from Hindu mythology. Pillars that do not have such hippogryphs are generally rectangular with mythology themed decoration on all sides. Some pillars have a cluster of smaller pillars around a central pillar shaft. The bottom supports of these pillars have engravings of Gods and Goddesses. Carvings of hippogryphs clearly show the adroitness of the artists who created them. The Mandapas are built on square or polygonal plinths with carved friezes that are four to five feet high and have ornate stepped entrances on all four sides with miniature elephants or with Yali balustrades (parapets). The Mantapas are supported by ornate pillars. The 1,000- pillared style with large halls supported by numerous pillars was popular. The 1,000-pillared
117 Jain basadi at Mudabidri is an example. Larger temples have a separate shrine for the female deity. Some examples of this are the Hazara Rama, Balakrishna and Vitthala temples at Hampi. Some shrines in the Vitthalapura area inside Vijayanagara were consecrated specifically for Tamil Alwar saints and for the great Vaishnava saint, Ramanujacharya. Architecturally they are different in that each shrine has an image depicting the saint for whose worship the temple was built. Each shrine has its own enclosure and a separate kitchen and pilgrim feeding hall. The water storage tank inside the royal center, the [stepwell stepped tank] called, "Pushkarni", is a recent archaeological discovery. The stepped tank is fashioned with finished chlorite schist slabs arranged in a symmetrical formation with steps and landings descending to the water on all four sides. This is clearly a Western Chalukya-Hoysala style tank and is seen in many parts of present-day Karnataka. The inscriptions on the slabs indicate the material was brought from Hampi or Hampe, also known as the Hampi Group of Monuments, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site in India's east-central Karnataka. It is the historic Vijayanagara Kingdom's lost capital, with a plethora of awe-inspiring temples. Each of the Hampi temples has its own significance, and the majority of them were constructed as per Hindu tradition. Between the 14th and 17th centuries, Hampi was the capital of the Vijayanagara Kingdom. Trade flourished, and the rulers lavished their wealth on the construction of Hampi's temples and royal enclosures. Hampi, now in ruins, gives us a glimpse into the glorious era of the Vijayanagara Empire more than 600 years ago. Over the years, tourists and visitors have flocked to this region to discover its rich history, stunning art, and picturesque scenery. Here are the 5 most magnificent temples in Hampi that you must see: Vijaya Vittala Temple: Vijaya Vittala Temple is the epicentre of Hampi's attractions. It was established in the 15th century during the reign of Devaraya II, one of the Vijayanagara Empire's monarchs, and is dedicated to Vittala, Lord Vishnu's incarnation. The temple is nestled near the banks of the Tungabhadra River in Hampi's northeastern region. The workmanship of the artisans of the Vijayanagara Empire will spellbind you once you enter the complex. The Stone Chariot and the intriguing Musical Pillars are two of the temple's most famous stone structures. The cause for the pillars making rhythmic music is unknown, yet they continue to captivate tourists worldwide. Virupaksha Temple: The oldest and most important temple in Hampi, Virupaksha Temple, was established in the 7th century AD. Dedicated to Lord Virupaksha, an aspect of Lord Shiva, the temple walls feature various inscriptions about Lord Shiva engraved in the 9th and 10th centuries. Built in the South Indian style, the temple contains large towers or gopurams that serve as doorways to the inner sanctums. The gopurams lead to numerous internal hallways and halls, all of which are ornately carved with stonework. Every year in February, when the annual chariot festival is held here, Virupaksha Temple lures numerous visitors.
118 Sasivekalu Ganesha Temple: One of the most important landmarks in Hampi's heritage city is the Sasivekalu GaneshaTemple. The inscription houses a massive statue of Lord Ganesha carved out of a single block of rock that stood around 8 feet tall and was erected in honour of King Narasimha II of the Vijayanagara dynasty. Lord Ganesha is noted in Hindu mythology for his fondness for food. As per Hindu mythology, Ganesha once ate a lot of food to the point where his tummy was about to burst. Having exhausted all other options, Ganesha grabbed a snake and tied it around his stomach to keep it from bursting apart. The snake tied around Ganesha's tummy, which can be seen on the statue, results from a mythical incident. Both the Sasivekalu Ganesha Temple and Lord Ganesha's statue are excellent examples of Indian sculpture.
119 Lakshmi Narasimha Temple: Lord Narasimha, one of Lord Vishnu's eleven avatars, is honoured at the Lakshmi Narasimha Temple. It is Hampi's largest monolith statue. During the time of King Krishnadevaraya, the magnificent temple was built in 1528 AD. Goddess Lakshmi was initially seated on Lord Narasimha's lap in the Lakshmi Narasimha Temple. However, Goddesses Lakshmi's idol was destroyed and removed after a Mughal raid in the 16th century. As a result, Lord Narasimha's idol has been known as Ugra Narasimha ever then, which is the most terrifying avatar of Lord Vishnu in the absence of Goddess Lakshmi. Ugra Narasimha is depicted as a half-lion, half-man sitting cross-legged with a ferocious face. Hampi has attracted many national and international spiritual and historical buffs ever since the medieval ruins were found. Every inch of this place bears evidence of the magnificence it once exuded.
120 Visit Hampi to witness the city’s architectural splendour by exploring the prominent temples. Get to learn about the city's antiquities and edifices that date back to the Vijayanagara Empire and still stand as a testament to the glorious era. 3 Chambered Hemakuta Hill Temple Complex: The Hemakuta group of temples is a collection of ancient temples in Hampi's Hemakuta Hill. Although built in the pre-Vijayanagara and Vijayanagara periods, the architecture of the Hemakuta complex of temples atop Hemakuta Hill is significantly different from the traditional Vijayanagara style. The Hemakuta temples are tiny three-chambered constructions with granite pyramid-like tops. Some of the temples on the hill's northern slope are built in the Trikutachala style of architecture, in which three shrines are arranged perpendicularly to one another and face a shared central hall. Many of these temples have succumbed to the ravages of time, and others are now in ruins, despite efforts by the Archaeological Survey of India to restore them to their former glory.
121 Hemakuta group of Temples, Hampi – A Cluster of Ancient Shrines The Hemakuta group of temples is a cluster of ancient temples situated on the Hemakuta hill in Hampi. The Hemakuta hill is located in the southern side of the Hampi village and the hilltop is dotted with a large number of temples. The temples on the Hemakuta Hill are among the oldest cluster of shrines in Hampi. The Hemakuta Hill as well as the group of temples situated on the hilltop are popular destinations for the tourists on the Hampi trail. Hemakuta group of temples on Hemakuta hill in Hampi. History of Hemakuta group of Temples, Hampi The Hemakuta hill is sprinkled with ancient temples that belong to both, pre-Vijayanagara as well as Vijayanagara periods. A large number of these temples dates back to 9th to 14th century and hence, belong to the era before the Vijayanagara Empire was founded. The Hemakuta Hill can be described as a canvas of stones. In the ancient times the whole hill was fortified with tall stone walls. Traces of the ruined fortification can be seen even today. The top of the hill is a stretch of rocky sheet that is almost flat. All the temples dotting the face of the hill are hundreds of years old and represent a historical era of art and culture. Mythology Associated with Hemakuta group of Temples, Hampi Most of the Hemakuta group of temples are dedicated to Lord Shiva. According to local folklore there is a mythological reason behind this. According to mythology, Lord Shiva performed penance on Hemakuta Hill before marrying a local girl named Pampa or Parvati. Lord Shiva was pleased with the dedication of the girl and consented to marry her. Due to this decision of Lord Shiva it rained gold on the hill. Since gold is known as Hema in Sanskrit, this hill came to be known as Hemakuta. Another legend has it that Hemakuta Hill was also the place where Lord Shiva had burnt Kama, the God of lust. Kama had helped Pampa to marry Shiva by distracting Shiva from his penance. This act of Kama angered Shiva and he killed Kama by emitting fire from his third eye. However, after Kama’s wife Rathi pleaded with Shiva for the life of her husband, Shiva relented. Shiva brought back Kama to life but only in character and not as a physical being. As such, Hemakuta Hill came to be deeply associated with Lord Shiva and many temples were built on the hill to worship Shiva. Architecture of Hemakuta group of Temples, Hampi The architecture of the temples on the Hemakuta Hill is quite different from the typical Vijayanagara style of architecture found in many other temples in Hampi. The Hemakuta group of temples have a distinct style of their own. These temples are often mistaken for Jain temples due to their architecture, which is in some ways similar to that of the Jain temples. As such, they are sometimes mistakenly referred to as Jain temples. The Hemakuta group of temples are compact triple chambered structures with pyramid like roofs made from granite. Some of the temples located on the northern side of the hill are built in the Trikutachala style of architecture. In this style of architecture, three shrines are placed in perpendicular position to each other face a common central hall.
122 The temples have almost plain outer walls, except for the horizontal chain of floral motifs that provide some ornamentation to the walls. A Few Popular Temples on the Hemakuta Hill, Hampi There are more than 35 temples on the Hemakuta Hill. The largest and most elaborately decorated temples are situated on the northern side of the hill and face the Virupaksha temple compound. On the way to the southern side of the hill is the ancient or the original Virupaksha temple, also known as Mula Virupaksha Temple. Though not as grand as the one built by the Vijayanagara rulers, the Mula Virupaksha Temple represents a style of architecture that was popular before the Vijayanagara style came into being. There is a small pond in the courtyard of the temple. It is one of the few ancient temples which are still under active worship. Further south, one can get an aerial view of the Krishna Temple, the Sasivekalu Ganesha, the temple of Lakshmi-Narasimha and the Badavilinga temple. There are several other temples in this area that ate built in the pre-Vijayanagara style of architecture. The beauty of the ancient temples and the relative calm of the place make it a popular spot for tourists to spend some peaceful moments on the hilltop. Present condition of Hemakuta group of Temples, Hampi Among the Hemakuta group of temples, some are in total ruins while some are in comparatively better condition. Some of the temples have partially sunk to the ground. The Archaeological Survey of India is undertaking efforts to renovate these temples and bring back their lost glory. Some of the temples that had escaped destruction during the Mughal invasions have suffered damage from the wear and tear of weather. However, the Hemakuta group of temples remain one of the major attractions in Hampi.
123 This cave is dedicated to God Vishnu. It is the largest cave in the complex. It has intricately carved friezes and giant figures of Trivikrama, Anantasayana,Vasudeva,Varaha, Harihara and Narasimha. The cave has been sculpted 48 feet deep into the mountain, fifteen feet high and it is supported by six pillars. Badami Cave Temples, cave 3, 6th century
124
125 The WOODEN GARBAGRIHA of the MALLIKARJUNA Temple in Goa Original Photographs by the author Dr Uday Dokras Jyotirlingas are sacred shrines of Lord Shiva; it is believed that Lord Shiva himself visited these places and hence they have a special place in the hearts of devotees. There are 12 of them in India. Jyotirlinga means ‘column or pillar of light’. The ‘stambha’ symbol represents that there is no beginning or end. When Lord Brahma and Lord Vishnu had an argument about who was the supreme god, Lord Shiva appeared as a column of light and asked each one to find the ends. Neither could do it. It is believed that the places where these columns of light fell is where the jyotirlingas are located. The Mallikarjuna temple in Goa is located in the far south of the state in the Canacona district. One of the 12 jyotirlingas, Mallikarjuna Jyotirlinga is in Mallikarjuna Temple and is dedicated to both Lord Shiva and his consort Goddess Parvati. History of Mallikarjuna Jyotirlinga Several rulers contributed to the building and maintenance of the Mallikarjuna Swamy temple. However, the first records appear in 1 AD in the books of the Shathavahanas empire builders.Subsequently, Ikshvakus, Pallavas, Chalukyas, and Reddis, who were also followers of the Mallikarjuna Swami contributed to the temple. The Vijayanagara Empire and Chhatrapati Shivaji also improved the shrine and temple (building the gopuram in 1667 AD) respectively.Worship was halted here during the Mughal era but resumed during the British rule. However, it was only after independence that this temple came back into prominence. What is the story behind Mallikarjuna Jyotirlinga? Lord Shiva and his consort Goddess Parvati could not make up their minds as to which of their sons, Ganesha or Kartikeya should get married first. To determine who would be first, they set a
126 contest for the two: whoever would go around the world first would be the winner.Lord Kartikeya immediately set off on his mount, the peacock. Lord Ganesha, on the other hand, went around his parents claiming that they were the world to him. It is said that going around one’s parents is equivalent to going around the world. So, he outwitted his brother and won the race. The pleased parents married their son off to Siddhi (spiritual powers) and Riddhi (prosperity). In some legends, Buddhi (intellect) is also believed to be his wife. When Lord Kartikeya heard about this on his return, he was upset and decided that he would remain unmarried. (However, in some Tamil legends he is said to have two wives.) He left for Mount Krounch and started living there. His parents visited him there and hence there is a shrine for both there – a linga for Shiva and a Shakti Peetha for Parvati. Interesting facts about Mallikarjuna Jyotirlinga  Mallikarjuna Jyotirlinga is special in that it is both a jyotirlinga and a Shakti Peetha (special shrine to Shakti Devi - there are 18 of them) – there are only three such temples in India.  It is believed that Lord Shiva appeared as Arjuna on Amavasya (No moon day) and Goddess Parvati as Mallika on Poornima (full moon day), and hence the name Mallikarjuna.  The temple is a work of architecture with its tall towers and beautiful carvings. It is also enclosed within tall walls that fortify it.  Devotees believe that visiting this temple brings them wealth and fame.  It is believed that Goddess Parvati fought the demon Mahishasura by transforming herself into a bee. Devotees believe they can still hear a bee buzzing through a hole in the Bhramaramba temple! While this temple hosts visitors throughout the year, it would be best to visit it in the winter months i.e. October to February. Visiting it during Mahashivratri (February 21st this year) would be the ultimate treat for any devotee! The Shri Mallikarjuna temple dedicated to Lord Mallikarjun, an incarnation of Lord Shiva is situated in the Sristhal village which is 7 km northeast of Chaudi in Canacona taluk in the South Goa district of Goa, India. The shrine is known to be one of the oldest in Goa and is situated amidst beautiful natural surroundings in a valley completely surrounded by mountains. The
127 temple is believed to be constructed during the middle of the 16th century, as per the writing on a plaque near the temple dome, by ancestors of the Kshatriya samaj. It was refurbished in the year 1778. The main deity of the temple is referred to as Advat Sinhasanadheeshwara Mahapati by his devotees. His consort is referred to as Devati. There are about 14 Mallikarjuna shrines spread over Goa. The striking similarity in these shrines is that all idols are in phallic shape and covered with metallic masks accompanied by Trishula. These phallic shaped wooden idols are known as Nirakar(formless) by the local population. These idols probably point to the era when Natha Sampradaya was prominent in the Western Deccan region. The lingas are believed to be Swaymbhu lingas. According to the records two ancient shrines of Mallikarjun existed in Bardez at Assgao and Pomburpa which were demolished by the Portuguese. The temple has around 60 Hindu deities and it celebrates a number of festivals with the annual jatra being the most unusual amongst most of the festivals in Goa. The temple also celebrates the festivals of Rathasaptami and Shigmotsav which attract a number of devotees.
128 Legend has it that the location of the temple was the place where Lord Shiva united with his consort Parvati after a long period of separation. Another source.. mentions that the demon Malla was fighting with one of the Pandava brothers, Arjuna. Shiva assumed the form of a hunter and killed Malla and saved Arjuna and hence the name ‘Mallikarjun'. The temple is also known as Adavat Sinhasanadhishwar Mahapati Canacona among the locals. The Linga is believed to be Swayambhu lingam, uncovered by a member of the Kunbi community while clearing the forest and it is a phallic shaped uncut stone covered with a metallic mask. The Kshatriya samaj- The temple is believed to be constructed during the middle of the 16th century, as per the writing on a plaque near the temple dome, by ancestors of the Kshatriya samaj who descended from the royal Surve family of Prachitgad near Shringarpur of Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra.This Kankunkar clan was founded by prince Kashi Purush and his band of brothers who founded the various Gharwais under Shristhal, Canacona. They were escaping from Mahmud Gawan's wrath after his father switched loyalties from Bahamani to Vijayanagara. Since Goa's Goud Saraswat Brahmins were known to work for Vijaynagara they chose to settle in Canacona. RaoRana Shurveer Suryarao(Suryaji) Surve who was respected and valued by Shivaji despite being his adversary belonged to the family that stayed back at Shringarpur after the scuffle with Mahmud Gawan and hence was extremely loyal to the Bahamanis. Architecture:The temple with its beautiful wood and silver carvings is reputed to have been erected by Habu Brahmins of the Dravidian dynasty. One can see some of the finest surviving art on the six pillars in the mantapa or the assembly hall. One of the wooden pillars in the mandapa is used as the oracle pillar in the temple. These pillars have intricate carvings with scenes from the Puranas and Mahabharat. On either side of the doors leading to the inner sanctum one can see beautifully carved silhouettes of the doorkeepers or dwarpal. The daily worship is performed by Brahmin priest only for a certain designated period and during the rest of the period, the Kunbi priests namely Velip and Zalmi perform the daily worship.[2] The ritual of hunting is associated with some of the Mallikarjuna shrines. Shisharani: This typical ritual alternates every year with the Veeramel celebration held at the time of the traditional Shigmo festival. The word Shisharani is supposed to mean a cooking place on top of a human head. This ritual involves cooking rice in an earthenware kept on the head of three men who sleep on the ground with their heads touching each other and fire is lit
129 between the heads to cook the rice. The heads are covered with wet cloth and layers of plantain trunk.a Jatra: The annual festival (Jatra) held at the temple is quite unique among the temple festivals of Goa. Early morning on the day of the festival, the idol of the deity is taken out in a procession which travels for almost 2–3 hours to reach the nearby Rajbag beach. A number of rituals including a special bath for the deity are held at the beach, after which the deity is taken back to the temple. Hundreds of devotees have a holy bath at the same time on the seashore. Veeramel: This celebration is held once every two years at the time of the traditional Shigmo festival. During this celebration which occurs close to midnight, selected local youth who are called Gade, rush from house to house with swords in their hands followed by people with drums and other musical instruments. swayambhu Idol of this temple: Often, the word swayambhu is used to describe a self manifested image of a deity, which was not made by human hands, but instead is naturally arisen, or generated by nature. According to the Ramayana and mahabharata Vishnu called swayambhu. The word etymology of swayambhu is 'Svayam' (स्वयम्) which means 'self' or 'on its own' and 'bhu' (भू) which means 'to take birth' or 'arising'. This is applicable to the physical and tangible idols of Gods that we see or to the intangible yet existing God whom we cannot see. For example, the jyotirlingas are considered swayambhu- the idol of Venkateshwara at Tirumala and some other ones are considered Swayambu- which means they are not installed by any person but they exist on their own. The word Swayambhu is also applicable to Gods- for example- Vishnu is described as swayambhu in Ramayana, Vishnu is called swayambhu in Matsya purana. Based on details in Bhagavata Purana and Matsya Purana, Narayana or Krishna is said to be the self-manifested svayambhu form of Brahman as the first cause of creation. Inside the 40 m (130 ft) high Amarnath cave, the stalagmite is formed due to freezing of water drops that fall from the roof of the cave on to the floor and grows up vertically from the cave floor. It is considered to be a Shiva Linga by Hindus. The Cave waxes during May to August, as snow melts in the Himalayas above the cave and the resultant water seeps into the rocks that form the cave and gradually wanes thereafter. As per the religious beliefs, it has been claimed that the lingam grows and shrinks with the phases of the moon reaching its height during the summer festival
130
131 TECHNICALS Architecture:The temple with its beautiful wood and silver carvings is reputed to have been erected by Habu Brahmins of the Dravidian dynasty. One can see some of the finest surviving art on the six pillars in the mantapa or the assembly hall. One of the wooden pillars in the mandapa is used as the oracle pillar in the temple. These pillars have intricate carvings with scenes from the Puranas and Mahabharat. On either side of the doors leading to the inner sanctum one can see beautifully carved silhouettes of the doorkeepers or dwarpal. TEAK CARVINGS: See above pic Most seekers who follow Bhaktiyoga (Path of devotion) for God-realisation begin their journey by worshipping a Deity. A temple is the basic requirement for puja (Ritualistic worship). Nowadays, the Devghar of Garbagriha or Sanctum is designed as per convenience or as a showpiece without giving much thought to the scientific aspect in making it. In Spirituality, there are certain scientific aspects underlying every act being performed in a specific way. This article provides details such as the direction in which the Temple should be placed, its colour, shape, aesthetics and arrangement of Deity in it according to Spirituality.
132 1. What should be the features of the Temple A. What material should the Garbhagriha or Devghar be made of ? As far as possible, the temple at home should be made of sandalwood or teakwood. Sandalwood is expensive and may not be viable for the average individual. Comparatively, teakwood is cheaper and has better ability to retain and emit sattvik (Sattva-predominant) waves. Eventually it is the bhav towards God that attracts the Divine waves to the top of the temple, which are further dispersed in the house as per the requirement. B. What should be the colour? Though the modern trend is to paint the temple at home with different colours in the name of decoration, it is ideal to retain the original colour of wood, that is, pale brown. God operates through two Principles, namely saguṇ Principle and nirgun Principle. Pale brown colour symbolises the border between the saguṇ and the nirgun, meaning the transition phase of the journey from saguṇ to the nirgun. Human beings with Panchatattvās (Five Cosmic Principles) as their constituents fall in the saguṇ category and the formless God falls in the nirguṇ category. Since a simple religious act like worship of a Deity amounts to spiritual practice, it helps the individual in traversing from the state of saguṇ to nirgun, meaning, from duality to non-duality. Obviously, the pale brown colour of the devghar is complementary to this spiritual journey. C. What should be the shape? A three dimensional body is determined by its width x depth x height. When deciding the shape of the temple at home from spiritual perspective, the dimensions can be determined from the information given ahead. These examples have been provided so as to understand the proportion. 1. Sketch 1 : ‘The proportion of ‘width x depth x height’ should be ‘2 : 1 : 4’. Proportionately other measurements are given. Terminology of measurement – 2’ : 2 feet, 8” : 8 inches, 1’ 2” : 1 foot 2 inches The distance between two poles of the temple is considered from their periphery. D. How should be the two sides ? The temple is made with the intention that the worshipper gets maximum Chaitanya from the worship of the Deities. The two sides of the temple are left open so that the Chaitanya (Divine consciousness) emitted by the devghar is not blocked and the worshipper benefits directly. This is applicable to the temple at home that is located in a common room, where all the members have free access. When the temple is in a bedroom of a couple, its sides should be closed for the following reasons. During the menstrual cycle, women are not permitted to enter a temple; because the sattvikta in the temple is likely to cause distress to them. Similarly, during their menstrual cycle they are also likely to suffer from distress due the Chaitanya emitted by the temple at home. When two sides of the temple at home are closed, the quantum of Chaitanya emitted is relatively less; hence, it suits the bedroom of a couple.
133 E. Should it have a dome ? The function of the dome is to attract and emit far and wide the waves of Chaitanya into the atmosphere. The level of bhakti (Devotion) and bhav (Spiritual emotion) in an average individual is not high. Hence, so that whatever little Chaitanya that is generated because of the worship of the Deity does not spread far and wide through the dome on the temple and the worshipper avail its benefit, it is appropriate for temple at home not to have a dome. The level of bhakti and bhav in individuals with spiritual level above 50% is high and hence, the amount of Chaitanya generated as a result of their worship of the Deity is also high. If such individuals have a high dome for their temple through the medium of this dome the Chaitanya spreads far and wide and that not only helps others, but also purifies the environment to a large extent. In this case, along with individual benefits, the broader benefit of the society is sought. 2. What should be the direction ? ‘The temple should always be in the east-west direction. When the temple faces the east, the waves emitted by the Deity get activated on the strength of kriyashakti (Energy of action) accumulated in the hollow in the east. This helps the nirgun (Non-materialised) waves of the Deity transform into saguṇ (Materialised) waves. When the kriya-shakti from the universe associated with the east-west direction manifests due to the waves emitted by the Deity, its direction is mostly upwards. The effect of the upward mobile waves on the environment lasts much longer than that of the downward mobile waves. Hence, for the effect of the sattvik (Sattva-predominant) waves emitted by the Deity to last longer, the direction of the temple at home should be east-west. On the other hand, when ichha-shakti (Energy of will) accumulated in the north-south direction gets activated, it flows downwards. This fl ow activates the tiryak waves (The Raja-Tama-predominant waves causing distress) in the environment. This causes obstruction to the sattvikta emitting from the Deity and as a result the benefit obtained by the individual when compared with the first arrangement is less.’ There is a great diversity of wood work and its techniques in Indian Art . It is possible that a grammar of decorative art might be written from the study of wood carving alone and there is a circumstantial fact that the wood and the stone carvers belong to one and same caste. This may be accepted as an additional evidence in favour of gradual production of the one form the other and that at not very ancient date. There are various techniques by which the 'Wood' has been ornamented in several specific ways such as by carving, inlaying, veneering, lacquering, etc. The art of wood carving have been greatly influenced by the grain of the timber employed, that is possible with type of woods such as teak, red wood, walnut and low relief of Sheesham and Deodar the incised design of ebony. The intricate and the ornamental details of the Sandal and the barbaric boldness of Rohira, Sal and Babul and other coarse grained and hard woods. India has a range of woods and every kind has its own particular properties of grain and strength. The skillful wood-workers has worked on it tirelessly and evolved styles and items depending on the quality of available wood and their own ingenuity to tackle it, thus creating an enormous range in wood products of all kinds. In Tamil Nadu, Virdunagar was once a traditional centre, Devakottai and Karaikudi are known to make traditional wooden panels in different sizes and Nagercoil and Suchindram have traditional carvers who make religion figures. Wood carvings are appreciated also for the special type of wood used in them, like rosewood for its
134 faint perfume like rose water and lovely ebony-black colour. Madurai is famed for rose wood carving marked by its bold style and very detail works. Tirupati area of Andhara pradesh has red sandal wood known as 'Raktachandan' which is blood coloured Sandal wood. The coppery glow in this wood brings special charm. Sandal wood from karnataka is also known for its own intrinsic quality and superb carving possibility. This region is inhabited by many of the most talented wood carvers . The technique type of carving are in the round, in relief, chip, incised and piercing. In the first the object is totally detached from main wood background such as 3D form of a human and animal figure. In relief the figure etched and raised on the background wood, which can be high or low relief. Chip consist of evolving designs by chipping the wood used mostly in ornamental and decorative work. Incised is done without ground work mostly put out flowers and creeper motifs. Pierced is for effective ornamentation in which the wood is completely cut away leaving just the design that calls for extra scale. Karnataka is also famous for Rosewood artefacts, some of the best specimen of wood work is provided by the mighty pyramidal gateway of temple. An extension of this covers Temple chariots or Rathas, as they are called. The one in which the deity is carried is called Agami and is the most heavily ornamented with numerous sculptures such as flying angels, horsemen, elephant, eagle, swan, tigers etc. Another style of ornamentation is painting and inlay, often with precious metals like silver and gold. FIVE REASONS WHY TEAK IS THE BEST WOOD FOR TEMPLES The interiors have murals and wood carvings depicting scenes from the Hindu mythology .Teak is the hardest, most durable and strongest of the hardwoods, making it the perfect material for outdoor furniture that lasts. Used in shipbuilding since the middle ages, it continues to be used today in the construction of ships and high-end yachts and boats. 1. OIL OF TEAK IS WEATHER RESISTANT An outstanding feature of teak outdoor is the ability to withstand all types of weather. It is one of the few woods in the world containing a natural oil which repels water, keeping it from warping, cracking or becoming brittle. Outdoor furniture made from teak will withstand the harsh effects of hard rains, severe winter snow storms and broiling sun without its strength diminishing. The outdoor furniture found at most high-end ski lodges is made from teak due to this wonderful quality. 2. TEAK IS PEST RESISTANT The same resins and oils that protect against weather, also serve as repellents against insects like termites and marine borers. By choosing teak, you know you wont need to worry about pests. 3. TEAK IS LOW MAINTENANCE Teak wood needs no paint or varnish. With the wood’s high oil content teak will fade to a beautiful even colored patina and will not look patchy or black. If your desire is to show off it’s showroom luster, then a natural teak sealer can be applied needed. 4. TEAK LASTS A LIFETIME There are century-old teak carvings – a testament to the durability of this wood. 5. TEAK IS BEAUTIFUL AND STAYS BEAUTIFUL When new, Teak wood has a honey brown color. Over time it will age naturally into an elegant patina grey. In it’s original state or weathered grey, the natural teak wood complements any indoor/’outdoor space with class. Further, teak never rusts. Other woods will start to rust and deteriorate when in contact with metal. Teak is one of the few woods which does not. Since many pieces of temple carvings made from teak wood have metal fittings, this is another amazing quality of this outdoor furniture which keeps it looking good for years to come.
135 Wood carving involves various techniques of removing wood from an original raw piece, and then finishing the carved object. This involve traditional carving tools, chisels, gouges, knifes, hammers, along with sanding, painting, or otherwise finishing your object. A wood carver must be able to adapt a number of basic wood carving techniques and skills to finish a project from beginning to end. Techniques used by the Wood Carver Woodworking Carving involves having the right tools, but also learning correct technique and have the right wood for any projects. Once proper technique is learned it takes time and practice to master them. Fixing Damaged Woodcarvings There are many types of damage and subsequent repair that occur on carvings. The few basic types of repairs I will address here deal with a carving in progress. The most important thing to remember about a repair is also the most challenging: the repair must be permanent and invisible. The best repair should never be seen. Poorly executed repairs can be a detriment to the appearance of a carving, so it's important to exercise as much care in their execution as you do in any other phase of carving. Carving is both a skill and an art. Why an individual carver decide how they are going to carve a piece explains why there is such variety in finished piece. Knowing what you want to accomplish in you carvings will help with the technique you use to get the work finished. After learning the basic, and trying out some simple project, anyone with advance skill can move on the wood carving for art's sake. Doing it right takes time, talent, technique, supplies.
136
137 The lion symbolism and its cultural depictions can be found in Hindu and Buddhist art of India and Southeast Asia. The lion symbolism in India was based upon Asiatic lions that once spread in Indian subcontinent as far as the Middle East. Here are seen 2 lions on the pedestal at two ends of the Main Entrance of the temple premises. Narasimha ("man-lion"), also spelt Narasingh, Narasinga, is described as an incarnation (Avatara) of Vishnu in the Puranic texts of Hinduism. It is worshiped as "Lion God" and considered sacred by all Hindus in India. Peepal tree:One can see the Peepal or fig tree in the opening portion of the property. In Latin, Ficus Religiosa (sacred fig), the peepal is sacred in Indian tradition — it is also known as the Bodhi tree or Aswatha tree. Krishna said: I am the Peepal (Aswatha in Sanskrit). Vishnu was born under such a tree.
138
139 Avatar Purush: These are actually smaller deities called Avatar Purush located at three nearby places: Asali, Khalvade and Bhatpal where they are worshipped. But once a year, they are taken in a magnificent procession at night to the main temple at Sristhal.The magnificent wooden Charioys parked in a “Garage” are used to ferry the idols from and to various holy destinations. Pulled by the youth in turns.Besides these, the temple celebrates a number of common Goan festivals like the Rathasaptami and Shigmo. Rich wood work on windows.BELOW

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3 CHAMBERED TEMPLES.docx

  • 1.
    1 Development ofthe Garbagriha DrUday Dokras Some Original Photographs by the author Dr Uday Dokras
  • 2.
  • 3.
    3 3 CHAMBEREDTEMPLES andthe Development of the Garbagriha Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen? — Nasadiya Sukta, concerns the origin of the universe, Rig Veda, 10:129-6 AYODHYSAS RAM MANDIR EVOLUTION OF FRELIGION: The exact time when humans first became religious remains unknown, however research in evolutionary archaeology shows credible evidence of religious- cum-ritualistic behavior from around the Middle Paleolithic era (45-200 thousand years ago). The use of symbolism in religion is a universal established phenomenon. Archeologist Steven Mithen contends that it is common for religious practices to involve the creation of images and symbols to represent supernatural beings and ideas. Because supernatural beings violate the principles of the natural world, there will always be difficulty in communicating and sharing supernatural concepts with others. This problem can be overcome by anchoring these
  • 4.
    4 supernatural beings inmaterial form through representational art. When translated into material form, supernatural concepts become easier to communicate and understand. Organized religion traces its roots to the neolithic revolution that began 11,000 years ago in the Near East but may have occurred independently in several other locations around the world. The invention of agriculture transformed many human societies from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a sedentary lifestyle. The consequences of the neolithic revolution included a population explosion and an acceleration in the pace of technological development. The history of Hinduism covers a wide variety of related religious traditions native to the Indian subcontinent. Its history overlaps or coincides with the development of religion in the Indian subcontinent since the Iron Age, with some of its traditions tracing back to prehistoric religions such as those of the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization. It has thus been called the "oldest religion" in the world. Scholars regard Hinduism as a synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no single founder. This Hindu synthesis emerged after the Vedic period, between ca. 500-200 BCE and ca. 300 CE. in the period of the Second Urbanisation and the early classical period of Hinduism, when the Epics and the first Purānas were composed.[12][22] It flourished in the medieval period, with the decline of Buddhism in India. The history of Hinduism is often divided into periods of development. The first period is the pre- Vedic period, which includes the Indus Valley Civilization and local pre-historic religions, ending at about 1750 BCE. This period was followed in northern India by the Vedic period, which saw the introduction of the historical Vedic religion with the Indo-Aryan migrations, starting somewhere between 1900 BCE and 1400 BCE. The subsequent period, between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions", and a formative period for Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. The Epic and Early Puranic period, from c. 200 BCE to 500 CE, saw the classical "Golden Age" of Hinduism (c. 320-650 CE), which coincides with the Gupta Empire. In this period the six branches of Hindu philosophy evolved, namely Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedānta. Monotheistic sects like Shaivism and Vaishnavism developed during this same period through the Bhakti movement. The period from roughly 650 to 1100 CE forms the late Classical period or early Middle Ages, in which classical Puranic Hinduism is established, and Adi Shankara's influential consolidation of Advaita Vedanta. The concept of God in Hinduism varies in its diverse traditions. Hinduism spans a wide range of beliefs suchmonotheism, agnosticism, atheism and nontheism. Forms of theism find mention in the Bhagavad Gita. Emotional or loving devotion (bhakti) to a primary god such as avatars of Vishnu (Krishna for example), Shiva and Devi emerged in the early medieval period, and is now known as Bhakti movement. Contemporary Hinduism can be categorized into four major traditions: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism worship Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi - the Divine Mother — as the Supreme respectively, or consider all Hindu deities as aspects of the formless Supreme Reality or Brahman. Other minor sects such as Ganapatya and Saura focus on Ganesha and Surya as the Supreme. Hindus following Advaita Vedanta consider Ātman within every living being to be the same as Vishnu or Shiva or Devi, or alternatively identical to the eternal metaphysical Absolute, called Brahman in Hinduism. Such a philosophical system of Advaita or non-dualism as it
  • 5.
    5 developed in theVedanta school of Hindu philosophy, especially as set out in the Upanishads and popularised by Adi Shankara in the 9th century has been influential on Hinduism. In the beginning there was only one God and that was Narayana or Vishnu and refused to accept any claims that other Hindu deities, such as Brahma or Shiva, might be equally the highest. A Mandir or Hindu temple is a symbolic house, seat and body of divinity for Hindus. It is a structure designed to bring human beings and gods together, using symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs of Hinduism. The symbolism and structure of a Hindu temple are rooted in Vedic traditions, deploying circles and squares. It also represents recursion and the representation of the equivalence of the macrocosm and the microcosm by astronomical numbers, and by "specific alignments related to the geography of the place and the presumed linkages of the deity and the patron". A temple incorporates all elements of the Hindu cosmos — presenting the good, the evil and the human, as well as the elements of the Hindu sense of cyclic time and the essence of life-symbolically presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksa, and karma. ARCHITECTURE & DESIGN ELEMENTS The spiritual principles symbolically represented in Hindu temples are given in the ancient Sanskrit texts of India (for example, the Vedas and Upanishads), while their structural rules are described in various ancient Sanskrit treatises on architecture (Bṛhat Saṃhitā, Vāstu Śāstras). The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism. A Hindu temple is a spiritual destination for many Hindus, as well as landmarks around which ancient arts, community celebrations and economy have flourished. Hindu temples come in many styles, are situated in diverse locations, deploy different construction methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs, yet almost all of them share certain core ideas, symbolism and themes. The current state and outer appearance of Hindu temples reflect arts, materials and designs as they evolved over two millennia; they also reflect the effect of conflicts between Hinduism and Islam since the 12th century. If we compare Hinduism with Judaism we can get a perspective on the design elements of the temple or mandir and its consequential inner sanctum where the idols are kept. 1 The Latin phrase sanctum sanctorum is a translation of the Hebrew term Holy of Holies which generally refers in Latin texts to the holiest place of the Tabernacle of the Israelites and later the Temple in Jerusalem, but also has some derivative use in application to imitations of the Tabernacle in church architecture.In Hinduism, a temple's innermost part where the cult image (Murti) of the deity is kept forms the Garbha griha, also referred to as a sanctum sanctorum. 1.This is my way of explaination which I feel comes closest to the sanctum designs. Others may find other ways to explain- all avenues are possible
  • 6.
    6 According to theHebrew Bible, the tabernacle meaning "residence" or "dwelling place", also known as the Tent of the Congregation also Tent of Meeting, etc., was the portable earthly dwelling place of Yahweh (the God of Israel) used by the Israelites from the Exodus until the conquest of Canaan. Moses was instructed at Mount Sinai to construct and transport the tabernacle with the Israelites on their journey through the wilderness and their subsequent conquest of the Promised Land. After 440 years, Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem superseded it as the dwelling-place of God. The main source describing the tabernacle is the biblical Book of Exodus, specifically Exodus 25–31 and 35–40. Those passages describe an inner sanctuary, the Holy of Holies, created by the veil suspended by four pillars. This sanctuary contained the Ark of the Covenant, with its cherubim-covered mercy seat. An outer sanctuary (the "Holy Place") contained a gold lamp- stand or candlestick. On the north side stood a table, on which lay the showbread. On the south side was the Menorah, holding seven oil lamps to give light. On the west side, just before the veil, was the golden altar of incense. It was constructed of 4 woven layers of curtains and 48 15- foot tall standing wood boards overlaid in gold and held in place by its bars and silver sockets and was richly furnished with valuable materials taken from Egypt at God's command. This description is generally identified as part of the Priestly source ("P"),written in the sixth or fifth century BCE. However while the first Priestly source takes the form of instructions, the second is largely a repetition of the first in the past tense, i.e., it describes the execution of the instructions. Many scholars contend that it is of a far later date than the time of Moses, and that the description reflects the structure of Solomon's Temple, while some hold that the description derives from memories of a real pre-monarchic shrine, perhaps the sanctuary at Shiloh.
  • 7.
    7 Traditional scholars contendthat it describes an actual tabernacle used in the time of Moses and thereafter. According to historical criticism, an earlier, pre-exilic source, the Elohist ("E"), describes the tabernacle as a simple tent-sanctuary In the Wilderness of Sinai desert, the Tablernacle was the special "tent of meeting" that God instructed Moses to build. Drawn to Bible measurements, all the important features are pointed out here in full color: the High Priest, the Brazen Altar, the Holy Place, the Holy of Holies, the Ark of the Covenant, the Pillar of Fire, etc. More than a dozen illustrations and diagrams explain the sacrificial system, symbolism that points to Jesus, and the pattern of worship. Find out the importance of these in Moses' time, Jesus' time, and today. However, For those Christian traditions which practice the rite known as Eucharist or Holy Communion, a tabernacle or sacrament house is a fixed, locked box in which the Eucharist (consecrated communion hosts) is stored as part of the "reserved sacrament" rite. A container for the same purpose, which is set directly into a wall, is called an aumbry. Within Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy and in some traditions of Anglicanism and Lutheranism, the Tabernacle is a box-like or dome-like vessel for the exclusive reservation of the consecrated Eucharist.
  • 8.
    8 So as wecan see most religions have a house of worship with a special chamber to keep the holiest physical effects that point to the idol or god and MARK HIS PRESENCE TO THE ATTENTION OF THE DEVOTEE.
  • 9.
    9 The people ofIsrael have built two temples to God in Jerusalem, and both have been destroyed. What does the Bible say about a third temple? Aerial view of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. Will a third temple be built here? (Photo by Godot13 [CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons)
  • 10.
    10 The temple ofGod in Jerusalem is a major theme in Bible history and prophecy. Since the second temple was destroyed in A.D. 70 and the temple currently does not exist in Jerusalem, many students of Bible prophecy wonder when it will be rebuilt. Because the Bible prophesies that end-time sacrifices will be halted (Daniel 12:11), many conclude the temple must be rebuilt before that can happen. What does the Bible say about the third temple and when it might be built? To really understand the third temple, it is helpful to understand the history and significance of the first two temples in Jerusalem. Solomon’s temple As promised by God, one of David’s sons, Solomon, built “the house of the LORD” (1 Kings 6:1). This temple was located on Mount Moriah in Jerusalem and is commonly referred to as Solomon’s temple. Upon completion, this temple became the center of religious worship in Israel. It lasted about 400 years from its construction during the reign of Solomon to its destruction by the Babylonians in 586 B.C. (2 Kings 25:9). The second temple After 70 years of captivity in the Babylonian Empire, the Jews, via a decree by King Cyrus, were allowed to return to Jerusalem and begin rebuilding the temple. God had prophesied this many years before Cyrus was even born. Isaiah 44:28 records a prophecy of God, “Who says of Cyrus, ‘He is My shepherd, and he shall perform all My pleasure, saying to Jerusalem, “You shall be built,” and to the temple, “Your foundation shall be laid.”’” Although the Jews began working on the temple almost immediately after their return, opposition by neighboring peoples and a laxness among the Jews themselves hindered the construction. Through Haggai the prophet, God admonished the Jews to finish the project. “Then the word of the LORD came by Haggai the prophet, saying, ‘Is it time for you yourselves to dwell in your paneled houses, and this temple to lie in ruins?’” (Haggai 1:3-4). Finally, in approximately 515 B.C. the temple was rebuilt on the same site on which it had previously stood. Many sources, such as the International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, refer to this second temple as the temple of Zerubbabel (article, “Temple”), the “governor of Judah” (Haggai 1:1) who helped coordinate its construction (Ezra 3:8; 5:2). This temple was standing when Jesus came to earth as a human, although it had undergone major renovations by King Herod. After these renovations, it was referred to as Herod’s temple.
  • 11.
    11 Altogether this buildingstood for almost 600 years until its destruction by the Romans in A.D. 70. For additional information about the location of the temple and the history of the first and second temples, see the article “Temple Mount: Its History and Future.” A third temple? Since a temple has been such an important fixture in the history of the ancient Israelites (and especially the Jews, who are also Israelites), many have wondered what the Bible says about a third temple. While the biblical texts are not always as explicit as we would like, there are three scriptural indications of another temple. Two of these represent a literal temple; the third is symbolic. Why were temples built? Why do we worship idols? The science of Temple Construction There is no set day for worship in Hinduism. That said, different deities are linked to different days of the week and may be remembered on those days. Worship is less formal than some other forms of religious worship and those attending can come and go as they please. Hindus will often worship in the early morning or evening, at home, in a temple, or during a pilgrimage. But why were temples built? Why do we worship idols? The very nature of human perception is such that, right now, whatever a human being is involved with, that will be the only truth for him in his experience. Rulers built temples to demonstrate their devotion to various deities. They also endowed temples with grants of land and money to carry out elaborate rituals, feed pilgrims and priests and celebrate festivals. Pilgrims who flocked to the temples also made donations. Various Kings who could afford to, built temples to favour their favourite deities. For example The Cola Kings built temples such as the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur which is supposed to be the greatest achievement of Chola architects and the highlight of Dravidian architecture. The temple was built by the Chola King Rajaraja I between 1003 and 1010 AD. The sculptures and inscriptions here are related to Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism. The quality of the sculpture here is also famous and the temple is one of the most visited religious sites in Tamil Nadu.
  • 12.
    12 The other exampleone can give is that of Narasingha Deva I who is mentioned as Paramamahesvara, Durga-Putra and Purushottamaputra in the Chandrashekhera temple inscription. The titles show that he was a protector and a follower of the Shaiva, Shakti and Jagannath sects during his rule. A sculpture from the Konark sun temple build by him shows bowing before the three lead deities of the sects as per his titles and a priest. The Lingaraj temple inscriptions says that he had constructed a Matha (monastery) called as Sadashiva Matha to give shelter to the fleeing refugees from Radha and Gauda after the incursion by Muslim forces there. According to the Srikurmam temple inscription, he was a sober person without any bad nature and agitation. He possessed valuable articles and was a sincere learner of art, architecture and religion. He administered the state by the traditions of Marici and Parasara while following the Niti sashtra (book of law). Due to his dedication towards faith and spirituality, he commissioned and completed the building projects for many temples like Konark, Kapilash, Khirachora Gopinatha, Srikurmam, Varaha Lakshmi Narasimha temple at Simhanchalam and Ananta Vasudeva temple which was built by the interest of his widowed sister, Chandrika. Sanskrit and Odia were both patronized as court languages during his rule and the Sanskrit masterpieces like Ekavali of Vidhydhara were written during this time. An inscription at Kapilash temple built by him compares him to the Varaha avatar (incarnation) of Vishnu who saved and raised the Vedas and the world from the oceans of uncertainty. He was the first king to use the title of 'Gajapati' or lord of war elephants among the Odishan kings. The Konark temple complex is the creation of architects of his era and is a marvel of architecture is dedicated to Indian God of Sun, Surya. The temple has been built in the shape of his chariot which is drawn by seven horses. It was built in the 13th century by Narasimhadeva. IDOL
  • 13.
    13 Murti (Sanskrit: मूर्ति,ISO: Mūrti; lit. 'form, embodiment, or solid object')[1 is a general term for an image, statue or idol of a deity or mortal in Hindu culture. In Hindu temples, it is a symbolic icon. A murti is itself not a god in Hinduism, but it is a shape, embodiment or manifestation of a deity. Murti are also found in some nontheistic Jainism traditions, where they serve as symbols of revered mortals inside Jain temples, and are worshiped in murtipujaka rituals. A murti is typically made by carving stone, wood working, metal casting or through pottery. Ancient era texts describing their proper proportions, positions and gestures include the Puranas, Agamas and Samhitas. The expressions in a murti vary in diverse Hindu traditions, ranging from Ugra symbolism to express destruction, fear and violence (Durga, Kali), as well as Saumya symbolism to express joy, knowledge and harmony (Saraswati, Lakshmi). Saumya images are most common in Hindu temples.[8] Other murti forms found in Hinduism include the linga. A murti is an embodiment of the divine, the Ultimate Reality or Brahman to some Hindus. In religious context, they are found in Hindu temples or homes, where they may be treated as a beloved guest and serve as a participant of puja in Hinduism. In other occasions, it serves as the centre of attention in annual festive processions and these are called utsava murti. The earliest murti are mentioned by Pāṇini in 4th century BCE. Prior to that the agnicayana ritual ground seemed to served as a template for the temple. Murti is sometimes referred to as murthi, or vigraha or pratima. Murti, when produced properly, are made according to the design rules of the Shilpa Shastras. They recommend materials, measurements, proportion, decoration and symbolism of the murti. Explanation of the metaphysical significance of each stage of manufacture and the prescription of specific mantras to sanctify the process and evoke and invoke the power of the deity in the image are found in the liturgical handbooks the Agamas and Tantras. In Tantric traditions, a murti is installed by priests through the Prana pratishta ceremony, where mantras are recited sometimes with yantras (mystic diagrams), whereby state Harold Coward and David Goa, the "divine vital energy of the cosmos is infused into the sculpture" and then the divine is welcomed as one would welcome a friend. According to Gudrun Buhnemann, the esoteric Hindu tantric traditions through texts such as Tantra-tattva follow elaborate rituals to infuse life into a murti. Some tantra texts such as the Pancaratraraksa state that anyone who considers an icon of Vishnu as nothing but "an ordinary object" made of iron "goes to hell”. The use of murti and particularly the prana pratistha consecration ceremony, states Buhnemann, has been criticised by Hindu groups. These groups state that this practice came from more recent "false tantra books", and there is not a single word in the Vedas about such a ceremony. A Hindu prayer before cutting a tree for a murti Oh Tree! you have been selected for the worship of a deity, Salutations to you! I worship you per rules, kindly accept it. May all who live in this tree, find residence elsewhere, May they forgive us now, we bow to them. —Brihat Samhita 59.10 - 59.11
  • 14.
    14 The artists whomake any art or craft, including murti, were known as shilpins. The formally trained Shilpins shape the murti not in accordance with fancy but in accordance with canonical manuals such as the Agamas and the Shilpa Shastras texts such as Vishvakarma. The material of construction range from clay to wood to marble to metal alloys such as panchaloha. The sixth century Brihat Samhita and eighth century text Manasara-Silpasastra (literally: "treatise on art using method of measurement"), identify nine materials for murti construction – gold, silver, copper, stone, wood, sudha (a type of stucco, mortar plaster), sarkara (gravel, grit), abhasa (marble types), and earth (clay, terracotta). For abhasa, the texts describe working methods for various types of marble, specialised stones, colours, and a range of opacity (transparent, translucent and crystal). Brihat Samhita, a 6th-century encyclopaedia of a range of topics from horticulture to astrology to gemology to murti and temple design, specifies in Chapter 56 that the pratima (murti) height should be of the sanctum sanctorum's door height, the Pratima height and the sanctum sanctorum room's width be in the ratio of 0.292, it stand on a pedestal that is 0.146 of sanctum room width, thereafter the text describes 20 types of temples with their dimensions.[35] Chapter 58 of the text describes the ratios of various anatomical parts of a murti, from head to toe, along with the recommendation in verse 59.29 that generally accepted variations in dress, decoration and dimensions of local regional traditions for the murti is the artistic tradition. Proper murti design is described in ancient and medieval Indian texts. They describe proportions, posture, expressions among other details, often referencing to nature. The texts recommend materials of construction, proportions, postures and mudra, symbolic items the murti holds in its hands, colours, garments and ornaments to go with the murti of each god or goddess, vehicles of deities such as Garuda, bull and lion, and other details. The texts also include chapters on the design of Jaina and Buddhist murti, as well as reliefs of sages, apsaras, different types of devotees (based on bhakti yoga, jnana yoga, karma yoga, ascetics) to decorate the area near the murti. The texts recommend that the material of construction and relative scale of murti be correlated to the scale of the temple dimensions, using twelve types of comparative measurements.
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    15 In Southern India,the material used predominantly for murti is black granite, while material in North India is white marble. However, for some Hindus, it is not the materials used that matter, but the faith and meditation on the universal Absolute Brahman. More particularly, devotees meditate or worship on the formless God (nirguna Brahman) through murti symbolism of God (saguna Brahman) during a puja before a murti, or the meditation on a Tirthankara in the case of Jainism, thus making the material of construction or the specific shape of the murti not spiritually important. According to John Keay, "Only after achieving remarkable expertise in the portrayal of the Buddha figure and of animal and human, did Indian stonemasons turn to producing images of the orthodox 'Hindu' deities” This view is, however, not shared by other scholars. Trudy King et al. state that stone images of reverential figures and guardian spirits (yaksha) were first produced in Jainism and Hinduism, by about 2 century BCE, as suggested by Mathura region excavations, and this knowledge grew into iconographic traditions and stone monuments in India including those for Buddhism The temples face sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee is typically this east side. The mandala pada facing sunrise is dedicated to Surya deity (Sun). The Surya pada is flanked by the padas of Satya (Truth) deity on one side and Indra (king of gods) deity on other. Temples are built for deities, not gods. Deities are “attributeless, formless” energy, or often “attributed formless” energy that can be invoked and “made resident” in any material representation - a material abstraction, personification or image. This process is known as the pranapratishta. And it is done so as to make it visible & relatable for the purpose of worship, even though we know that the process of worship is entirely internal. We are all physical or material forms of deities as there is a “life force” within us. Deities in temples are thus just a physical representation of the divinity within. Divinity has many attributes, all of which can be worshipped individually or collectively based on the objective of the specific tantric practice. So while a church is a church is a church (leave aside denominations), and a mosque is a mosque, each temple is different. Churches and mosques are not places of worship, they are places of congregation. A temple however, is always a place of worship, never a place of congregation.
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    16 The form andfunction of temples is thus very variable, though they are often considered by believers to be in some sense the "house" of one or more deities. Typically offerings of some sort are made to the deity, and other rituals enacted, and a special group of clergy maintain, and operate the temple. Deities at our Temples As a universal concept Hinduism accepts all formulations of Truth, According to the universal view there is only One Reality, but no particular name shape or form can adequately describe that Reality. Though Truth is One it is also Universal, not an exclusive formulation It is an inclusive Oneness – a spiritual reality of the Supreme Being – Consciousness – Bliss, which could be called God but which transcends all names and forms. The different Gods and Goddesses of Hinduism represent various functions of this One Supreme Divinity, and they are not separate Gods. Acceptance of other faiths, tolerance and pluralism are obvious corollaries to this great socio-religious principle of antiquity, Around the 6th century BC, the great Hindu philosopher, Adi Shankara grouped the various forms of worship in Sanatana Dharma (Eternal code of conduct, Hinduism) into six sects (Shanmathas). They are:  Ganapathyam … The devotion to Lord Ganesha,  Saivam … The devotion of Lord Siva.  Vaishnavam … The devotion to Lord Vishnu.  Sauram … The devotion to the Sun God, or Fire.  Shaktham … The devotion to Sri Shakti (Durgaji)  Kaumaram … The devotion to Lord Kartikeya Our temple has physical representations of all of the above except the Sun God. However, during Yajnas, Homas and other Poojas, we always worship the Fire God. Minor Deities Administrative Gods Indra, “the King of Heaven,” was apparently very popular in early Vedic Hinduism and is considered to be in charge of the administrative demigods. Here he is offering his obeisances to Lord Krishna in connection with the pastime, “The Lifting of Govardhan Hill.”
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    17 In addition tothe twelve main deities listed previously there are also a number of minor deities (keeping in mind that certain Hindus may consider them more exalted or even Supreme!). They are generally considered to have specific roles within this universe. The main ones are also considered to have charge over the eight directions, beginning with the East and moving clockwise (i.e. Indra is in charge of the East, Agni the South East,Yama the South, etc.).  Indra: King of Heaven/ god of rain  Agni: deity in charge of fire  Yama: deity presiding over death  Surya: presiding deity of the sun  Varuna: presiding deity of water  Vayu: presiding deity of the wind (air)  Kuvera: treasurer of the demigods (god of wealth)  Soma (Chandra): presiding deity of the moon These deities are usually associated with earlier, “Vedic” Hinduism, and are rarely worshipped today, except perhaps Surya. Still prominent, especially in South Indian temples, is the worship of the “nine planets”. Minor Deities Deva or devata means demigod. Sthala-devata specifically refers to a minor deity who has jurisdiction over a particular place – a river, forest or village. They are often worshipped in village shrines. A popular deity is Sitala (right), the goddess of smallpox, who is worshipped in the hope of avoiding the disease Other “Higher Beings” There are many other lesser deities and higher beings, who often appear in the various stories. These include:  The Asuras (demons) who always fight  The Devas (the gods or demigods)  The Apsaras (celestial nymphs)  The Nagas (celestial serpents)  The Gandharvas (heavenly singers)  The Rakshasas (a race of man-eaters)  The Prajapatis (progenitors of mankind) “Modern” Deities
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    18 Some deities haverisen to prominence more recently. They include:  Santoshi Ma – the goddess of contentment, worshipped mainly by ladies  Ayyappan – popular in Kerala, he is considered the son of Shiva and Mohini (the female incarnation of Vishnu) Construction of a Temple The main deity was often complemented by one or more minor deities carefully positioned along the path of approach to the main deity. Looking at these structures, it is apparent that the temples were built to a certain pattern, certain understanding, and purpose, catering to the needs of the individual and the society. Scientific reasons for visiting the temples There are thousands of temples all over India in different size, shape, and locations but not all of them are considered to be built in a Vedic way. It is said that in the ancient times, a temple should be located at a place where the earth magnetic wave path passes through densely. How the energy quotient of a place was measured is not known but keeping in mind the lost advance science fundas of our ancient saints, they would have figured a way out. Location of the diety Temples are located where there is positive energy available from magnetic and electric wave distributions of north or south pole thrust. The main idol is placed in the core center of the temple. In fact, the temple structure is built after the idol has been placed. The place of the deity is where earth's magnetic waves are found to be maximum. There is a metal plate beneath the statue Did you notice a copper place beneath the main idol in the temples? what could be the reason for this? It is believed that these copper plates absorb the magnetic force and radiates it to the surroundings. The person visiting the temple would receive the beamed magnetic waves. This a very slow process and a regular visitor would eventually start feeling the positive vibes. The holy water The curd, honey, milk, sugar and coconut water made by which we clean the copper idol is believed to make the amrit a blessing. Moreover, the holy water that comprises basil leaves and karpor(camphor) help to fight diseases like cold and cough. The magic of temple bells A temple bell is another scientific phenomena; it is not just your ordinary metal; It is made of various metals earth including cadmium, lead, copper, zinc, nickel, chromium, and manganese. The proportion at which each one them mixed is real science behind a bell. Each of these bells is made to produce such a distinct sound that it can create unity of your left and right brain. What happens when you ring the temple bell The moment you ring the bell, it produces the lasting sound which lasts for a minimum of seven echo mode which is good enough to touch your 7 healing chakras. Th ebreian empties all your thoughts. Invariably you enter into a state of trans where you are very receptive. the trans-state the one with awareness. Temples as places of energy Charging: Don't just visit the temple, sit. The belief is never to visit the temple and go. traditionally, the belief is that one who visits and goes the visit would be fruitless. This is so because temples are built like a public charging place, people can charge themselves with their inner energies. People visited the temple before they entered into their daily work so that they could go about with a certain sense of balance and depth in their lives. No Footwear in Temple. Temples are a place where it contains pure vibrations of magnetic and electric fields with positive energies. In olden days the floor at the center of the temple were good conductors of these positive vibration allowing them to pass throughout feet to the body. Hence it is necessary to walk barefooted while you enter the core center of the temple. Parikrama The idol inside the chamber absorbs all the energy from the bell sound., Camphor heat and vibrates the positive energy within the chamber for a certain duration of time. When you do the
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    19 circumambulation at thispoint of time, you tend to absorb all these positive vibrations once your five senses are activated. https://www.thehansindia.com/life-style/spiritual/temple-thursdays-temple- science-shocking-science-behind-hindu-temples- 541564?infinitescroll=1https://shekharsk.wordpress.com/shocking-science-behind-hindu-temples/ Earth’s magnetic fields and Temple Construction and Location -AUTHOR Saarthak Dulgaj in Culture-Vulture, Sci-Tech, Society, 2020 Earth is a giant magnet. It has magnetic North and South poles, where the magnetic field of lines are in a dense state. People who claim dense magnetic field in temples fraudulent because they don’t have any measurement to prove their claims. It is impossible to find a magnetic field in dense state at a small place such as the moolasthanam. Magnetic poles are spread over kilometres. Earth’s liquid iron core convects because it is heated from beneath by the inner core. Because iron is a metal and conducts electricity (even when molten), its motion generates a magnetic field. Earth’s magnetic field is defined by north and south poles representing lines of magnetic force flowing into Earth in the northern hemisphere and out of Earth in the southern hemisphere (Figure 3.15). Because of the shape of the field lines, the magnetic force is oriented at different angles to the surface in different locations. The tilt, or inclination of magnetic field lines is represented by the tilt of compass needles in Figure 3.15. At the north and south poles, the force
  • 20.
    20 is vertical. Theforce is horizontal at the equator. Everywhere in between, the magnetic force is at an intermediate angle to the surface. In Advances in Residential Design Related to the Influence of Geomagnetism,Francisco Glaria et al, (Int J Environ Res Public Health.(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5858456/) 2018 ) describe that geomagnetic aspects can affect health of humans if the geomagnetic field variability of the rest of the variables exceeds the minimum required dosimetry and one can conclude that the causes of architectural components that can influence, to a greater or lesser extent, geomagnetic field variability are as follows:  The arrangement of parking spaces in the basement floors of the building.  The arrangement of metal masses in the basement floors of the building.  Variability in storm water due to the flow of underground streams. You may have come across many articles and videos where they give scientific reasons behind the geography and architecture of temples. Their choice of explanation makes you feel that it is very scientific — they cleverly use appealing scientific words like energy, vibration, magnetic field and electric field, amongst others. The most persistent rumour is that temples were purposely constructed at a place where the Earth’s magnetic wave densely pass through. Apparently, these temples are located strategically at a place where there is abundant positive energy from the magnetic and electric wave distribution of the north/south pole thrust. Before jumping into the discussion about myths on Hindu temples, first, we should try to understand how these magnetic fields and electric fields originated on Earth and how they interact with the human body. As we know, iron is a magnetic material and the Earth’s core is filled with iron in a molten state, which generates a magnetic field on Earth. This is why we call our blue planet a giant magnet. Earth is surrounded by an infinite number of charged particles, or ions, and these particles, present in the core of Earth, are the source of electric field lines.
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    21 F= qE +q(v x B), where F is the force exerted by the electric field E and magnetic field B on the charged particle q moving with the velocity v. This is the famous Lorentz Equation that describes the effect of the magnetic and electric field on charged particles. The first term is contributed by the electric field, while the second is contributed by the magnetic field. Our body contains charged particles, and nerve cells communicate through electric signals, which can get affected by the magnetic and electric field. Now, let’s talk about some myths surrounding Hindu temples.-Temples are found deliberately at places where abundant positive energy is available from the magnetic and electric wave conveyances of north/south post push. The main idol is placed at the core centre of the temple, known as ‘Garbhagriha’, ‘Garbhagriya’ or ‘Moolasthanam’. In fact, the temple structure is built after the idol has been placed. This moolasthanam is where Earth’s magnetic waves are found to be maximum. Positive energy? What does that really mean? It sounds very scientific and attractive, surely. Energy is the measurement of the ability to do work. If this magnetic field is concentrated in temples and gives out so-called positive energy, then people who live at the magnetic poles must have this energy, too. “Copper plates are buried at the moolasthanam that absorb the Earth’s magnetic field and radiate it out to the surroundings.” Copper is a non-magnetic material, whereas iron, cobalt and nickel are attracted to magnets, as their magnetic permeability is very high. Copper doesn’t radiate magnetic field lines. “Remove footwear before entering the temple because temples are places that contain pure vibrations of magnetic and electric fields with positive energy. It will be easy to pass positive energy through the feet.” There is nothing like positive or negative vibrations. Vibrations are simply vibrations — the to and fro motion of particles. Superconductors are the only materials that show obstacles to a magnetic field. Magnetic field lines can penetrate any material except superconductors. Our body contains charged particles that can be affected by the magnetic field. If this magnetic field gives out so-called positive energy, then it will be better to go to the magnetic North or South poles. And surely, people who live there must be full of this positive energy. In Temple Science- Shocking science behind Hindu Temples -Suhasini Reddy says that the purpose behind building Temples is to create a pathway between the divine and the human- a link between God and Man. The building f temples is not just a mere art; it is a science involving every single facet of it - from the size of the idol to the directions and the sanctum.Temple architecture is and was -a highly developed science. India is the country which is known for its rich Hindu Culture and Tradition. There are hundreds of mesmerizing Hindu temples across the country in different design, shape, locations; but not all temples are built as described in Vedic literature. Temples are found deliberately at a place where the positive energy is available abundantly from the magnetic and electric wave conveyances of north/south post push. The idol of God is set in the core center of the temple, known as" Grabhagriha" or "Moolasthanam". Ideally, the structure of the temple is built after the idol has been placed in a high positive wave centric place.
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    22 In olden days,temples were built in such a way that the floor at the center of the temple were good conductors of these positive vibrations allowing them to pass through our feet to the body. Hence it is necessary to walk barefooted while you enter the center of the temple. Five senses of the body get activated when you are inside the temple if the positive energy inside the temple is absorbed properly that is only if you ensure that all the five senses are activated in your body while in the temple. The senses of the Human Body are Sight, Hearing, Taste, Sight, And Smell. Also, the place of worship is said to be pleased only if your five senses are pleased. A Temple is more than a Building. People put aside any constraints of money to erect inspiring structures which we can say are built on faith, science, and mystery. For most of us, the science of temples built on thousands of years of research and development has been lost.By understanding the science of Indian temples, one can experience the intelligence, power, and miracles that these structures were made from and for. The Divine aspects of a Temple: The temple is comprised of five senses and a presiding deity. The temple is an outgrowth of the deity which has its own independent intelligence and from which energy is constantly radiating. Temples are places where mind spontaneously moves within and meditation happens effortlessly. Every aspect of the temple, from the architecture to the rituals to the kinds of worship offered, has been consciously created to make this experience happen. Energy Centres If you look into the ancient past and the temples, it reveals the fundamental science and purpose behind temple building. Far from being a place of prayer or worship, temples were created as powerful spaces where an individual could imbibe the enshrined energies. Most temples were created to address a particular aspect of life and were thus consecrated to activate one or two particular chakras, the main energy centers within the human system. The chakra means “wheel” and refers to energy points in your body. They are thought to be spinning disks of energy that should stay “open” and aligned, as they correspond to bundles of nerves, major organs, and areas of our energetic body that affect our emotional and physical well-being. Deities are not gods! They are just the mirrors of spiritual reality Vedic Temple design A temple has a very unique design according to Hindu mythology. The construction of a normal house and a temple are very different. There are many points which are to be taken care of while constructing a temple. It is supposed to be connected with the nature, the universe and the Supreme Power that is controlling and driving the whole universe. We specialize in in the designing of Vedic temples. We take care of all the important points that are to be considered while constructing a fruitful Temple. A temple is considered to be a place where we connect ourselves with gods. If there is any error in building a temple, the results are exactly opposite. A temple must be promote the constructive elements of the universe and control the negative energies. The purpose of the Vedic Knowledge of Sthåpatya Veda—Våstu Vidyå—is to maintain individual life in harmony with Cosmic Life, and save the individual from being torn apart by the disharmonious influence of the surroundings he has created around him—his house, his village, his city, etc.
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    23 This is beingmentioned here to explain the need for everyone in the world to live and workin an auspiciousVåstubuilding and enjoythe supportof NaturalLaw in daily life.In Vedic Architecture, the geographical centre of the country holds special significance for the support of Natural Law for the progressand prosperity of the whole country.ThisscienceofVedicArchitectureisnotamatter ofbelief orfaith; it is asconcrete as the burning nature of fire and the cooling nature of ice. Selecting the site We first of all examine the site to consider it to be perfect for the site for a temple. It is not an individual’s choice. One must consider the presence of other temples. If there is temple of a particular God, it is advisable to build another Temple of some other god or goddess. This is to help the society. Temples are not built only to fulfill an individual’s wish. Suppose a temple is being built to give a tribute to a beloved person whose soul is taking a rest in peace, then the site of the temple must be definitely taken care of. Facilities available near the temples must be considered. There has to be water supply 24 by 7. The soil has to be fertile. If all these parameters are getting fulfilled, then only our architects and sculptors approve the site.
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    25 Direction of Idols Wetake good care of the direction of the placement of the deities and idols. There are different stories associated with the direction of different Gods and Goddesses. If they are placed in the respective directions, the results achieved are quick according to Vedic astrology. For example, the idols of most of the Gods and Goddesses are south facing or west facing but the idol of Lord Hanuman must be placed in the manner it faces the north direction. It is so because Lord Hanuman went to Sri Lanka and got victory over Sri Lanka. It is in the south direction. Therefore, Lord Hanuman was victorious in the southern direction. Thus, it is believed that if we worship the idol of Lord Hanuman that faces the north direction shall give the best results. It is also said that, the direction of riddles actually does not matter but it is the direction of the human beings that matters. We must face the north and the east direction while worshipping. There is one more reason to support the placement of most of the idols in north east direction. There is magnetism in this direction of any place, be it a house or a temple. We need to attract the Gods, therefore we plce their idols in this direction so that the idols for the souls of the Gods can remain attracted to the place with the help of magnetism. Determining the size Before beginning the construction, we determine the size of the idol or the deity that is to be built. There is a dome that is built in correspondence with the temple. A Hindu temple is believed to have the dome for sure. After determining the size of the idol, the architect will make a complete plan and then the construction will begin. Ganesh Pooja and Vastu Pooja We Indians never begin anything without worshipping Lord Ganesha. After worshipping Lord Ganesha, we also go for Vastu Pooja to please Vastu Devta. It is very necessary to do everything in the construction of a temple absolutely correctly. It is said that, what starts well, gets
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    26 completed perfectly. Consideration ofVedic astrology We consider Vedic astrology at every step of construction. Every inch is constructed keeping in mind the rules and regulations mentioned by the Vedic Shastra. Our architects and sculptors are well trained in all the aspects that are to be considered as per Vedic astrology. Using the Nakshatra Before the construction of the temple takes place, our Vedic astrologers check. The Nakshatra of the founder of the temple. It has to be in correspondence with the possibilities or yog of construction of a temple. The Nakshatra of the place or the village is also taken into consideration. Material used The kinds of material that are used for the construction of a temple are gold, silver, copper, etc; but not iron. Iron attracts negative energy. It is very necessary to avoid the usage of iron. In case iron is used in the construction of the temple, it becomes necessary to make sure that all other particulars are followed while building the temple so that it can attract the positive energy only. Formation of grid While building the temple, it is very necessary that there must be strict grids. The grids are made up of equilateral Triangles and squares. Everything has a very strong and in-depth religious significance. Even if we do not know the scientific reason behind it, we don’t hesitate in
  • 27.
    27 following it becausewe have complete faith in Vedic astrology. There must be either 64 or 81 squares. The idol of the temple is with the square that is in the center. The plan or GRID The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to Vastupurusamandala. The 64 grid is the most sacred and common Hindu temple template. The bright saffron centre, where diagonals intersect above, represents the Purusha of Hindu philosophy. The design, especially the floor plan, of the part of a Hindu temple around the sanctum or shrine follows a geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala. The name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan. Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling structure. Vastupurushamandala is a yantra.[32] The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles. The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a perfect square in the space available. The circle of mandala circumscribes the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other. The square is divided into perfect square grids. In large temples, this is often a 8x8 or 64 grid structure. In ceremonial temple superstructures, this is an 81 sub-square grid. The squares are called ‘‘padas’’. The square is symbolic and has Vedic origins from fire altar, Agni. The alignment along cardinal direction, similarly is an extension of Vedic rituals of three fires. This symbolism is also found among Greek and other ancient civilizations, through the gnomon. In Hindu temple manuals, design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate on, do yoga, or make
  • 28.
    28 offerings with Vedicfire in front. The second design of 4 padas has a symbolic central core at the diagonal intersection, and is also a meditative layout. The 9 pada design has a sacred surrounded centre, and is the template for the smallest temple. Older Hindu temple vastumandalas may use the 9 through 49 pada series, but 64 is considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is also called Manduka, Bhekapada or Ajira in various ancient Sanskrit texts. Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity or to a spirit or apasara. The central square(s) of the 64 is dedicated to the Brahman (not to be confused with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas In a Hindu temple's structure of symmetry and concentric squares, each concentric layer has significance. The outermost layer, Paisachika padas, signify aspects of Asuras and evil; the next inner concentric layer is Manusha padas signifying human life; while Devika padas signify aspects of Devas and good. The Manusha padas typically houses the ambulatory. The devotees, as they walk around in clockwise fashion through this ambulatory to complete Parikrama (or Pradakshina), walk between good on inner side and evil on the outer side. In smaller temples, the Paisachika pada is not part of the temple superstructure, but may be on the boundary of the temple or just symbolically represented. The Paisachika padas, Manusha padas and Devika padas surround Brahma padas, which signifies creative energy and serves as the location for temple's primary idol for darsana. Finally at the very centre of Brahma padas is Garbhagruha(Garbha- Centre, gruha- house; literally the centre of the house) (Purusa Space), signifying Universal Principle present in everything and everyone.[2] The spire of a Hindu temple, called Shikhara in north India and Vimana in south India, is perfectly aligned above the Brahma pada(s). A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core of the temple. These spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have mathematical precision and geometric symbolism. One of the common principles found in Hindu temple spires is circles and turning-squares theme (left), and a concentric layering design (right) that flows from one to the other as it rises towards the sky. Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the formless shapeless all pervasive all connecting Universal Spirit, the Purusha. This space is sometimes referred to as garbha- griya (literally womb house) - a small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space without ornamentation that represents universal essence. In or near this space is typically a murti. This is the main deity image, and this varies with each temple. Often it is this idol that gives it a local name, such as Vishnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana temple, Siva temple, Lakshmi temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple, and others. It
  • 29.
    29 is this garbha-griyawhich devotees seek for ‘‘darsana’’ (literally, a sight of knowledge, or vision[). Above the vastu-purusha-mandala is a high superstructure called the shikhara in north India, and vimana in south India, that stretches towards the sky.[31] Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the superstructure may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical dimension's cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid, conical or other mountain-like shape, once again using principle of concentric circles and squares (see below). Scholars such as Lewandowski state that this shape is inspired by cosmic mountain of Mount Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of gods according to its ancient mythology. Mandapa of a temple in South India. Much temple sculpture was originally painted. In larger temples, the outer three padas are visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images meant to inspire the devotee. In some temples, these images or wall reliefs may be stories from Hindu Epics, in others they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice, in some they may be idols of minor or regional deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life—kama, artha, dharma, and moksa. This walk around is called pradakshina. Large temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapa may be a separate structure in older temples, but in newer temples this space is integrated into the temple superstructure. Mega temple sites have a main temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. An important principle found in the layout of Hindu temples is mirroring and repeating fractal-like design structure, each unique yet also repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as “an organism of repeating cells” Exceptions to the square grid principle Predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect square grid principle. However, there are some exceptions. For example, the Teli ka Mandir in Gwalior, built in the 8th century CE is not a square but is a rectangle consisting of stacked squares. Further, the temple explores a number of structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting the architect intended to use these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and Nakti-Mata temple near Jaipur, Rajasthan. Michael Meister states that these exceptions mean the ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in expression and aesthetic independence.
  • 30.
    30 The Hindu textSthapatya Veda describes many plans and styles of temples of which the following are found in other derivative literature: Chaturasra (square), Ashtasra (octagonal), Vritta (circular), Ayatasra (rectangular), A yata Ashtasra (rectangular-octagonal fusion), Ayata Vritta (elliptical), Hasti Prishta (apsidal), Dwayasra Vrita (rectangular-circular fusion); in Tamil literature, the Prana Vikara (shaped like a Tamil Om sign, ) is also found. Methods of combining squares and circles to produce all of these plans are described in the Hindu texts. Entrance: North or East It is preferred that the entrance of the temple must be in the east direction. It means that the sunlight of the rising Sun must enter the temple. Sunlight has the power to kill the bacteria and microbes present in the air. Therefore it is very good, if sunlight can enter the temple. The purity of a place is decided with cleanliness. All the rights and rituals are directed towards killing the bacteria and microbes and ultimately the negative energy. This makes the environment positive and therefore people feel nice and light-hearted when they come to a temple. If it is not possible to make the entrance of the temple from the east direction, at least it must be the north direction. Major elements of a temple There are four important elements of a temple. The first one is the porch. The porch has to be at the entrance of the temple. The second element is a Mandap or hall. This Mandap can be attached with the temple or detached. But it has to be there. The third element happens to be Garbh Griha. It can be understood as the womb chamber or the inner sanctum. The fourth element is the Dom or the tower that is constructed directly above the womb chamber. Importance of proper orientation It is very necessary to understand that a temple that is not built in in accordance with the proper orientation may bring misfortunes. Please take the services of Himani Agyani to save you from the destructive results. Show that whenever the spiritual rites and rituals are performed, only the positive results and blessings I received by the people. If the construction does not take place in the right manner, it will be difficult for the souls of human beings to get connected with the souls of gods and it will result in the attraction of negative energy. Checking the geo thermal energy
  • 31.
    31 Every place hasits own geo thermal energy. We take care of the different kinds of energies and the construction of the temple should take in the manner that the negative energies get purified and the temples constructed give the positive results. First used in Italy in 1904, geothermal has been a consistent – and expanding – source of energy in recent years. According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), geothermal energy has grown steadily from around 10GW worldwide in 2010 to 13.3GW in 2018. So what is geothermal energy, how does it work and where is it prevalent? Where does geothermal energy come from? Geothermal energy is the heat that comes from the sub-surface of the earth. It is contained in the rocks and fluids beneath the earth’s crust and can be found as far down to the earth’s hot molten rock, magma. To produce power from geothermal energy, wells are dug a mile deep into underground reservoirs to access the steam and hot water there, which can then be used to drive turbines connected to electricity generators. There are three types of geothermal power plants; dry steam, flash and binary. Dry steam is the oldest form of geothermal technology and takes steam out of the ground and uses it to directly drive a turbine. Flash plants use high-pressure hot water into cool, low-pressure water whilst binary plants pass hot water through a secondary liquid with a lower boiling point, which turns to vapour to drive the turbine. Where it’s used Geothermal energy is used in over 20 countries. The United States is the largest producer of geothermal energy in the world, and hosts the largest geothermal field. Known as “The Geysers” in California, the field is spread over 117 square kilometres and formed of 22 power plants, with an installed capacity of over 1.5GW. The energy source is also prevalent in Iceland, where it has been used since 1907. Describing itself as a ‘pioneer’ of geothermal power, the country produces 25% of its energy from five geothermal power plants. This is due to the 600 hot springs and 200 volcanoes in the country. Problems due to wrong construction There can be many problems faced by the founder of the temple or the family associated with the temple if there is any error in construction of the temple or the placement of the idol or statue. 1) Restlessness and tensions at home and workplace 2) Health issues 3) More unnecessary expenses 4) Poor relations among family members 5) Poverty, anxiety, aggression and constant fear 6) Unnecessary struggle 7) Less income
  • 32.
    32 Intricacy: The prominentfeature The designs of the temples must be highly intricate. You can see the complexity in the designs of the temples in the ancient times also. It is very minute work. It takes a long time and effort to construct a temple. It is not so easy to create the complex designs with accuracy. Himani Agyani has a lot of experience in designing such intricate temples.
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    33 Very few peopleknow that in the Hindu temple, once ot is concecrated, the diety is supposed to live in the sanctum sanctorum as if a living bring,hence the temple closes in the afternoon to let the God take a nap;closes at night, the clothes of the diety are changed and he is given a bath etc. Even during doing a puja at home or in the temple, bathing is a pronounced ritual. Hindu kings had a close link between the deities they worshipped and their own political authority. As Richard H. David, professor of Religion and Asian Studies, Bard College, writes in his essay, Indian Art Objects as Loot, “In the prevailing ideological formations of medieval India, worshippers of Vishnu, Shiva, or Durga considered ruling authority to emanate from the lord of the cosmos downward to the human lords of more limited domains such as empires, kingdoms, territories, or villages.” Shared sovereignty From this perspective, the king and the deity had a shared sovereignty; the king’s authority was legitimised because it emanated from the deity he patronised. This conception turned the deity into the most exalted symbol of the state. To vanquish the king was therefore not enough. Victory was complete only when the victorious took away the state deity, effectively sundering the vanquished from the very source from which he drew his authority. As early as 642 CE (or Common Era, equivalent to AD), the Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman I vanquished the Chalukyas, sacked their capital of Vatapi, and brought the image of Ganesha to his kingdom in Tamil Nadu. The image acquired the sobriquet of Vatapi Ganapati. At times, temple images passed on from one king to another because of their fortunes fluctuating in battlefields, known to us because of the inscriptions proudly detailing who the previous owners were. Thus, in 950 CE, the Chandella ruler Yashovarman built the Lakshman temple at Khajuraho to house the Vishnu Vaikunth, made of gold. This image was obtained from Mount Kailash by the “Lord of Tibet”, from whom the Sahi King of Orissa wrested it. It was seized from the Sahis after they were defeated by the Pratihara ruler Herambapala. Yashovarman then overwhelmed Herambapala’s son, Devapala, and ferreted it away to Khajuraho.
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    34 Among the mostcharming stories of image appropriation is one narrated by the Buddhist chronicler Dhammakitti. According to him, the Pandyan ruler Srimara Srivallabha invaded Sri Lanka around 835 CE and routed the army of the Sinhala king, Sena I, who fled to the mountains. Srimara plundered the royal treasury and took away, among other things, “the statue of the Teacher (Buddha)”, which had been made in gold and placed on a pedestal in the Jewel Palace about 50 years earlier. Once the Pandyan army departed, Sena I returned and, to quote Prof Davis, “took up sovereignty once again, but sovereignty of a decidedly diminished nature.” Sena I was succeeded by his nephew, Sena II (ruled between 851-885 CE), who found it odd that the pedestal was empty and asked his ministers about it. Dhammakitti quotes ministers telling Sena II, “Does the king not know? During the time of your uncle…the Pandyan king came here, laid waste to the island, and left, taking that which had become valuable to us.” On hearing this Sena II felt so ashamed he ordered the minister to assemble troops forthwith. By then, the Pandyan army had been weakened because of the three battles it had fought against the Pallavas. The Lankan army swept its way to Madurai, and Srimara died of the wounds sustained in the conflict. The Lankan army entered Madurai, sacked the city, and took back the gold statue of the Buddha. Amidst much festivity, the statue was placed on the pedestal in the Jewel Palace. Prof Davis sees a deeper meaning between the image and sovereignty. As he writes, “The stolen image, disclosed to the young king by its empty pedestal, serves as an objectification of defeat not only for his uncle, who had suffered the loss, but for the very institution of Sinhala sovereignty.” Voluntary gifting of images to a challenging power implied accepting his superiority. A couple of decades before the expropriation of the statue of Buddha, the rise of the Rashtrakuta king Govinda III alarmed the Lankan king Aggabodhi VIII into buying peace. He sent to Govinda two images. The meaning of this voluntary submission a Rashtrakuta inscription celebrates thus: “Govinda received from Lanka two images of their Lord and then set them up” in a Shiva temple at his capital city of Manyakheta, “like two pillars of his fame.” Image appropriation Another charming instance of image appropriation is the insistence of three Deccan dynasties – the Chalukyas of Vatapi, the Rashtrakutas, and the Cholas – that they brought the Ganga and Yamuna to the south. Only those who share the Hindutva literalism will believe the three dynasties had changed the course of the two rivers! Historians feel what the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas did was to appropriate the images of the two rivers often found even today at the entrance of temples of North India. Or perhaps these rivers were represented as insignias on the royal banners of the rulers from whom it was taken after their defeat. But the Chola king Rajendra I went a step further. In the 11th century, his army defeated an array
  • 35.
    35 of rulers inthe North and reached the banks of the holy river Ganga. Chola inscriptions will have us believe that the vanquished were made to carry water in golden pots all the way to the South. A “liquid pillar of victory” made of Ganga water, called the Chola-Ganga, was constructed in the new capital city of Gangaikondacholapuram, or the city of the Chola king who took the Ganga, where Rajendra I also built a Shiva temple. In it were placed images he had captured from other kings – Durga and Ganesha images from the Chalukyas; Bhairava, Bhairavi, and Kali images from the Kalingas of Orrisa, a bronze Shiva image from the Palas of Bengal, etc. To this list of images the Chola kings appropriated was added yet another one in 1045 CE, when the Chola King Rajadhiraja defeated the Chalukyas, which prompted its ruler Somesvara to flee. Before reducing to ashes the Chalukyan capital of Kalyani, Rajadhiraja carted away a massive stone-guardian, made in black stone, to Gangaikondacholapuram. It is a mystery why Rajadhiraja appropriated the stone-guardian, not the presiding deity of the Chalukyas. It is suggested he was merely following a historical precedent established a good three centuries earlier. Then, roughly in the mid-eighth century, the Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga had defeated the Gurjara-Pratihara king, Nagabhata I, and marched to the latter’s capital city of Ujjain. There Dantidurga performed the royal gift-giving ceremony, the Golden-Womb ritual, for which the vanquished Nagabhata and other chieftains were compelled to serve as door-keepers. Likewise, in Kalyani, Rajadhiraja performed the ritual of Royal Consecration. Since the Kalyani ruler Somesvara had fled, he couldn’t be made to serve as a door-keeper. Therefore, Rajadhiraja took away the stone-guardian. Both Somesvara and the door-guardian were united through their failures. As Prof Davis says, “The hapless door-guardian had been unable to stop the destruction of its temple, and likewise Somesvara had failed to prevent the Chola armies from entering and destroying his capital.” As the Lord, so the king, you’d say. Demolition of temples The dominant trend in the pre-Islamic period was of Hindu kings looting temples and whisking away images, but there are also instances of demolition of temples and idols. In the early 10th century, the Rashtrakuta king Indra III destroyed the temple of Kalapriya, which their arch enemy, the Pratiharas, patronised. Then again, when the Kashmiri ruler Lalitaditya treacherously killed the king of Gauda (Bengal), his attendants sought to seek revenge. They clandestinely entered Lalitaditya’s capital and made their way to the temple of Vishnu Parihasakesava, the principal deity of the Kashmiri kingdom. However, they mistook a silver image of another deity for Parihasakesava, and took to grounding it to dust even as Kashmiri soldiers fell upon them. Though the Gaudas failed to achieve the desired result, their act of retribution does illustrate the symbolism inherent in destroying the image the ruler worshipped. “There is no question that medieval Hindu kings frequently destroyed religious images as part of more general rampages,” notes Davis.
  • 36.
    36 The above accountshows that the iconoclasm of Muslim invaders from the 11th century onwards was already an established political behaviour in large parts of India. The destruction of temples by Muslim rulers couldn’t have been consequently traumatic, as the proponents of Hindutva argue. As mentioned earlier,the oldest written references to temples are from 300 and 400 CE, and the earliest surviving temple structures date back to 500 and 600 CE. The temple was not a Vedic institution. The unique understanding in Hinduism is that God is not far away, living in a remote heaven, but is inside each and every soul, in the heart and consciousness, waiting to be discovered. And the goal of Hinduism is knowing God in this intimate and experiential way. Hinduism is both monotheistic and henotheistic. Hinduism is not polytheistic. Henotheism (literally “one God”) better defines the Hindu view. It means the worship of one God without denying the existence of other Gods. Hindus believe in the one all-pervasive God who energizes the entire universe. It is believed that God is both in the world and beyond it. That is the highest Hindu view Hinduism gives the freedom to approach God in one’s own way, encouraging a multiplicity of paths, not asking for conformity to just one. It allows people to believe in and pray to their own conceptualizations of the Divine in whatever form they choose, while at the same time elevating all of them to their ultimate reality, which is the singular omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient Divinity, who demands no allegiance, punishes no one for lack of belief, yet provides wisdom, comfort, compassion and freedom to those who seek it. All they need to do is look within, according to Ramdas Lamb, an associate professor at the University of Hawaii specializing in religious studies, mysticism, Indic religions, the interface between religions and society, and field-studies. Garbhagriha( Womb Chamber) or Deoghar( house of God) It literally means 'womb-house' and is a cave like a sanctum. In the earliest temples, it was a small cubical structure with a single entrance. Later it grew into a larger complex. The Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of much ritual attention. The garbhagriha in Hindu temple architecture (a shrine inside a temple complex where the main deity is installed in a separate building by itself inside the complex) has also been compared to a "sanctum sanctorum" in texts on Hindu temple architecture, though the Sanskrit term actually means "enclosed house" or "the deep interior of the house". However, some Indian English authors seem to have translated the Sanskrit term literally as "womb house"
  • 37.
    37 Vimana is thestructure over the garbhagriha or inner sanctum in the Hindu temples of South India and Odisha in East India. By contrast, in large South Indian temples, it is typically smaller than the great gatehouses or gopuram, which are the most immediately striking architectural elements in a temple complex. If we trace the Hindu Temple design we come across early elliptical shrines discovered in Besnagar (3rd-2nd century BCE) and Nagari (1st century BCE), may be the earliest known Hindu temple structures, associated to the early Bhagavata tradition, a precursor of Vaishnavism. The earliest preserved Hindu temples are simple cell-like stone temples, some rock-cut and others structural, as at Temple 17 at Sanchi. By the 6th or 7th century, these evolved into high shikhara stone superstructures. However, there is inscriptional evidence such as the ancient Gangadhara inscription from about 424, states Meister, that towering temples existed before this time and these were possibly made from more perishable material. These temples have not survived. Earlier structures in timber-based architecture preceded the Gupta period. and there are hardly any remains of stone Hindu temples before the Gupta dynasty in the 5th century CE, there probably were The rock-cut Udayagiri Caves (401 CE) are among the most important early sites, built with royal sponsorship, recorded by inscriptions, and with impressive sculpture.
  • 38.
  • 39.
    39 Cave like Temple Inevery religion the devotees and the designers wanted to place the image of the Diety/ God in manner most attractive to those who looked upon it. The Garbagriha of the temples shown above point towards the system of courtyard structures with assorted buildings surrounding the main diety place- much like the South Indian temples showing the universality of thought associated with Holy Structures regardless of the religion.
  • 40.
    40 The three religionsof Judaism, Christianity and Islam readily fit the definition of monotheism, which is to worship one god while denying the existence of other gods. But, the relationship of the three religions is closer than that: They claim to worship the same god. There are four main types of worship that Christians can engage in:  Liturgical worship.  Non-liturgical worship.  Informal worship.  Private worship. Hindu worship is also liturgical. In its verbal form, liturgy can be sung, chanted, repeated, or communicated in words that are grounded in a frequently sacred language such as Sanskrit for Hinduism. ... Besides reciting hymns of the various Vedic texts and singing verses of praise, priests today recite sacred mantras. PRIVATE WORSHIP IN HINDUISM A lot of Hindus worship every day at home, at a shrine in their house. Other objects placed in a home shrine can include water and diva candles or lights. The bell is rung, which indicates the start of the puja ceremony. The incense is lit, which fills the room with a scent to show that God is everywhere. What is Hindu worship at home called? Hindus may worship at home or in temples called mandirs. Hindus tend to worship at home more often than they worship in a temple. They commonly use their home shrine to make offerings. The shrine is considered the most holy area of the home. Worship at holy places – In Hinduism, worship does not need to be undertaken in a temple or other building. One important type of puja in Indian temple and private worship is arati, the waving of lighted lamps before an image of a deity or a person to be honoured. In performing the rite, the worshipper circles the lamp three or more times in a clockwise direction while chanting a prayer or singing a hymn.
  • 41.
    41 Puja Hindu worship, orpuja, involves images (murtis), prayers (mantras) and diagrams of the universe (yantras). Central to Hindu worship is the image, or icon, which can be worshipped either at home or in the temple. A shrine to Ganesh Individual rather than communal Hindu worship is primarily an individual act rather than a communal one, as it involves making personal offerings to the deity. Worshippers repeat the names of their favourite gods and goddesses, and repeat mantras. Water, fruit, flowers and incense are offered to god. Worship at home The majority of Hindu homes have a shrine where offerings are made and prayers are said. A shrine can be anything: a room, a small altar or simply pictures or statues of the deity. Family members often worship together. Rituals should strictly speaking be performed three times a day. Some Hindus, but not all, worship wearing the sacred thread (over the left shoulder and hanging to the right hip). This is cotton for the Brahmin (priest), hemp for the Kshatriya (ruler) and wool for the vaishya (merchants). At the temple for a festival Temple worship
  • 42.
    42 At a Hindutemple, different parts of the building have a different spiritual or symbolic meaning.  The central shrine is the heart of the worshipper  The tower represents the flight of the spirit to heaven  A priest may read, or more usually recite, the Vedas to the assembled worshippers, but any "twice-born" Hindu can perform the reading of prayers and mantras Religious rites Hindu religious rites are classified into three categories:  Nitya  Nitya rituals are performed daily and consist in offerings made at the home shrine or performing puja to the family deities.  Naimittika  Naimittika rituals are important but only occur at certain times during the year, such as celebrations of the festivals, thanksgiving and so on.  Kamya  Kamya are rituals which are "optional" but highly desirable. Pilgrimage is one such. Worship and pilgrimage Pilgrimage is an important aspect of Hinduism. It's an undertaking to see and be seen by the deity. Indian women worshipping Shiva on the Ganges Popular pilgrimage places are rivers, but temples, mountains, and other sacred sites in India are also destinations for pilgrimages, as sites where the gods may have appeared or become manifest in the world.
  • 43.
    43 Fig. 6. Theplate shows the evolution of the sanctum sanctorum (hereafter 'shrine') during Momentum II (ca. 460-ca. 470 ce) through Bāgh, Dhārāshiva, Mahāḍ, Ajanta, and Banōṭī. There were at least five stages: (1) stupa-shrine with ambulatory, but, without antechamber; (2) stupa- shrine with ambulatory, and, antechamber; (3) 'central block' for stupa; (4) stupa supplanted by Buddha figure; (5) central block and ambulatory supplanted by Bodhisattva, gandharva, and donor figures. The above are the earliest shrines to have been commenced after Rup-ture I in W. India (ca. 300-ca. 460 ce). Except Bāgh and Banōṭī, the above caves had begun as Type II (dormitories), but were converted midway into Type V (res-idence-cum-temple). Bāgh caves 4 and 2 were the first projects that brought Type V from the margins of Momentum I (ca. 250 bce- ca. 300 ce) and established as the most preferred variety of the rock-cut temples for all times, regions, and religions. The Bāgh blueprints had not only the shrines but also the stupas and ambulatories to which the initial planners of the above Ajanta caves were quite oblivious during the same Momentum II. Figs. 6.1-6.4: These sancta sanctorum were commenced earlier because there is no antechamber. Figs. 6.5-6.11: Commenced somewhat later because they have antechambers (in Cave 16, antechamber excavation was aborted). Figs. 6.1-6.5: Remarkably, the first rock-cut temples initiated after a gap of nearly one and a half century of Rupture I (ca. 300- ca. 460 ce) was not planned as the standard Type I (apsidal-and-vault-roofed) of Momentum I. The Bāgh planners radically chose Type V (residence-cum-temple) variety, partly because of the porous rock but mostly because Type V was much more economical and practical. One building
  • 44.
    44 was enough fortwo functions: worship and lodging. Fig. 6.2: Although a Jaina temple, Dhārāshiva Cave 2 followed the Type V variety of the Buddhists. The central block was reserved for the figure of God Pārśvanāth Śeṣaphanī, but then the work was halted due to Rupture II (ca. 470-ca. 472 ce), and the image could only be carved at the end of Momentum III (ca. late 460s- ca. 480 ce). Fig. 6.3: The older dormitory, Mahāḍ 1 (Type II.B.iii.b) was retrofitted with a stupa- shrine during Momentum II. Like Dhārāshiva 2 (Fig. 2), the ambulatory was mostly excavated while reserving the central block for the stupa. Then, the work was similarly halted due to Rupture II, and the image could only be carved at the end of Momentum III. Fig. 6.4: The erstwhile cell 'c' was re-worked to retrofit a stupa shrine. The ambulatory 'a' and stupa 's' were being ex-cavated when came the Rupture II. However, during Momentum III, the planners had changed the mind; they neither completed the stupa nor the ambulatory. Instead, a Buddha image 'b' was carved on the front of the stupa. The central block had not been concieved so far. Fig. 6.5: The shrine-antechamber, first seen in Nasik Cave 17 (Burgess No. 2) of Momentum I was re- introduced. From here on it became a standard component of the Indian temple architecture. Whereas the same could not have been retrofitted in the shrines already excavated (Figs. 1-4) it was retrofitted in those that commenced a bit later (Figs. 7-10). Fig. 6.6: The shrine of Ajanta Cave 16 had five distinct stages: (1) The doorways of the five rear cells 'c' having equal gaps among them were already excavated before the frenzy of converting Type II into Type V gripped Ajanta. (2) After Bāgh Cave 2, a shrine antechamber was planned for retrofitment, which was partly excavated with two antechamber pillars. (3) But, the work on the antechamber was abort- ed for unknown reason. (4) Focus now to carve out the stupa and ambulatory. From the available matrix of rock a 'central block' was somehow shaped up for the stupa, which automatically created the so-called ambulatory. The adjacent cells posed limitations. So, they worked on the walls in between to create the pillars inside the shrine. Soon came Rupture II. (5) In Momentum III, the idea of the stupa was dead. Instead, a colossal Buddha figure was created. Work on the so-called ambulatory never resumed. It had become an eyesore long ago, for it consumed much space that was needed (later) for the new ideas of the Bodhisattva, gandharva, and donor figures. Thus, the rear side of the central block 'sf' did not require an apsidal shape. Hence, there remained the 'corridors.' These stages, more or less, are a pattern seen in other shrines too. Figs. 6.7-6.9: During certain years of Momentum II, the moonstone before the shrine antechamber had made a temporary appearance. Figs. 6.7-6.8: The central blocks 'cb' meant for the stupas were already excavated when the idea to replace the stupa with the Buddha figure 'b' descended the site. Nothing could be done about the ambulatories but the Buddha figures were somehow accommodated within the central blocks. Fig. 6.7: The evidence of the erstwhile stupa is the unique inverted lotus above the Buddha's head (see inset), which originally was the umbrella of the stupa. Another evidence is the enigmatic 'loft' over the rear wall, which resulted due to the deeper cut for reaching down to the planned depth of the chamber at a time when they were working downwards from the top to excavate the stupa and ambulatory. Figs. 6.9-6.11: What appears to be the 'half ambulatories' are actually the aborted extent of the excavations at a time when they were revealing the central block. The work was simultaneously progressing on the stupa blocks when suddenly the idea came that the Buddha figure was better than the stupa. The cut is shallow in Fig. 9 and deeper in Figs. 10 & 11. They had, subsequently, to level up the horizontal and vertical surfaces of the half-cut ambulatories to cleverly hide the aborted plans. Fig. 6.11: Banōṭī cave, Phase I, ca. late 460s-the conjectural plan is unmistakably close to Ajanta Cave 7, for the hall is absent and the pillared shrine antechamber is present. But the absence of the central block, stupa, or image connects the interior to the shrine of Ajanta Cave 8. Was a
  • 45.
    45 portable Buddha imagelikewise installed upon the platform abutting the rear wall? Phase II, late 6th c. ce: based on the Type VI caves of Aurangabad, there was retrofitted a quadrangular ambulatory outside, and surrounding, the inner chamber. Residential cells were also being excavated. Phase III, 8th c. ce?: perhaps an attempt was made to convert the cave to a Śaivite temple indicated by a Naṭarāja image on the right porch pilaster. Was the Buddha image, if it was there inside the shrine, removed for a Śivalinga, as in Ellora caves 15, 19B, and 27? Hinduism under Islam (11th–19th century)-Temple building and challenge of Islam and popular religion The advent of Islam in the Ganges basin at the end of the 12th century resulted in the withdrawal of royal patronage from Hinduism in much of the area. The attitude of the Muslim rulers toward Hinduism varied. Some, like Fīrūz Tughluq (ruled 1351–88) and Aurangzeb (ruled 1658–1707), were strongly anti-Hindu and enforced payment of jizya, a poll tax on unbelievers. Others, like the Bengali sultan Ḥusayn Shah ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn (reigned 1493–1519) and the great Akbar (reigned 1556–1605), were well disposed toward their Hindu subjects. Many temples were destroyed by the more fanatical rulers, however. Conversion to Islam was more common in areas where Buddhism had once been strongest—Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Kashmir. On the eve of the Muslim occupation, Hinduism was by no means sterile in northern India, but its vitality was centred in the southern areas. Throughout the centuries, the system of class and caste had become more rigid; in each region there was a complex hierarchy of castes strictly forbidden to intermarry or dine together, controlled and regulated by secular powers who acted on the advice of the court Brahmans. The large-scale Vedic sacrifices had practically vanished, but simple domestic Vedic sacrifices continued, and new forms of animal, and sometimes vegetable, sacrifice had appeared, especially connected with the worship of the mother goddess. By that time, most of the main divinities of later Hinduism were worshipped. Rama, the hero of the epic poem, had become the eighth avatar of Vishnu, and his popularity was growing, though it was not yet as prominent as it later became. Similarly, Rama’s monkey helper, Hanuman, now one of the most popular divinities of India and the most ready helper in time of need, was rising in importance. Krishna was worshipped, though his consort, Radha, did not become popular until after the 12th century. Harihara, a combination of Vishnu and Shiva, and Ardhanarishvara, a synthesis of Shiva and his consort Shakti, also became popular deities. Temple complexes Although early temples in south India may have been made of disposable materials as early as the first few centuries of the Common Era, permanent temple structures appear about the 3rd and 4th centuries, as attested in early Tamil literature. From the Gupta period onward, Hindu temples became larger and more prominent, and their architecture developed in distinctive regional styles. In northern India the best remaining Hindu temples are found in the Orissa region and in the town of Khajuraho in northern Madhya Pradesh. The best example of Orissan temple architecture is the Lingaraja temple of Bhubaneswar, built about 1000. The largest temple of the region, however, is the famous Black Pagoda, the Sun Temple (Surya Deula) of Konarak, built in the mid-13th century. Its tower has long since collapsed, and only the assembly hall remains. The
  • 46.
    46 most important Khajurahotemples were built during the 11th century. Individual architectural styles also arose in Gujarat and Rajasthan, but their surviving products are less impressive than those of Orissa and Khajuraho. By the end of the 1st millennium CE the south Indian style had reached its apogee in the great Brihadeshwara temple of Thanjavur (Tanjore). Surya Deula, Konarak, Orissa, India.Frederick M. Asher In the temple the god was worshipped by the rites of puja or archana (reverencing a sacred being or object) as though the worshipers were serving a great king. In the important temples a large staff of trained officiants waited on the god. He was awakened in the morning along with his goddess; washed, clothed, and fed; placed in his shrine to give audience to his subjects; praised and entertained throughout the day; and ceremoniously fed, undressed, and put to bed at night. Worshipers sang, burned lamps, waved lights before the divine image, and performed other acts of homage. The god’s handmaidens (devadasis) performed before him at regular intervals, watched by the officiants and lay worshipers, who were his courtiers. The association of dedicated prostitutes with certain Hindu shrines may be traceable to the beginning of the Common Era. It became more widespread in post-Gupta times, especially in south India, and aroused the reprobation of 19th-century Europeans. Through the efforts of Hindu reformers, the office of the devadasis was discontinued. The role of devadasi is best understood in the context of the analogy between the temple and the royal court, for the Hindu king also had his dancing girls, who bestowed their favours on his courtiers. Parallels between the temple and the royal palace also were in evidence in the Rathayatras (Chariot Festivals). The deity was paraded in a splendid procession, together with the lesser gods of the minor shrines, in a manner similar to that of the king, who issued from his palace on festival days and paraded around his city, escorted by courtiers, troops, and musicians. The deity rode on a tremendous and ornate moving shrine (ratha), which was often pulled by large bands of devotees. Rathayatras still take place in many cities of India. The best-known is the annual procession of Jagannatha (“Juggernaut”), a form of Vishnu, at Puri in Orissa.
  • 47.
    47 The Chariot Festivalof the Jagannatha temple, Puri, Orissa, India.© Dinodia/Dinodia Photo Library The great temples were—and still are—wealthy institutions. The patrons who endowed them with land, money, and cattle included royalty as well as men and women from several classes of society. As early as the 5th century, Kulaprabhavati, a Cambodian queen, endowed a Vishnu temple in her realm. The temples were also supported by the transfer of the taxes levied by kings on specific areas of the nearby countryside, by donations of the pious, and by the fees of worshipers. Their immense wealth was one of the factors that encouraged the Ghaznavid and Ghūrid Turks to invade India after the 11th century. The temples were controlled by self-perpetuating committees—whose membership was usually a hereditary privilege—and by a large staff of priests and temple servants under a high priest who wielded tremendous power and influence. In keeping with their wealth, the great walled temple complexes of south India were—and still are—small cities, containing the central and numerous lesser shrines, bathing tanks, administrative offices, homes of the temple employees, workshops, bazaars, and public buildings of many kinds. As some of the largest employers and greatest landowners in their areas, the temples played an important part in the economy. They also performed valuable social functions, serving as schools, dispensaries, poorhouses, banks, and concert halls. The temple complexes suffered during the Muslim occupation. In the sacred cities of Varanasi (Benares) and Mathura, no large temple from any period before the 17th century has survived. The same is true of most of the main religious centres of northern India but not of the regions where the Muslim hold was less firm, such as Orissa, Rajasthan, and south India. Despite the widespread destruction of the temples, Hinduism endured, in part because of the absence of a centralized authority; rituals and sacrifices were performed in places other than temples. The purohitas, or family priests who performed the domestic rituals and personal sacraments for the laypeople, continued to function, as did the thousands of ascetics.
  • 48.
    48 Sectarian movements Before theMuslim invasion of the subcontinent, the new forms of south Indian bhakti had spread beyond the bounds of the Tamil-, Kannada-, and Telugu-speaking areas. Certain Vaishnava theologians of the Pancharatra and Bhagavata schools gave the growing Vaishnava bhakti cults a philosophical framework that also influenced some Shaivite schools. Several Vaishnava teachers deserve mention, including Ramanuja, a Tamil Brahman of the 11th century who was for a time chief priest of the Vaishnava temple of Srirangam, and Nimbarka, a Telugu Brahman of the 12th or 13th century who spread the cult of the divine cowherd and of Radha, his favourite gopi (cowherdess, especially associated with the legends of Krishna’s youth). His sect survives near Mathura but has made little impact elsewhere. More important was Vallabha (Vallabhacharya; 1479–1531), who emphasized the erotic imagery of the Vaishnava doctrine of grace and established a sect that stressed absolute obedience to the guru (teacher). Early in its existence the sect was organized with a hierarchy of senior leaders (gosvami), many of whom became very rich. The Vallabhacharya sect, once very influential in the western half of north India, declined in the 19th century, in part because of a number of lawsuits against the chief guru, the descendant of Vallabha. The Shaiva sects also developed from the 10th century onward. In south India there emerged the school of Shaiva-siddhanta, still one of the most significant religious forces in that region and one that, unlike the school of Shankara, does not accept the full identity of the soul and God. A completely monistic school of Shaivism appeared in Kashmir in the early 9th century. Its doctrines differ from those of Shankara chiefly because it attributes personality to the absolute spirit, who is the god Shiva and not the impersonal brahman. An important sect, founded in the 12th century in the Kannada-speaking area of the Deccan, was that of the Lingayats, or Virashaivas (“Heroes of the Shaiva Religion”). Its traditional founder, Basava, taught doctrines and practices of surprising unorthodoxy: he opposed all forms of image worship and accepted only the lingam of Shiva as a sacred symbol. Virashaivism rejected the Vedas, the Brahman priesthood, and all caste distinctions. It also consciously rejected several religious and social conventions, such as the ban against the remarriage of widows, and practiced burial rather than cremation of the dead. Shaivism underwent significant growth in northern India. In the 13th century Gorakhnath (also known as Gorakshanatha), who became leader of a sect of Shaivite ascetics known as Nathas (“Lords”) from the title of their chief teachers, introduced new ideas and practices to Shaivism. The Gorakhnathis were particularly important as propagators of Hatha Yoga, a form of Yoga that requires complex and difficult physical exercises and that has become popular in the West. These yogis, who are still numerous, influenced the teachings of several of the bhakti poets. Bhakti movements The poets and saints (highly respected ascetics who were at times believed to be incarnations of a deity) of medieval bhakti appeared throughout India. Although all had their individual genius, the bhakti lyricists shared a number of common features. Unlike Sanskrit authors, mainly well-
  • 49.
    49 educated members ofthe Brahman class whose learning and status shaped their outlook, bhakti poets were not restricted to a single language or class. They brought to their poetry a familiarity with folk religion unknown or ignored in the Sanskrit texts. The use of the spoken language, even though it was formalized, made possible the expression of an unmediated vision that needed no further context; thus, the lyrics are intensely personal and precise. These works illustrate the localistic and reformist tendency evidenced throughout India in the vernacular literatures, especially in Tamil, Bengali, and Hindi. (See below Vernacular literatures.) It is possible that the presence of rulers of alien faith in northern India and the withdrawal of royal patronage from the temples and Brahmanic colleges encouraged the spread of new, more popular forms of Hinduism. The psychological effect of the Muslim conquest may also have predisposed the people to accept the powerful teachings of the poets. Much has been said about the synthesis of Hinduism and Islam in the period of Muslim dominance. Numerous Muslim social customs were adopted, and Persian and Arabic words entered the vocabularies of Indian languages. The teachings of such men as Basava and Kabir may have been influenced by Muslim observances and social customs. A still greater synthesis took place among the Muslims, most of whom were Indian by blood. In Tamil, Hindi, Bengali, Gujarati, Punjabi, and Marathi there is much poetry, written by Muslims and commencing with the Islamic invocation of Allah, which nevertheless betrays strong Hindu influence. Some works, such as Umaru Pulavar’s Tamil Sira puranam (late 18th–early 19th century), which provides a detailed life of the Prophet, display the strong literary influence of Kamban’s Iramavataram (c. 9th–11th century), a rendering of the Ramayana in Tamil. While these works were strikingly similar in literary strategy and arrangement of chapters, there was no theological syncretism in the Sira puranam. However, there are texts in northern India that proclaim Krishna as being in the line of the prophets of Islam and as the teacher of the unity of God. Much mystical poetry, though written by authors with Muslim names, uses Hindu imagery and Hindu terminology. This literature originated in the accommodating character of early Indian Sufism, which, well before Kabir, proclaimed that Muslim, Christian, Jew, Zoroastrian, and Hindu were all striving toward the same goal and that the outward observances that kept them apart were false. Some Indian Sufis were greatly influenced by Hindu customs. For example, a school of Kashmiri Sufis—whose members call themselves Rishis, after the legendary Hindu sages of the same name—respect and repeat the verses of Lal Ded, a 14th- century poet and holy woman from Kashmir, and are strict vegetarians. Tolerant Muslim rulers encouraged syncretic tendencies, which reached their zenith in the reign of Akbar (1556–1605). Taking a great interest in the religion of his Hindu subjects, Akbar tried to establish a single, all-embracing religion for his empire. Although his efforts failed, they influenced India for more than 50 years after his death. Orthodox Muslim theologians complained about the growth of heresy, however, and the emperor Aurangzeb (reigned 1658– 1707) did all in his power to discourage it. Popular Muslim preachers throughout the 18th and 19th centuries worked to restore orthodoxy. Thus, syncretic tendencies were somewhat reduced before the imposition of British power in the mid-18th century. Furthermore, British rule emphasized the distinctions between Hindu and Muslim and did not encourage efforts to harmonize the two religions.
  • 50.
    50 The modern period(from the 19th century) From their small coastal settlements in southern India, the Portuguese promoted Roman Catholic missionary activity and made converts, most of whom were of low caste; the majority of caste Hindus were unaffected. Small Protestant missions operated from the Danish factories of Tranquebar in Tamil Nadu and Serampore in Bengal, but they were even less influential. The British East India Company, conscious of the disadvantages of unnecessarily antagonizing its Indian subjects, excluded all Christian missionary activity from its territories. Indeed, the company continued the patronage accorded by indigenous rulers to many Hindu temples and forbade its Indian troops to embrace Christianity. The growing evangelical conscience in England brought this policy to an end with the renewal of the company’s charter in 1813. The company’s policy then became one of strict impartiality in matters of religion, but missionaries were allowed to work throughout its territory. Thus, Christian ideas began to spread.
  • 51.
  • 52.
    52 South-East Asian Hindutemples Prambanan in Java, Indonesia (9th century) and Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century), examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture. Both temples were modelled after Mount Meru in Hindu cosmology. The cultural sphere often called Greater India extended into South-East Asia. The earliest evidence trace to Sanskrit stone inscriptions found on the islands and the mainland Southeast Asia is Võ Cạnh inscription dated to 2nd or 3rd century CE in Vietnam or in Cambodia between 4th and 5th-century CE. Prior to the 14th-century local versions of Hindu temples were built in Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. These developed several national traditions, and often mixed Hinduism and Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism prevailed in many parts of the South-East Asia, except Malaysia and Indonesia where Islam displaced them both. Possibly the oldest Hindu temples in South East Asia dates back to 2nd century BCE from the Oc Eo culture of Mekong Delta from southern Vietnam. They were probably dedicated to a sun god, Shiva and Vishnu. The temple were constructed using granite blocks and bricks, one with a small stepped pond. Hindu temples in South-East Asia developed their own distinct versions, mostly based on Indian architectural models, both North Indian and South Indian styles. However, the Southeast Asian temple architecture styles are different and there is no known single temple in India that can be the source of the Southeast Asian temples. According to Michell, it is as if the Southeast Asian architects learned from "the theoretical prescriptions about temple building" from Indian texts, but never saw one. They reassembled the elements with their own creative interpretations. The Hindu temples found in Southeast Asia are more conservative and far more strongly link the Mount Meru-related cosmological elements of Indian thought than the Hindu temples found in the subcontinent. Additionally, unlike the Indian temples, the sacred architecture in Southeast Asia associated the ruler (devaraja) with the divine, with the temple serving as a memorial to the king as much as being house of gods. Notable examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture are the Shivaist Prambanan Trimurti temple compound in Java, Indonesia (9th century), and the Vishnuite Angkor Wat in Cambodia (12th century). Hindu influences reached the Indonesian Archipelago as early as the first century. At this time, India started to strongly influence Southeast Asian countries. Trade routes linked India with southern Burma, central and southern Siam, lower Cambodia and southern Vietnam and numerous urbanised coastal settlements were established there. For more than a thousand years, Indian Hindu/Buddhist influence was, therefore, the major factor that brought a certain level of cultural unity to the various countries of the region. The Pali and Sanskrit languages and the Indian script, together
  • 53.
    53 with Theravada andMahayana Buddhism, Brahmanism and Hinduism, were transmitted from direct contact as well as through sacred texts and Indian literature, such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata epics. From the 5th to the 13th century, South-East Asia had very powerful Indian colonial empires and became extremely active in Hindu and Buddhist architectural and artistic creation. The Sri Vijaya Empire to the south and the Khmer Empire to the north competed for influence. Langkasuka (-langkha Sanskrit for "resplendent land" -sukkha of "bliss") was an ancient Hindu kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula. The kingdom, along with Old Kedah settlement, are probably the earliest territorial footholds founded on the Malay Peninsula. According to tradition, the founding of the kingdom happened in the 2nd century; Malay legends claim that Langkasuka was founded at Kedah, and later moved to Pattani. From the 5th to 15th centuries Sri Vijayan empire, a maritime empire centred on the island of Sumatra in Indonesia, had adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism under a line of rulers named the Sailendras. The Empire of Sri Vijaya declined due to conflicts with the Chola rulers of India. The Majapahit Empire succeeded the Singhasari empire. It was one of the last and greatest Hindu empires in maritime Southeast Asia. Funan was a pre-Angkor Cambodian kingdom, located around the Mekong delta, probably established by Mon-Khmer settlers speaking an Austroasiatic language. According to reports by two Chinese envoys, K'ang T'ai and Chu Ying, the state was established by an Indian Brahmin named Kaundinya, who in the 1st century CE was given instruction in a dream to take a magic bow from a temple and defeat a Khmer queen, Soma. Soma, the daughter of the king of the Nagas, married Kaundinya and their lineage became the royal dynasty of Funan. The myth had the advantage of providing the legitimacy of both an Indian Brahmin and the divinity of the cobras, who at that time were held in religious regard by the inhabitants of the region. The kingdom of Champa (or Lin-yi in Chinese records) controlled what is now south and central Vietnam from approximately 192 through 1697. The dominant religion of the Cham people was Hinduism and the culture was heavily influenced by India. Later, from the 9th to the 13th century, the Mahayana Buddhist and Hindu Khmer Empire dominated much of the South-East Asian peninsula. Under the Khmer, more than 900 temples were built in Cambodia and in neighboring Thailand. Angkor was at the centre of this development, with a temple complex and urban organisation able to support around one million urban dwellers. The largest temple complex of the world, Angkor Wat, stands here; built by the king Vishnuvardhan. Typical Balinese temples Hinduism, and the Sanskrit language through which it was transmitted, became highly prestigious in Java. Hindu influences reached the Indonesian Archipelago as early as the first century CE Many Hindu temples were built, including Prambanan near Yogyakarta, which has been designated a World Heritage Site; and Hindu kingdoms flourished, of which the most important was Majapahit. Typical Balinese temples are divided into three areas, as shown in the photo to the left. They are the Jaba or outer courtyard, the Jaba Tengah middle courtyard, and the Jeroan--the innermost and sacred courtyard. The features of these three courtyards can be seen more clearly in the larger diagram below:
  • 54.
    54 This hill issprinkled generously with a large number of temples, archways and pavilions. The whole of the hill was fortified with tall wide stonewalls, the ruined remains of which can be still be seen. Once you have reached the top (about 15 minutes climb) , it’s almost a flat expanse of rocky sheet with occasional ups and downs. This design is in close proximity to the Hebrew Temple discussedearlier. It also corresponds to some of the larger Hindu Temple layouts of what today is Indian territory
  • 55.
  • 56.
    56 Its a garbhagrihadoorway, of Chennakeshava temple, Belur. Just look at it , the whole structure is so beautifully carved not leaving behind any piece of stone blank. Sanctum sanctorum” or Garbagrha of Hindu Temples Garbhagṛha, “sanctum” is the nucleus of the temple. It is the place where the main deity of the temple is installed. The Canons prescribe that the shape of the garbhagṛha may be (on plan): 1. caturaśra (square), 2. āyata (rectangular), 3. vṛtta (cicular), 4. āyatavṛtta (elliptical) 5. or vṛttāyata (ovoid). The square and circular garbhagṛhas are constructed for the installation of the deities in sthāṇaka (standing) or āsīna (seated) postures. While in the other varieties, deities in śayana (reclining) posture or group of deities standing or sitting in a row are to be installed.
  • 57.
    57 Mānasāra mentions thatif the plan of the garbhagṛha is square or circular, it is called puruṣa (Male) and if it is rectangular it is called vanitā (Female). Male deities can be installed in a square, circular or rectangular garbhagṛha, while the female deity should always be installed in a rectangular garbhagṛha. Garbhagṛha ( “womb-house”).—When combined the two words [garbha (womb) and gṛha (accommodation)] become garbhagṛha (womb-house). It denotes the sanctum sanctorum, or shrine of a sacred space, especially that of a Hindu temples. The sanctum sanctorum is the most central and fundamental component of any sacred architecture. What garbha (womb) is to the human body gṛha (accommodation) and guhā (cave) are to the world of habitation. What gṛha is to the world of habitation garbhagṛha is to the sacred architecture. In garbha resides the foetus, the genesis of a being. In gṛha, resides the gṛhastha, the family man—the microcosm, a unit, of which the multiples make a society, and which is opposed to the macrocosmic sphere of civilization. In the microcosmic sphere of the garbhagṛha, the God resides, who is referred to as the macrocosm in religions, the omnipresent, all-pervading entity. Garbhagṛha refers to the “sanctum sanctorum”, a common concept found in the ancient Indian “science of architecture” (vāstuvidyā).—Garbhagṛha is the sanctum sanctorum, where the presiding deity is installed. Garbhagṛha Mūlasthāna sanctum-sanctorum of the Hindu Temple.—Each temple has a mūlasthāna or garbhagṛha (sanctum-sanctorum) and many subsidiary sanctums. The temples here selected for the study of the mūla beras are temples specially dedicated to Śiva, Viṣṇu, Subrahmaṇya, and Pārvatī. In these garbhagṛhas, there are icons of gods and goddesses, namely, Śiva and His manifestations like Naṭarāja; Pārvatī and the Śakti avatāras; Viṣṇu and His other forms and incarnations; Brahmā, Lakṣmī, Sarasvatī, Subrahmaṇya, Valli, Deivāṇai (also known as Deviyāni or Devasena), and Gaṇapati. Vastushastra refers to the ancient Indian science (shastra) of architecture (vastu), dealing with topics such architecture, sculpture, town-building, fort building and various other constructions. Vastu also deals with the philosophy of the architectural relation with the cosmic universe. Shilpashastra (iconography)
  • 58.
    58 Shilpashastra represents theancient Indian science (shastra) of creative arts (shilpa) such as sculpture, iconography and painting. Closely related to Vastushastra (architecture), they often share the same literature. Discover the meaning of garbhagriha or garbhagrha in the context of Shilpashastra from relevant books on Exotic India In Shaivism (Shaiva philosophy) Shaiva represents a tradition of Hinduism worshiping Shiva as the supreme being. Closely related to Shaktism, Shaiva literature includes a range of scriptures, including Tantras, while the root of this tradition may be traced back to the ancient VedasIt is only the physical structure. It is transformed into sannidhi after the invoking of the Lord. This explains why, in the Śaiva Siddhānta tradition, the temple is conceived as a space where the deity is invited to reside in the garbhagṛha. The temple’s spiritual energy can be sustained only if the deity’s sāniddhya remains unsullied. Therefore the most important dharma of the Ādiśaiva priest is to maintain the “presence” and sanctity of the deity by offering regular pūjā as prescribed. Only then can the temple be a storehouse of energy for the public. Only then can the devotees find their God in the sanctum. This he does through pūjā. Location: It is the location in the temple where the primary form of a deity resides) is only the physical structure. It is transformed into sannidhi (Sanctum Sanctorum) after the invoking of the Lord. This explains why, in the Śaiva Siddhānta tradition, the temple is conceived as a space where the deity is a special guest invited to reside in the garbhagṛha .
  • 59.
    59 . Girbhagriha in Tamil:In Tamil language Girbha griha is called karuvarai meaning the interior of the sanctumnsanctorum. It is the iner- most of the sanctum and focus of the temple, where the image of the primary deity resides. The word karuarai means "womb chamber". The word' karu' means foetus and arai means a room. Only the priests are allowed to enter this innermost chamber. Female Deities: temples of feminine deities, the garbagriha is rectangular. For example, in the temple of Varahi Deula in Chaurasi.The present structure of most of these temples is a two- storeyed vimana with a square garbhagriha and a surrounding circumambulatory path, an ardha- mandapa and a narrower maha-mandapa. The Latin word sanctum is the neuter form of the adjective "holy", and sanctorum its genitive plural. Thus the term sanctum sanctorum literally means "the holy [place/thing] of the holy [places/things]", replicating in Latin the Hebrew construction for the superlative, with the intended meaning "the most holy [place/thing]". The Latin phrase sanctum sanctorum has wrongly been considered the translation of the Hebrew term Qṓḏeš HaQŏḏāšîm (Holy of Holies) which generally refers in Latin texts to the holiest place of the Tabernacle of the Israelites and later the Temples in Jerusalem, but also has some derivative use in application to imitations of the Tabernacle in church architecture. The correct translation is the plural form sancta sanctorum, arguably as a synecdoche, used also to refer to the holy relics contained in the sanctuary. The Vulgate translation of the Bible uses sancta sanctorum for the Holy of Holies.[1] Hence the derivative usage to denote the Sancta Sanctorum chapel in the complex of the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, Rome. In Hinduism, a temple's innermost part where the cult image (Murti) of the deity is kept forms the Garbha griha, also referred to as a sanctum sanctorum. The Enclosed House: The garbhagriha in Hindu temple architecture (a shrine inside a temple complex where the main deity is installed in a separate building by itself inside the complex) has
  • 60.
    60 also been comparedto a "sanctum sanctorum" in texts on Hindu temple architecture, though the Sanskrit term actually means "enclosed house" or "the deep interior of the house". However, some Indian English authors seem to have translated the Sanskrit term literally as "womb house". sanctum sanctorum, Garbhagriha is the sanctum sanctorum, the innermost sanctuary of a Hindu and Jain temples where resides the murti (idol or icon) of the primary deity of the temple. In Jainism, the main deity is known as the Mulnayaka. Literally the word means "womb chamber", from the Sanskrit words garbha for womb and griha for house. Generally in Hinduism only 'priests' (pujari) are allowed to enter this chamber. Although the term is often associated with Hindu temples, it is also found in Jain and Buddhist temples. Jain temple architecture is generally close to Hindu temple architecture, and in ancient times Buddhist architecture. Normally the same builders and carvers worked for all religions, and regional and period styles are generally similar. For over 1,000 years the basic layout of a Hindu or most Jain temples has consisted of a small garbhagriha or sanctuary for the main murti or cult images, over which the high superstructure rises, then one or more larger mandapa halls. Architecture: The Garbagriha has a single entrance, normally facing east to be accessed by the rising sun, and no windows. It is normally square, and at least approximately a cube, with the representation of the temple's deity placed in the centre, so that it can be seen by worshippers outside. Relative to the size of the temple, and especially the large tower arising over it, it is a rather small room, and there is no view from below up into the shikhara or tower, which is treated as completely solid, although in fact for structural reasons it very often includes a hollow space.
  • 61.
    61 In the greatmajority of temples with a tower superstructure, a shikhara (in the north) or vimana (in the south), this chamber is placed directly underneath it, and the two of them form the main vertical axis of the temple. These together may be understood to represent the axis of the world through Mount Meru. The garbha griham is usually also on the main horizontal axis of the temple which generally is an east–west axis. In those temples where there is also a cross-axis, the garbha gṛha is generally at their intersection. Generally the garbhagriha is a windowless and sparsely lit chamber, intentionally created thus to focus the devotee's mind on the tangible form of the divine within it. Entrance to the Hindu garbhagrha is very often restricted to priests who perform the services there, and in temples in active worship (as opposed to historic monuments) normally to Hindus at the least. In Jain temples all suitably bathed and purified Jains are allowed inside. In the Dravida style, the garbhagriha took the form of a miniature vimana with other features exclusive to southern Indian temple architecture such as the inner wall together with the outer wall creating a pradakshina around the garbhagriha. The entrance is highly decorated. The inner garbhagriha or shrine became a separate structure, more elaborately adorned over time. The garbhagriha is normally square and sits on a plinth, its location calculated to be a point of total equilibrium and harmony as it is representative of a microcosm of the Universe. In the centre is placed the image of the deity. In some early temples it is not quite square, and in some later ones may be rectangular where more than one deity is worshipped and has an image there.There are a very few examples of larger variance; the chamber at Gudimallam is both semi-circular at the rear, and set below the main floor level of the temple. The famous 7th-century Durga temple, Aihole has a rounded apse at the garbagriha end, which is echoed in the shape of the chamber. In any Hindu temple, this is the most important and the most sacred area as it hosts the deity itself. All the puja i.e. offerings like flowers, fruits etc are made inside this area. In some of the temples, it is strictly forbidden to enter this area. Examples are the temples in Kerala like guruvayur, temples in dakshina kannada and udupi districts of Karnataka etc. In other temples, one can enter this area up to a certain extent, but is not allowed to go near or touch the idols. Most of the temples in India follow this. The third category is where one can enter this area and even touch the idols. Examples are temple like vittala temple in pandharpur.
  • 62.
  • 63.
    63 Sanctum Generally thegarbhagrihas are square in shape. Some garbhagrihas, which are longer, and against the principle 84 axis, also can be seen. Garbhagriha used to be very small in the beginning and could admit only one worshipper at a time, though the shrine was meant for public and the basic shrine, sanctum alone constituted the real temple. This type of single cell shrines also can be seen in the present day temple architecture, which are mainly dedicated to the Mother Goddess or gramadevatha or gramapurush. The temple should consist of a sanctum in which the icon is to be installed and housed. The structural involvements nearby the temple are also essential for the principal worship and rituals. Texts like Sri Prasna describes that the sanctum is the body of the divinity and the icon is its soul (Jiva). Usually it is a stone structure, square in shape and simply plain with some projected slabs in the wall or niches. There should not be any pillars in the sanctum hall. The sanctum should be provided with windows for air and light, which eventually help in preservation of the icon. In olden days, the wooden stucco or clay windows were provided to the sanctum. The sanctum represented then by an empty low platform (Vedi) in the dark room. A copper vessel (kumbha), a sacrificial fire place (kunda) or a sculpted icon (bimba) used to be placed on a seat in the dark room to prevent ill effects of weathering besides the mystery of the divine presence in the sanctum. The sanctum was usually built in stone, but constructions in brick are not rare 6 . Vishnu Tilaka mentions that while the stone sanctum is the best, the brick one is the next best. The wooden sanctum however is inferior and the mud sanctum is to be considered the worst '. 85 The sanctum of the temple must be constructed first. Before construction of the sanctum a significant ceremony known as 'impregnating' (Garbha-dana or Garbha-Nyasa) should be performed. This ritual involves letting into the earth a ceremonial copper pot containing nine precious stones, several metals and minerals, herbs and soil (purified earth by ants), symbolizing creation and prosperity. The building that contains the womb is said to be prosperous. After completion of this ritual, a stone slab (Adhara-sila) is placed over the spot. The copper pot here symbolizes the womb and the icon symbolizes the soul. This is the significance of the sanctum, which is called the 'womb-house' 8 . Texts like Silparatna, Tantra- Samuchchaya and Isana-Shivaguru Paddhati give an elaborate account of this ritual. When the arrangement of the garbhagriha is more than one in some temples, they are called as a Dwikutachala, Trikutachala temples and so on. In a few temples, projecting slabs and niches are found in the walls of garbhagrihas. (e.g. Tambdi Surla temple has projecting slabs and in Mahadeva Temple at Curdi have niches). The functional aspects of these are for providing space for keeping certain objects used for worship. These niches and projected slabs are provided according to their convenience and orientation of the temple entrance e.g. projected slabs in Mahadeva temple Tambdi Surla were fixed in the western wall of the sanctum (rear wall), while a recessed niche was provided in the Mahadeva Temple at Curdi in the southern wall of the sanctum. Some garbhagrihas will have a stone projection from the rear wall of sanctum touching the image kept at the centre. The images of deities in standing posture are of considerable height. The centre of gravity of such images falls backwards 86 away from the centre because the weight of the rear portion of the Prahhavali is heavier than that of the front portion of the image. Though images are fixed on pithas by inserting projecting tenon into the sockets, the possibility of their fall cannot be ruled out. Under these circumstances, the images need support at a higher level from the rear wall (e.g., Temple of Lakshminarayana at Balaganur and Sangameswar at Kurdi in
  • 64.
    64 Raichur district ofKarnataka). Most of the temples in Goa have the main deity at the centre of the sanctum and placed over pranala. Some garbhagrihas, which are longer, and against the principle 84 axis, also can be seen. Garbhagriha used to be very small in the beginning and could admit only one worshipper at a time, though the shrine was meant for public and the basic shrine, sanctum alone constituted the real temple. This type of single cell shrines also can be seen in the present day temple architecture, which are mainly dedicated to the Mother Goddess or gramadevatha or gramapurush. The temple should consist of a sanctum in which the icon is to be installed and housed. The structural involvements nearby the temple are also essential for the principal worship and rituals. Texts like Sri Prasna describes that the sanctum is the body of the divinity and the icon is its soul (Jiva). Usually it is a stone structure, square in shape and simply plain with some projected slabs in the wall or niches. There should not be any pillars in the sanctum hall. The sanctum should be provided with windows for air and light, which eventually help in preservation of the icon. In olden days, the wooden stucco or clay windows were provided to the sanctum. The sanctum represented then by an empty low platform (Vedi) in the dark room. A copper vessel (kumbha), a sacrificial fire place (kunda) or a sculpted icon (bimba) used to be placed on a seat in the dark room to prevent ill effects of weathering besides the mystery of the divine presence in the sanctum. The sanctum was usually built in stone, but constructions in brick are not rare 6 . Vishnu Tilaka mentions that while the stone sanctum is the best, the brick one is the next best. The wooden sanctum however is inferior and the mud sanctum is to be considered the worst '. 85 The sanctum of the temple must be constructed first. Before construction of the sanctum a significant ceremony known as 'impregnating' (Garbha-dana or Garbha-Nyasa) should be performed. This ritual involves letting into the earth a ceremonial copper pot containing nine precious stones, several metals and minerals, herbs and soil (purified earth by ants), symbolizing creation and prosperity. The building that contains the womb is said to be prosperous. After completion of this ritual, a stone slab (Adhara-sila) is placed over the spot. The copper pot here symbolizes the womb and the icon symbolizes the soul. This is the significance of the sanctum, which is called the 'womb-house' 8 . Texts like Silparatna, Tantra- Samuchchaya and Isana-Shivaguru Paddhati give an elaborate account of this ritual. When the arrangement of the garbhagriha is more than one in some temples, they are called as a Dwikutachala, Trikutachala temples and so on. In a few temples, projecting slabs and niches are found in the walls of garbhagrihas. (e.g. Tambdi Surla temple has projecting slabs and in Mahadeva Temple at Curdi have niches). The functional aspects of these are for providing space for keeping certain objects used for worship. These niches and projected slabs are provided according to their convenience and orientation of the temple entrance e.g. projected slabs in Mahadeva temple Tambdi Surla were fixed in the western wall of the sanctum (rear wall), while a recessed niche was provided in the Mahadeva Temple at Curdi in the southern wall of the sanctum 9* Some garbhagrihas will have a stone projection from the rear wall of sanctum touching the image kept at the centre. The images of deities in standing posture are of considerable height. The centre of gravity of such images falls backwards 86 away from the centre because the weight of the rear portion of the Prahhavali is heavier than that of the front portion of the image. Though images are fixed on pithas by inserting projecting tenon into the sockets, the possibility of their fall cannot be ruled out. Under these circumstances, the images need support at a higher level from the rear wall
  • 65.
    65 (e.g., Temple ofLakshminarayana at Balaganur and Sangameswar at Kurdi in Raichur district of Karnataka) 11)Most of the temples in Goa have the main deity at the centre of the sanctum and placed over pranala. Pradakshinipatha: All around the sanctum a passage is kept often narrow, permitting the devotees to pass round the sanctum in the customary act of devotion. This circumambulatory path (Pradakshinirpath or hhrama) subsequently became a structural involvement as the temple grew in size; it was more open naturally, as it was in the early phase. The temple, which has the circumbulatory passage, is known as Sandhara temple, e.g. Jain temple at Kudne and the temples of Ponda and Bardez talukas have this feature. The temple, which doesn't have pradakshinapatha is known as Niradhara temple e.g. Mahadeva temples of Curdi and Tambdi Surla, Saptakoteswar temple at Opa, Agasthipur temple etc.". 87 Sikhara Sikhara or superstructureis the top member of a shrine. A flat roof stone slab that covers the sanctum is also called as Kapota. Flat roof (Kapota) of the sanctum on which the tower rests and rises is over-laid by a single stone slab, known in the texts as 'Brahma randra sila' (the stone). This serves as the base (adhisthana) for the superstructure that rises above the sanctum known as Vimana or Sikhara', which forms the important part of the temple. Following is reproduction of my earlier paper on- Garbhagiha means the House of the womb Technical paper on Garbhagriha of the hindu temples Fron the Tech Papers series of the Indo Nordic Author’s Collective Garbhagiha means the Home of the womb- to call it sanctum anctorum which is the term in Hebrew for Holy of the Holies and refers to the Jewish temples is erroneous but has been going on since the time Indian Temple Architecture has been written about in English. Garbha is womb and Griha is house. Let me give another example. A pregnant women is called a GARBHAVATI in Sanskrit which means one who carries the WOMB“ Gravid in Swedish. enceinte in French meaning enclosed. A Hindu temple has various parts: Garbhagriha” refers to the womb chamber which is the innermost chamber of any temple where the deity resides. It is mainly square in layout and is entered through eastern side. It has a tower called a vimana over it. “Pradakshina Patha” refers to the ambulatory passageway for circumambulation and comprises of enclosed corridor outside the garbhagriha. The devotees walk around the deity in clockwise direction, paying their respect to the deity
  • 66.
    66 The ardha-mandapa andmaha-mandapa are in front of the garbha-griha (inner sanctum). The front porch in the main entrance of the temple which leads to the main temple Some other essential structural elements found in the Hindu temples are Mainly found in the south Indian temples. The gopurams are entrance towers. Temples try to have Gopurams that are monumental and ornate entrance to the temple premises.. Pitha or the plinths of the main temple. Toranas”:The gateways typical to north Indian temples are,”Toranas”. “Mandapa”, is the pillared hall in front of the garbha- griha, used as assembling point by devotees for chant; rituals meditate or observe the priests perform the rituals. • Sometimes, “Natamandira” is also provided in some temples which mean the hall for dancing. In some early temple structures, the mandapa was isolated and separate structure from the sanctuary. “Antarala”, refers to the intermediate chamber which joins the main sanctuary and the pillared hall of the temple premises. The veranda next to the inside walls of the pradakshina path. Tanks and wells, which are either sacred or for bathing purposes. Subsidiary deities and shrines dedicated to minor gods. This paper deals with the styles, design and geometry, structural system and construction technology of the Innermost sanctum of Indian temples.  In this context, the Hindu Temples are epitome of knowledge, art, architecture, culture and represents the advancement of building science of the ancient Indian subcontinent.  Each culture and era has a distinctive construction practice which is unique and represents the ideology, development, art and architecture of that particular era or culture. The cerebral exploration of interlocking geometries based on mandala diagrams was to become the defining characteristic of Hindu temple form in the centuries to come. Mandalas are derived from original Vedic altars and are used in both the Hindu and Buddhist religions as diagrams to map the cosmos for astrological observations. These diagrams are abstract, without scale, and can take any number of forms derived from a combination of superimposed squares and circles. Garbha griha Subsiduary shrines. Example of the Elephanta caves The Elephanta Caves are located in Western India on Elephanta Island (otherwise known as the Island of Gharapuri), which features two hillocks separated by a narrow valley. The small island is dotted with numerous ancient archaeological remains that are the sole testimonies to its rich cultural past. These archaeological remains reveal evidence of occupation from as early as the 2nd century BC. The rock-cut Elephanta Caves were constructed about the mid-5th to 6th centuries AD. Elephanta is a Hindu shrine adapted from the older Buddhist rock-cut structures The Elephanta caves has a real mountain in which it is embedded. It is having square garbha-griha, Hindu Architecture and has the Shiva Lingam at its center. From the middle, four axes radiate out,
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    67 defining access paths.Elephanta is open on all four sides, though east is its primary direction of access. Elephanta has a much more complex geometry, with four sets of nine-square mandalas interlocking to define two major axes of access, one from the west and the other from the north. he north-south axis, aligned with the main entrance, terminates in three gigantic Shiva sculptures in deeply recessed niches. This triptych, occupies the entire width and height of the end wall, and, compared to the rough-hewn character of the rest of structure, was carved with greater care. The Elephanta Caves contain rock cut stone sculptures, mostly in high relief, that show syncretism of Hindu and Buddhist ideas and iconography. The caves are hewn from solid basalt rock. Except for a few exceptions, much of the artwork is defaced and damaged. The main temple's orientation as well as the relative location of other temples are placed in a mandala pattern. The carvings narrate Hindu mythologies, with the large monolithic 20 feet (6.1 m) Trimurti Sadashiva (three-faced Shiva), Nataraja (Lord of dance) and Yogishvara (Lord of Yoga) being the most celebrated. The island has two groups of rock-cut caves, hewn from solid basalt rock. The
  • 68.
    68 larger group ofcaves, which consists of five caves on the western hill of the island, is well known for its Hindu sculptures. The primary cave, numbered as Cave 1, is about 1.0 km (0.62 mi) up a hillside, facing the Mumbai harbour. Caves 2 through 5 are next to Cave 1 further southeast, arranged in a row. Cave 6 and 7 are about 200 m (660 ft) northeast of Cave 1 and 2, but geologically on the edge of the eastern hill. The two hills are connected by a walkway. The eastern hill is also called the Stupa hill, while the western hill is called the Canon hill, reflecting their historic colonial-era names, the ancient Stupa and the Portuguese era firing Canons they host respectively. rock-cut temples : All the caves are rock-cut temples that together have an area of 5,600 m2 (60,000 sq ft). At their most elaborate, they have a main chamber, two lateral chambers, courtyards, and subsidiary shrines, but not all are so fully developed. Cave 1 is the largest and is 39 metres (128 ft) deep from the front entrance to the back. The temple complex is primarily the abode of Shiva, depicted in widely celebrated carvings which narrate legends and mythologies of Shaivism.However, the artwork reverentially displays themes from Shaktism and Vaishnavism traditions of Hinduism . The temple is enclosed in the cave, it has interior walls but no exterior wall. The pillars create space and symmetric rhythm as they support the weight of the hill above. The main mandapa recesses into a pillared vestibule (ardha-mandapa) on the south side, while a pillared portico (mukha-mandapa) connects it to the main entrance. Embedded within the Great Cave are dedicated shrines, the largest of which is the square plan Linga shrine (see 16 in plan).[10] It is a square garbha-griya (womb house) with four entrances, located in the right section of the main hall. Steps lead from the four doorways into the sanctum, which has a linga in the mulavigraha style. Each doorway is guarded by a dvarapala on each side, for a total of eight dvarapalas, their heights spanning floor to the ceiling.[ These were badly damaged when the Portuguese ceded control of this region to the British. The linga shrine is surrounded by a mandapa and circumambulation path (pradakshina-patha) as in other Hindu temples. The pillars are similarly aligned east–west to this shrine and have an east entrance. Overlaid, as if fused, on the architecture of this temple is another open temple aligned to the north–south direction with three faced Sadashiva as its focal centre. One features the abstract, unmanifest, aniconic symbol of Shiva, the other anthropomorphic, manifest, iconic symbol of Shiva. The mandapa pillars of the two align up. All the caves are rock-cut temples that together have an area of 5,600 m2 (60,000 sq ft). At their most elaborate, they have a main chamber, two lateral chambers, courtyards, and subsidiary shrines, but not all are so fully developed. Cave 1 is the largest and is 39 metres (128 ft) deep from the front entrance to the back. The temple complex is primarily the abode of Shiva, depicted in widely celebrated carvings which narrate legends and mythologies of Shaivism.[8][18] However, the artwork reverentially displays themes from Shaktism and Vaishnavism traditions of Hinduism as well
  • 69.
    69 Layout 1. Ravananugraha 2. Shiva-Parvati,Mount Kailash 3. Ardhanarishvara 4. Sadashiva Trimurti 5. Gangadhara 6. Wedding of Shiva 7. Shiva slaying Andhaka 8. Nataraja 9. Yogishvara 16. Linga East Wing Shrine 10. Kartikeya 11. Matrikas 12. Ganesha 13. Dvarapala West Wing Shrine 14. Yogishvara 15. Nataraja
  • 70.
    70 The northern entranceto the cave is flanked by two panels of Shiva dated to the Gupta period, both damaged. The left panel depicts Yogishvara (Shiva as the Lord of Yoga) and the right shows Nataraja (Shiva as the Lord of Dance). The Sadashiva is flanked by two large friezes, one of Ardhanarishvara and the other of Gangadhara. The walls of the mandapa feature other Shaivism legends. All the friezes, states Stella Kramrisch, feature the vyaktavyakta concept of Samkhya, where the state of spiritual existence transitions between the unmanifest-manifest, the figures leap out of the cave walls towards the spectator as if trying to greet the narrative. Even the manifested Sadashiva is shown to be rising out of the rocks. Each wall has large carvings of Shiva-related legends, more than 5 metres (16 ft) in height. The central Shiva relief Trimurti is located on the south wall opposite the main entrance. Also called the Sadashiva, it is the iconic form of a pancamukha linga is set in a mandala pattern with the abstract linga form of Shiva. The Sadashiva is a colossal carving, a bit over 6.27 metres (20.6 ft), depicting Tatpurusha (Mahadeva), Aghora (Bhairava), Vamadeva (Uma) and Sadyojata (Nandin). The carving is unusual because the standard ancient Hindu texts for murti design state that the Tatpursha should face east, but in Elephanta it is the north face (pointing towards the main entrance). Smaller shrines are located at the east and west ends of the caves. The eastern sanctuary serves as a ceremonial entrance, and its shrine shows iconography of Shaktism tradition The island has two groups of rock- cut caves, hewn from solid basalt rock. The larger group of caves, which consists of five caves on the western hill of the island, is well known for its Hindu sculptures. The primary cave, numbered as Cave 1, is about 1.0 km (0.62 mi) up a hillside, facing the Mumbai harbour. Caves 2 through 5 are next to Cave 1 further southeast, arranged in a row. Cave 6 and 7 are about 200 m (660 ft) northeast of Cave 1 and 2, but geologically on the edge of the eastern hill. The two hills are connected by a walkway. The eastern hill is also called the Stupa hill, while the western hill is called the Canon hill, reflecting their historic colonial-era names, the ancient Stupa and the Portuguese era firing Canons they host respectivel
  • 71.
    71 The garbha-griha issurrounded by a well- defined and fully enclosed parikrama path, It has nine subsidiary shrines arrayed in constellation around it The garbhagriha is located in the most important among the caves is the great Cave 1, which measures 39 metres from the front entrance to the back. In plan, this cave in the western hill closely resembles Dumar Lena cave at Ellora, in India. The main body of the cave, excluding the porticos on the three open sides and the back aisle, is 27 metres square and is supported by rows of six columns each. The 7-metre-high masterpiece “Sadashiva” dominates the entrance to Cave 1. The sculpture represents three aspects of Shiva: the Creator, the Preserver, and the Destroyer, identified, respectively, with Aghora or Bhairava (left half), Taptapurusha or Mahadeva (central full face), and Vamadeva or Uma (right half). Representations of Nataraja, Yogishvara, Andhakasuravadha, Ardhanarishwara, Kalyanasundaramurti, Gangadharamurti, and Ravanaanugrahamurti are also noteworthy for their forms, dimensions, themes, representations, content, alignment and execution. The layout of the caves, including the pillar components, the placement and division of the caves into different parts, and the provision of a sanctum or Garbhagriha of sarvatobhadra plan, are important developments in rock-cut architecture. The Elephanta Caves emerged from a long artistic tradition, but demonstrate refreshing innovation. The combination of aesthetic beauty and sculptural art, replete with respondent Rasas, reached an apogee at the Elephanta Caves. Hindu spiritualistic beliefs and symbology are finely utilized in the overall planning of the caves. This main cave, also called Cave 1, Grand Cave or the Great Cave, is 39.63 metres (130.0 ft) square in plan with a hall (mandapa). The basic plan of the cave can be traced back to the plan of the ancient Buddhist viharas, consisting of a square court surrounded by cells, built from about 500 to 600 years before in India. The Cave has several entrances, the main entrance is unassumingly small and hides the grand hall inside. The main entrance faces north, while two side entrances face east and west. The cave's main entrance is aligned with the north–south axis, unusual for a Shiva shrine (normally east–west). However, inside is an integrated square plan Linga shrine (garbha-griya) that is aligned east–west, opening to the sunrise. To reach the main cave, a visitor or pilgrim has to walk up 120 steep steps from the beach or take the tourist toy train. At the main entrance are four pillars, with three open porticoes and an aisle at the back. Pillars, six in each row, divide the hall into a series of smaller chambers. The roof of the hall has concealed beams supported by stone columns joined together by capitals.
  • 72.
    72 Main entrance, Cave1/ Side entrance/ Main mandapa and pillars The temple is enclosed in the cave, it has interior walls but no exterior wall. The pillars create space and symmetric rhythm as they support the weight of the hill above. The main mandapa recesses into a pillared vestibule (ardha-mandapa) on the south side, while a pillared portico (mukha-mandapa) connects it to the main entrance. Embedded within the Great Cave are dedicated shrines, the largest of which is the square plan Linga shrine (see 16 in plan). It is a square garbha-griya (womb house) with four entrances, located in the right section of the main hall. Steps lead from the four doorways into the sanctum, which has a linga in the mulavigraha style. Each doorway is guarded by a dvarapala on each side, for a total of eight dvarapalas, their heights spanning floor to the ceiling.[23] These were badly damaged when the Portuguese ceded control of this region to the British. The linga shrine is surrounded by a mandapa and circumambulation path (pradakshina-patha) as in other Hindu temples. The pillars are similarly aligned east–west to this shrine and have an east entrance. Overlaid, as if fused, on the architecture of this temple is another open temple aligned to the north–south direction with three faced Sadashiva as its focal centre. One features the abstract, unmanifest, aniconic symbol of Shiva, the other anthropomorphic, manifest, iconic symbol of Shiva. The mandapa pillars of the two align up. The northern entrance to the cave is flanked by two panels of Shiva dated to the Gupta period, both damaged. The left panel depicts Yogishvara (Shiva as the Lord of Yoga) and the right shows Nataraja (Shiva as the Lord of Dance).] The Sadashiva is flanked by two large friezes, one of Ardhanarishvara and the other of Gangadhara. The walls of the mandapa feature other Shaivism legends. All the friezes, states Stella Kramrisch, feature the vyaktavyakta concept of Samkhya, where the state of spiritual existence transitions between the unmanifest-manifest, the figures leap out of the cave walls towards the spectator as if trying to greet the narrative. Even the manifested Sadashiva is shown to be rising out of the rocks. Each wall has large carvings of Shiva-related legends, each more than 5 metres (16 ft) in height. The central Shiva relief Trimurti is located on the south wall opposite the main entrance. Also called the Sadashiva, it is the iconic form of a pancamukha linga is set in a mandala pattern with the abstract linga form of Shiva.[26] The Sadashiva is a colossal carving, a bit over 6.27 metres (20.6 ft), depicting Tatpurusha (Mahadeva), Aghora (Bhairava), Vamadeva (Uma) and Sadyojata (Nandin). The carving is unusual because the standard ancient Hindu texts for murti design state that the Tatpursha should face east, but in Elephanta it is the north face (pointing towards the main entrance). Smaller shrines are located at the east and west ends of the caves. The eastern sanctuary serves as a ceremonial entrance, and its shrine shows iconography of Shaktism tradition. Sadasiva: Trimurt
  • 73.
    73 GARBHAGRIHA the enclosedSHIVLINGA can also be seen
  • 74.
    74 Cave No 1pictures Trimurti Shiva flanked by the dvarapalas.
  • 75.
    75 The Trimurti isconsidered a masterpiece and the most important sculpture in the caves. It is carved in relief on the south wall of the cave facing the north entrance, along the north–south axis. It is also known as Sadashiva and Maheshmurti. The image, 6 m (20 ft) in height, depicts a three-headed Shiva, representing Panchamukha Shiva. The three heads represent three essential aspects of Shiva: creation, protection, and destruction. As per another version, the three heads symbolize compassion and wisdom. The right half-face (west face) shows him holding a lotus bud, depicting the promise of life and creativity. This face is symbolism for Brahma, the creator or Uma or Vamadeva, the feminine side of Shiva and creator. The left half-face (east face) is that of a moustached young man. This is Shiva as the terrifying Aghora or Bhairava, the chaos creator and destroyer. This is also known as Rudra- Shiva, the Destroyer. The central face, benign and meditative Tatpurusha, resembles the preserver Vishnu. This is the Shiva form as the "master of positive and negative principles of existence and preserver of their harmony".The three-headed Shiva are his creator, preserver and destroyer aspects in Shaivism. They are equivalently symbolism for Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma, they being equivalent of the three aspects found in Shaivism. Garbagriha at Ellora Rock Cut Caves: Located in the Sahyadri hills near Aurangabad, Ellora is the most important second-wave site of ancient rock-cut architecture in India. In the western face of one hill, composed of volcanic Basalt rock, there are 35 caves and rock-cut temples, largely produced during the reign of the Kalachuri dynasty in the 6th and 7th centuries CE. The earliest cave, the Hindu Ramesvara (no. 21), dates to the 6th century CE. Typical of early Hindu temples there is an inner sanctum (garbhagriha), a circumambulatory corridor for worshippers to walk around, vestibules with double porticoes, and extensive decoration via high-relief friezes and carvings depicting scenes from the Puranas sacred texts. This cave alsonhas carved river goddesses on the exterior, a Nandi sculpture at the entrance and inside are both a large dancing Shiva surrounded by musicians and Durga slaying the buffalo demon king. Other points of interest are the use of couple figures for brackets (salabhanjikas) as well as reliefs of elephants and mithuna (lover) figures. The Dhumar Lena cave (no. 29) seems to replicate the famous cave at Elephanta suggesting a connection between Ellora and the Kalachuris. The figure brackets of cave 21 are additional evidence of a cultural link between the two sites. Late Chalukyan Period Rajasimhesvara Temple. It Has attached mandapas, and Rajasimhesvara Temple’s two enclosed mandapas set up a single longitudinal axis.Rajasimhesvara’s precinct is packed with a phalanx of subsidiary shrines, and in fact has the beginnings of a second precinct enclosure also made of subsidiary shrines, The inner columns of the Rajasimhesvara have a simple arithmetic geometry. Garbagriha: The temple complex is complete in all respects as it has garbagriha (sanctum sanctorum), antarala (inner enclosure), mandapa, a high compound wall, and an entrance gate, the gopuram. The mandapa, which was initially detached, was made part of the main shrine by
  • 76.
    76 interposing an ardhamantapa(smaller hall). The pillars of the mandapa have the repetitive features of mythical lion mounts. The structure has a simple layout with a tower or vimana at the center of the complex. The vimana of the temple, above the main shrine (sanctum sanctorum), is square in plan and rises up in a pyramidal shape. The tower has many levels rising proportionately. At the top of this tower, there is a small
  • 77.
    77 roof in theshape of a dome. The pillar elements with mythical animal shapes (lions on the base) are extra features in Pallava style. At the entrance, the gopuram walls are plastered. Its entrance wall has eight small shrines and a gopura, precursor to the main gopura. At some later stage, the mandapa and the sanctuary were joined by an intermediate hall called the ardhamantapa, which is reported to have marred the beauty of the temple to some extent. The temple is enclosed within walls in a rectangular layout. A sculpture in one of the niches of the 58 subshrines./Sculpture depicting Shiva as Gangadhara capturing the river Ganges with a strand of his hair./Sculpture depicting Goddess Durga. The main shrine has a 16 sided Shivalinga in black granite stone deified in the sanctum sanctorum. Within the walls of the main shrine there is padabhanda adhisthana (main pedestal) with very elegantly carved images of gods with a sculpted Nandi, a little distance away giving guard to the deity. On each face of the outer walls of the main shrine there are many carvings of deities. The south facing wall the sculpture depicts Shiva as Umamaheshavara (Shiva with his consort Parvati) with Lingodbhava (emergence of Shiva as fiery pillar - linga) surrounded by Brahma and Vishnu and flying amaras on the lower level. The west facing hall has sculptures of Shiva in the form of Sandhya Tandavamurti and Urdhava Tandvamurti and the ensemble is completed with images of ganas in dancing poses and also with images of Brahma, Vishnu, Nandi and Parvati. The carving of Shiva on the north facing wall is a composition of Tripurantaka flanked by three ganas, goddess Durga with three ganas, and goddesses Bhairavi, Kaushiki and Jyestha. The exterior faces of the vimana (tower) have images of aspects of Shiva - Bhikshatana, Somaskanda and in Samhara-Tandava (destructive dancing) pose. In the inner walls of the prakara (circumambulatory passage) there is galaxy of images of Durga, Kartikeya, Bhavati, Tripurantaka, Garudarudha-Vishnu, Asura Samhara (slaying of demons), Narasimha (Vishnu's avatar), Trivikrama (another Vishnu's avatar), Shiva Tandava (Shiva in a dancing pose), Shiva severing the fifth head of Brahma, desecration of Yagna of Daksha, Brahma and his wife, Gangadhara, Urdhava tandava, Vishnu flanked by Bhudevi and Sridevi, Lingodbhava, Bhikshatana, Ravana, and Vali offering prayers to Atmalinga Chandikeshvara. The image of Ardhanariswara sitting on a bull is considered the most noteworthy among all images.
  • 78.
    78 Mandapa showing theentrance to the garbhagriha Ornate pillars in the Saraswati temple at Gadag Vimana's south facing wall has very elegant image of Shiva in a sitting posture of peace and quietude known as Dakshinamurthy, and its west wall has Shiva in the form of Lingodbhava. The tower has multiple shrines embodied on all its external faces which have the appearance of miniature shrines. These shrines have three features, the sala (rectangular), kuta (square) and panjara (apsidal) styles. Eight small shrines also decorate the entrance wall. The 58 small shrines are built into the niches of the compound wall that encloses the main shrine;hey depict Somaskanada reliefs of Shiva and his consort Parvathi in many dance forms. The temple maybe built using a geopolymer that looks like sandstone
  • 79.
  • 80.
    80 A circumambulatory passage,around the Garbagriha with a symbolic meaning is situated along the compound wall. In order to make the circumambulation, there is a narrow entry passage which devotees must crawl through. Seven steps must be climbed in order to reach the passage. Passing through the narrow passage is indicative of passage through life. After the circumambulation, the exit is through a pit or another narrow passage symbolic of death. The entry point for this passage is called Gate of Death (Tamil: இறப்பு வாசல்). It is believed that making the circumambulation round the various deities would usher the same blessings as visiting paradise. During completion of circumambulation - Crawling and coming out of the passage also indicates that your coming out of mother's womb and also explains Hindu's belief of rebirth. Hence, exit is called Gate of Birth (Tamil: பிறப்பு வாசல்). There is another belief that by completing this circumambulatory passage the possibility of rebirth is not there and you shall attain Moksha. Such passage is UNIQUE, explaining the life cycle including aging process, death and rebirth. Inverted lotus-base plinth. Of Sun Temple in Modhera The Sun Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to the solar deity Surya located at Modhera village of Mehsana district, Gujarat, India. It is situated on the bank of the river Pushpavati. It was built after 1026-27 CE during the reign of Bhima I of the Chaulukya dynasty. No worship is offered now and is protected monument maintained by Archaeological Survey of India. The temple complex has three components: Gudhamandapa, the shrine hall; Sabhamandapa, the assembly hall and Kunda, the reservoir. The halls have intricately carved exterior and pillars. The reservoir has steps to reach the bottom and numerous small shrines. PLAN; SANCTUM SANCTORUM This is called the main temple or the sanctum sanctorum of the temple. Lotus opens with sunrise and closes itself with sunset. Hence, it is considered to be sun's flower. The entire temple is therefore based on an inverted lotus-base plinth. It was designed such that the rays of the rising and setting sun on the day of equinox (length of day and night is nearly equal - 20 March and 21 September generally), fell on the bejeweled pure gold idol of Sun riding on his chariot driven by Saarthi Arun. Sun's chariot has 7 horses and Saarthi Arun sits on the 4th horse. The entire idol made of gold (including the charioteer, chariot and horses) was placed on a pit that was 15 feet deep and filled with gold coins. It was built by the Solankis in honour of their ancestral God. It was plundered by Mahmud Gazni.
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    81 Rajasthan’s only hillstation, Mount Abu, is located in the Aravalli Mountains. This makes it a popular getaway for vacationers in the region, as it promises respite from the desert heat. Apart from the conventional ‘hill station activities’, there’s a lot of sightseeing that can be done in Mount Abu. The Dilwara Jain Temples, located about 2 kilometers from here, are a respected pilgrimage destination for Jains in the region and across India. The Dilwara Jain temples are located in the lap of nature, surrounded by the canopy lush green hills and mango trees. According to historical records, these temples were built between the eleventh and the thirteenth century AD. Along with a regular influx of tourists that is steadily increasing, it is visited every year by devout Jains. The white marble temples are said to be a dedication to Jain saints. When viewed from a distance, one might wonder why these temples are respected so much for their beauty. Though the temples seem to be ordinary from the outside, it’s only when one steps inside them will one be able to marvel at the feats of artistry. The incredibly ornate marble stone carvings and the precise engraving on the temple ceilings and pillars are a photographers’ delight. The ceilings feature ornate gold leaf work, and one will possibly need to zoom in with a pair of binoculars (photography is forbidden inside the temple complex) to appreciate the finer details of the ceiling paintings. The paintings depict the stories of Jain history and mythology. Open between noon and 3 pm, the entry to these temples is free. While there are other Jain temples across Rajasthan, the Dilwara temples are unmatched in their architectural perfection. They are not only monuments – but fully functional temples that see hordes of Jains come to offer regular prayers. The temples have facilities for bathing, a necessary pre-requisite to the
  • 82.
    82 performance of ‘puja’(prayer). In the winter months, the bathing facilities are heated by solar power for bathing. The five temples have their own unique identity and are named after the villages they are located in. They are all dedicated to important Tirthankaras (saints). Vimal Vasahi: first Jain, Adinath. Luna Vasahi: 22nd Jain Tirthankara, Neminatha. Pithalhar: first Jain Tirthankar, Rishabha Parshvanath: 23rd Jain Tirthankara, Parshva. Mahavir Swami: last Jain Tirthankara, Mahavira Among these, Vimal Vasahi and Luna Vasahi are the most famed. The Vimal Vasahi Temple is made completely out of white marble. It was made by Vimal Shah, a minister of a King of Gujarat, and is dedicated to Lord Rishabha. The temple is famed for its corridors, pillars, arches, which feature miniature intricate carving. The ‘mandaps’ or the temple porticos are famous for their artistry. The Rang mandap, a grand hall, features ornate pillars and arches, an amazing central dome. The Gudh mandap is extremely simple, and houses the Adi Nath (or Lord Rishabdev’s) idol and sees regular prayer to the deity. Luna Vasahi is dedicated to Lord Neminath. It was built by brothers Vastupal and Tejpal, who were ministers of a Vaghela ruler of Gujarat. The overall design is similar to the Vimal Vashi temple. The Rang mandap’s central dome features a massive pendent with ornate carving. 72 Tirthankara figures sit in a circular band and below them are small Jain monk figures. The Navchowki features stunning marble cutting. The Gudh mandap houses a black marble 22nd Jain Tirthankar Neminatha idol. The remaining three temples of Dilwara (Pittalhar Temple, Parshvanatha Temple, and Mahavir Swami Temple) are small in size but match the elegance of the above mentioned temples. PLAN 1st Jain Tirthankara 22nd Jain Tirthankara 23rd Jain Tirthankara: There are 5 Unique Temples of Dilwara each with its own unique identity and each named after the small village in which it is located. These are: 1. Vimal Vasahi, dedicated to the first Jain Tirthankara, Rishabha. 2. Luna Vasahi, dedicated to the 22nd Jain Tirthankara, 3. Neminatha. Pithalhar, dedicated to the first Jain Tirthankar, 4. Rishabha Khartar Vasahi, dedicated to the 23rd Jain Tirthankara, 5. Parshva. Mahavir Swami, dedicated to the last Jain Tirthankara, Mahavira. The most famous of these being the Vimal Vasahi and Luna Vasahi temples. Vimal Vasahi Temple This temple carved entirely out of white marble was built in 1021 by Vimal Shah, a minister of Bhimidev I, the Chalukya King (Solanki Maharaja) of Gujarat. The temple is dedicated to Rishabha. The temple stands in an open courtyard surrounded by a corridor, which has numerous cells containing smaller idols of the Tirthankaras. The richly carved corridors, pillars, arches, and 'mandaps' or porticoes of the temple are simply amazing. The ceilings feature engraved designs of lotus-buds, petals, flowers and scenes from Jain and Hindu mythology. The Rang manda is a grand hall supported by 12 decorated
  • 83.
    83 pillars and nicelycarved out arches with a breathtaking central dome. On the pillars are carved female figurines playing musical instruments and 16 Vidhyadevis, or the goddesses of knowledge, each one holding her own symbol which is believed to be memorial of victorious Brahma Kumaris follower from last Kalpa. Garbhagriha seen Rajasthan’s only hill station, Mount Abu, is located in the Aravalli Mountains. This makes it a popular getaway for vacationers in the region, as it promises respite from the desert heat. Apart from the conventional ‘hill station activities’, there’s a lot of sightseeing that can be done in Mount Abu. The Dilwara Jain Temples, located about 2 kilometers from here, are a respected pilgrimage destination for Jains in the region and across India. The Dilwara Jain temples are located in the lap of nature, surrounded by the canopy lush green hills and mango trees. According to historical records, these temples were built between the eleventh and the thirteenth century AD. Along with a regular influx of tourists that is steadily increasing, it is visited every year by devout Jains. The white marble temples are said to be a dedication to Jain saints. When viewed from a distance, one might wonder why these temples are respected so much for their beauty. Though the temples seem to be ordinary from the outside, it’s only when one steps inside them will one be able to marvel at the feats of artistry. The incredibly ornate marble stone carvings and the precise engraving on the temple ceilings and pillars are a photographers’ delight.
  • 84.
    84 The ceilings featureornate gold leaf work, and one will possibly need to zoom in with a pair of binoculars (photography is forbidden inside the temple complex) to appreciate the finer details of the ceiling paintings. The paintings depict the stories of Jain history and mythology. Open between noon and 3 pm, the entry to these temples is free. While there are other Jain temples across Rajasthan, the Dilwara temples are unmatched in their architectural perfection. They are not only monuments – but fully functional temples that see hordes of Jains come to offer regular prayers. The temples have facilities for bathing, a necessary pre-requisite to the performance of ‘puja’ (prayer). In the winter months, the bathing facilities are heated by solar power for bathing. The Vimal Vasahi Temple is made completely out of white marble. It was made by Vimal Shah, a minister of a King of Gujarat, and is dedicated to Lord Rishabha. The temple is famed for its corridors, pillars, arches, which feature miniature intricate carving. The ‘mandaps’ or the temple porticos are famous for their artistry. The Rang mandap, a grand hall, features ornate pillars and arches, an amazing central dome. The Gudh mandap is extremely simple, and houses the Adi Nath (or Lord Rishabdev’s) idol and sees regular prayer to the deity. Luna Vasahi is dedicated to Lord Neminath. It was built by brothers Vastupal and Tejpal, who were ministers of a Vaghela ruler of Gujarat. The overall design is similar to the Vimal Vashi temple. The Rang mandap’s central dome features a massive pendent with ornate carving. 72 Tirthankara figures sit in a circular band and below them are small Jain monk figures. The Navchowki features stunning marble cutting. The Gudh mandap houses a black marble 22nd Jain Tirthankar Neminatha idol. The remaining three temples of Dilwara (Pittalhar Temple, Parshvanatha Temple, and Mahavir Swami Temple) are small in size but match the elegance of the above mentioned temples. The Navchowki is a collection of nine rectangular ceilings, each one containing beautiful carvings of different designs supported on ornate pillars. The Gudh mandap is a simple hall once you step inside its heavily decorated doorway. Installed here is the idol of Adi Nath or Lord Rishabdev, as he is also known. The mandap is meant for Aarti to the deity. The Hastishala (Elephant Cell) was constructed by Prithvipal, a descendant of Vimal Shah in 1147-49 and features a row of elephants in sculpture. Ranga mandapa – Ceiling Luna Vasahi The Luna Vashi temple is dedicated to Neminath. This magnificent temple was built in 1230 by two Porwad brothers - Vastupal and Tejpal - both ministers of a Virdhaval, the Vaghela ruler of Gujarat. The temple built in memory of their late brother Luna was designed after the Vimal Vashi temple. The main hall or Rang mandap features a central dome from which hangs a big ornamental pendent featuring elaborate carving. Arranged in a circular band are 72 figures of Tirthankars in sitting posture and just below this band are 360 small figures of Jain monks in another circular band. The Navchowki features some of the
  • 85.
    85 most magnificent anddelicate marble stone cutting work of the temple. Each of the nine ceilings here seems to exceed the others in beauty and grace. The Gudh mandap features a black marble idol of the 22nd Jain Tirthankar Neminatha. The Kirthi Stambha is a big black stone pillar that stands on the left side of the temple. The pillar was constructed by Maharana Kumbha of Mewar. The remaining three temples of Dilwara are smaller but just as elegant as the other two. This temple was built by Bhama Shah kavdia [Rajasthan]. A massive metal statue of first Jain Tirthankara Rishabha Dev (Adinath), cast in five metals, is installed in the temple. The main metal used in this statue is 'Pital' (brass), hence the name 'Pittalhar'. The Shrine consists of a main Garbhagriha, Gudh mandap and Navchowki. It seems that the construction of Rangmandap and the corridor was left unfinished. The old mutilated idol was replaced and installed in 1468- 69 AD weighing 108 maunds (about 40 quintals or four metric tons) according to the inscription on it. The image was cast by an artist 'Deta' which is 8 ft (2.4 m). high, 5.5 ft (1.7 m). broad and the figure is 41 inches (1,000 mm) in height. In Gudh Mandap on one side, a big marble Panch- Tirthi sculpture of Adinath is installed. Pittalhar Temple. The striking feature of this temple is its dome, which stands on 8 pillars. The pendant of the dome drops from the ceiling looking like a cluster of half open lotuses. Next is the Garbhagriha, which when lighted reveals the massive idol of Neminatha. There are 39 cells here each containing one or more images. Most of the ceilings in front of the cells are highly ornamented. The reliefs in the porticoes of the cells depict incidents from the life of Neminatha, his marriage, deification etc. The representation of the marriage pavilion describes the scene and portrays the reason for the conversion of Neminatha who was betrothed to Rajimati, the daughter of the king of Girnar. The Rang Mandap has a central dome from which hangs a beautifully carved ornamental pendent. 72 figures of seated Tirthankaras are portrayed in a circular band and just below this band are 360 small figures of Jain monks. The Hathishala or elephant cell features 10 beautiful marble elephants neatly polished and realistically modelled.
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    86 CHOLA ARCHITECTURE BrihadeeswaraTemple Thanjavur – 1000 AD . The key inscription on the base of the vimana where Rajaraja Chola says he built the stone temple and records the gifts that he, his sister, his queens and others gave the temple. Pichard called the vimana an “architectural audacity”. Brihadeeswarar Temple has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site under the list of ‘Great Living Chola Temples’. An approximate of 130,000 tons of granite was used in the formation of this temple. The holy shrine has a temple tower (vimana) that is built at a height of 216 feet. Being the tallest in the world, it symbolizes Mount Peru. ‘Gopuras’ or the two gateways are located at the eastern entrance of the temple. The temple’s entrance has a large statue of Nandi (sacred bull) that measures about 16 feet in length and 13 feet in height. This statue has been carved out of a single stone. ‘Kumbam’ is the topmost component of the holy shrine and weighs about 60 tons. It has been also carved out from a single granite stone. A huge idol of Lord Shiva with three eyes is present inside the temple along with the 108 dance forms or ‘karmas’. The exterior part on the other end is decorated with sculptures. There are 250 lingams in the entire temple compound. This famous sanctuary is made up of a pillared hall and an assembly hall which is known as mandapas and many sub-shrines. 8 Dikapalas: Dik- means direction; paalaka means ruler. Therefore, dikpalaka means the person who is the ruler of that direction/disha/dik. We know that there are eight direction of a
  • 87.
    87 plane surface. Alsothare are two directions vertically that is above/oordhwa/zenith/aakash and below/adho/nadir/paatal.The vertical directions are not taken into consideration in Vaasthu shastra. The inner part of the mandapas is noteworthy and is divided into various categories with the help of sculptures and pilasters. Being one of the rarest temples in India, the idols of ‘Ashta- dikpaalakas’ or guardians of directions can be found here. The six feet effigies of Agni, Varuna, Indra, Yama, Isana, Kubera and Nirriti are placed in a separate temple. Being a masterpiece in itself, the shadow of the tower over the gateway of the shrine never falls on the ground, more significantly in the premises of the temple. The altar situated at the entrance of this holy shrine has two idols of Lord Ganesha. When a person taps on any one of the idols, a sound occurs that travels towards the other idol slanting through the stone at one end and the metal to another. There are many pillars of the temple that produce such musical sounds. It has a double portico of 450 m perimeter running all around the structure contains 252 lingas in black stone arranged under corbelled vaults carried on 400 pillars all around The wall behind the portico is beautifully painted Technicals of the Garbagrha of Hindu Temples Garbhagṛha, “sanctum” is the nucleus of the temple. It is the place where the main deity of the temple is installed. The Canons prescribe that the shape of the garbhagṛha may be (on plan): 6. caturaśra (square), 7. āyata (rectangular), 8. vṛtta (cicular), 9. āyatavṛtta (elliptical) 10. or vṛttāyata (ovoid). The square and circular garbhagṛhas are constructed for the installation of the deities in sthāṇaka (standing) or āsīna (seated) postures. While in the other varieties, deities in śayana (reclining) posture or group of deities standing or sitting in a row are to be installed. Mānasāra mentions that if the plan of the garbhagṛha is square or circular, it is called puruṣa (Male) and if it is rectangular it is called vanitā (Female). Male deities can be installed in a square, circular or rectangular garbhagṛha, while the female deity should always be installed in a rectangular garbhagṛha. Garbhagṛha ( “womb-house”).—When combined the two words [garbha (womb) and gṛha (accommodation)] become garbhagṛha (womb-house). It denotes the sanctum sanctorum, or shrine of a sacred space, especially that of a Hindu temples. The sanctum sanctorum is the most central and fundamental component of any sacred architecture. What garbha (womb) is to the human body gṛha (accommodation) and guhā (cave) are to the world of habitation. What gṛha is to the world of habitation garbhagṛha is to the sacred architecture. In garbha resides the foetus, the genesis of a being. In gṛha, resides the gṛhastha, the family man—the microcosm, a unit, of which the multiples make a society, and which is opposed to the macrocosmic sphere of civilization. In the microcosmic sphere of
  • 88.
    88 the garbhagṛha, theGod resides, who is referred to as the macrocosm in religions, the omnipresent, all-pervading entity. Garbhagṛha refers to the “sanctum sanctorum”, a common concept found in the ancient Indian “science of architecture” (vāstuvidyā).—Garbhagṛha is the sanctum sanctorum, where the presiding deity is installed. Garbhagṛha Mūlasthāna sanctum-sanctorum of the Hindu Temple.—Each temple has a mūlasthāna or garbhagṛha (sanctum-sanctorum) and many subsidiary sanctums. The temples here selected for the study of the mūla beras are temples specially dedicated to Śiva, Viṣṇu, Subrahmaṇya, and Pārvatī. In these garbhagṛhas, there are icons of gods and goddesses, namely, Śiva and His manifestations like Naṭarāja; Pārvatī and the Śakti avatāras; Viṣṇu and His other forms and incarnations; Brahmā, Lakṣmī, Sarasvatī, Subrahmaṇya, Valli, Deivāṇai (also known as Deviyāni or Devasena), and Gaṇapati. Vastushastra refers to the ancient Indian science (shastra) of architecture (vastu), dealing with topics such architecture, sculpture, town-building, fort building and various other constructions. Vastu also deals with the philosophy of the architectural relation with the cosmic universe. Shilpashastra (iconography) Shilpashastra represents the ancient Indian science (shastra) of creative arts (shilpa) such as sculpture, iconography and painting. Closely related to Vastushastra (architecture), they often share the same literature. Discover the meaning of garbhagriha or garbhagrha in the context of Shilpashastra from relevant books on Exotic India
  • 89.
    89 In Shaivism (Shaivaphilosophy) Shaiva represents a tradition of Hinduism worshiping Shiva as the supreme being. Closely related to Shaktism, Shaiva literature includes a range of scriptures, including Tantras, while the root of this tradition may be traced back to the ancient VedasIt is only the physical structure. It is transformed into sannidhi after the invoking of the Lord. This explains why, in the Śaiva Siddhānta tradition, the temple is conceived as a space where the deity is invited to reside in the garbhagṛha. The temple’s spiritual energy can be sustained only if the deity’s sāniddhya remains unsullied. Therefore the most important dharma of the Ādiśaiva priest is to maintain the “presence” and sanctity of the deity by offering regular pūjā as prescribed. Only then can the temple be a storehouse of energy for the public. Only then can the devotees find their God in the sanctum. This he does through pūjā. Location: It is the location in the temple where the primary form of a deity resides) is only the physical structure. It is transformed into sannidhi (Sanctum Sanctorum) after the invoking of the Lord. This explains why, in the Śaiva Siddhānta tradition, the temple is conceived as a space where the deity is a special guest invited to reside in the garbhagṛha . . Girbhagriha in Tamil: In Tamil language Girbha griha is called karuvarai meaning the interior of the sanctumnsanctorum. It is the iner- most of the sanctum and focus of the temple, where the image of the primary deity resides. The word karuarai means "womb chamber". The word' karu' means foetus and arai means a room. Only the priests are allowed to enter this innermost chamber. Female Deities: temples of feminine deities, the garbagriha is rectangular. For example, in the temple of Varahi Deula in Chaurasi.The present structure of most of these temples is a two-
  • 90.
    90 storeyed vimana witha square garbhagriha and a surrounding circumambulatory path, an ardha- mandapa and a narrower maha-mandapa. The Latin word sanctum is the neuter form of the adjective "holy", and sanctorum its genitive plural. Thus the term sanctum sanctorum literally means "the holy [place/thing] of the holy [places/things]", replicating in Latin the Hebrew construction for the superlative, with the intended meaning "the most holy [place/thing]". The Latin phrase sanctum sanctorum has wrongly been considered the translation of the Hebrew term Qṓḏeš HaQŏḏāšîm (Holy of Holies) which generally refers in Latin texts to the holiest place of the Tabernacle of the Israelites and later the Temples in Jerusalem, but also has some derivative use in application to imitations of the Tabernacle in church architecture. The correct translation is the plural form sancta sanctorum, arguably as a synecdoche, used also to refer to the holy relics contained in the sanctuary. The Vulgate translation of the Bible uses sancta sanctorum for the Holy of Holies. Hence the derivative usage to denote the Sancta Sanctorum chapel in the complex of the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, Rome. In Hinduism, a temple's innermost part where the cult image (Murti) of the deity is kept forms the Garbha griha, also referred to as a sanctum sanctorum. The Enclosed House: The garbhagriha in Hindu temple architecture (a shrine inside a temple complex where the main deity is installed in a separate building by itself inside the complex) has also been compared to a "sanctum sanctorum" in texts on Hindu temple architecture, though the Sanskrit term actually means "enclosed house" or "the deep interior of the house". However, some Indian English authors seem to have translated the Sanskrit term literally as "womb house". sanctum sanctorum, Garbhagriha is the sanctum sanctorum, the innermost sanctuary of a Hindu and Jain temples where resides the murti (idol or icon) of the primary deity of the temple. In Jainism, the main deity is known as the Mulnayaka. Literally the word means "womb chamber", from the Sanskrit words garbha for womb and griha for house. Generally in Hinduism only 'priests' (pujari) are allowed to enter this chamber. Although the term is often associated with Hindu temples, it is also found in Jain and Buddhist temples. Jain temple architecture is generally close to Hindu temple architecture, and in ancient times Buddhist architecture. Normally the same builders and carvers worked for all religions, and regional and period styles are generally similar. For over 1,000 years the basic layout of a Hindu or most Jain temples has consisted of a small garbhagriha or sanctuary for the main murti or cult images, over which the high superstructure rises, then one or more larger mandapa halls Architecture: The Garbagriha has a single entrance, normally facing east to be accessed by the rising sun, and no windows. It is normally square, and at least approximately a cube, with the representation of the temple's deity placed in the centre, so that it can be seen by worshippers outside. Relative to the size of the temple, and especially the large tower arising over it, it is a rather small room, and there is no view from below up into the shikhara or tower, which is treated as completely solid, although in fact for structural reasons it very often includes a hollow space. In the great majority of temples with a tower superstructure, a shikhara (in the north) or vimana (in the south), this chamber is placed directly underneath it, and the two of them form the main vertical axis of the temple. These together may be understood to represent the axis of the world through Mount Meru. The garbha griham is usually also on the main horizontal axis of
  • 91.
    91 the temple whichgenerally is an east–west axis. In those temples where there is also a cross-axis, the garbha gṛha is generally at their intersection. Generally the garbhagriha is a windowless and sparsely lit chamber, intentionally created thus to focus the devotee's mind on the tangible form of the divine within it. Entrance to the Hindu garbhagrha is very often restricted to priests who perform the services there, and in temples in active worship (as opposed to historic monuments) normally to Hindus at the least. In Jain temples all suitably bathed and purified Jains are allowed inside. In the Dravida style, the garbhagriha took the form of a miniature vimana with other features exclusive to southern Indian temple architecture such as the . inner wall together with the outer wall creating a pradakshina around the garbhagriha. The entrance is highly decorated. The inner garbhagriha or shrine became a separate structure, more elaborately adorned over time. The garbhagriha is normally square and sits on a plinth, its location calculated to be a point of total equilibrium and harmony as it is representative of a microcosm of the Universe. In the centre is placed the image of the deity. In some early temples it is not quite square, and in some later ones may be rectangular where more than one deity is worshipped and has an image there. There are a very few examples of
  • 92.
    92 larger variance; thechamber at Gudimallam is both semi-circular at the rear, and set below the main floor level of the temple. The famous 7th-century Durga temple, Aihole has a rounded apse at the garbagriha end, which is echoed in the shape of the chamber. Garbagriha- Nirmaljhar temple In any Hindu temple, this is the most important and the most sacred area as it hosts the deity itself. All the puja i.e. offerings like flowers, fruits etc are made inside this area. In some of the temples, it is strictly forbidden to enter this area. Examples are the temples in Kerala like guruvayur, temples in dakshina kannada and udupi districts of Karnataka etc. In other temples, one can enter this area up to a certain extent, but is not allowed to go near or touch the idols. Most of the temples in India follow this. The third category is where one can enter this area and even touch the idols. Examples are temple like vittala temple in pandharpur. Sanctum Generally the garbhagrihas are square in shape. Some garbhagrihas, which are longer, and against the principle 84 axis, also can be seen. Garbhagriha used to be very small in the beginning and could admit only one worshipper at a time, though the shrine was meant for public and the basic shrine, sanctum alone constituted the real temple. This type of single cell shrines also can be seen in the present day temple architecture, which are mainly dedicated to the Mother Goddess or gramadevatha or gramapurush. The temple should consist of a sanctum in which the icon is to be installed and housed. The structural involvements nearby the temple are also essential for the principal worship and rituals. Texts like Sri Prasna describes that the sanctum is the body of the divinity and the icon is its soul (Jiva). Usually it is a stone structure, square in shape and simply plain with some projected slabs in the wall or niches. There should not be any pillars in the sanctum hall. The sanctum should be provided with windows for air and light, which eventually help in preservation of the icon. In olden days, the wooden stucco or clay windows were provided to the sanctum. The sanctum represented then by an empty low platform (Vedi) in the dark room. A copper vessel (kumbha), a sacrificial fire place (kunda) or a sculpted icon (bimba) used to be placed on a seat in the dark room to prevent ill effects of weathering besides the mystery of the
  • 93.
    93 divine presence inthe sanctum. The sanctum was usually built in stone, but constructions in brick are not rare 6 . Vishnu Tilaka mentions that while the stone sanctum is the best, the brick one is the next best. The wooden sanctum however is inferior and the mud sanctum is to be considered the worst '. 85 The sanctum of the temple must be constructed first. Before construction of the sanctum a significant ceremony known as 'impregnating' (Garbha-dana or Garbha-Nyasa) should be performed. This ritual involves letting into the earth a ceremonial copper pot containing nine precious stones, several metals and minerals, herbs and soil (purified earth by ants), symbolizing creation and prosperity. The building that contains the womb is said to be prosperous. After completion of this ritual, a stone slab (Adhara-sila) is placed over the spot. The copper pot here symbolizes the womb and the icon symbolizes the soul. This is the significance of the sanctum, which is called the 'womb-house' 8 . Texts like Silparatna, Tantra- Samuchchaya and Isana-Shivaguru Paddhati give an elaborate account of this ritual. When the arrangement of the garbhagriha is more than one in some temples, they are called as a Dwikutachala, Trikutachala temples and so on. In a few temples, projecting slabs and niches are found in the walls of garbhagrihas. (e.g. Tambdi Surla temple has projecting slabs and in Mahadeva Temple at Curdi have niches). The functional aspects of these are for providing space for keeping certain objects used for worship. These niches and projected slabs are provided according to their convenience and orientation of the temple entrance e.g. projected slabs in Mahadeva temple Tambdi Surla were fixed in the western wall of the sanctum (rear wall), while a recessed niche was provided in the Mahadeva Temple at Curdi in the southern wall of the sanctum. Some garbhagrihas will have a stone projection from the rear wall of sanctum touching the image kept at the centre. The images of deities in standing posture are of considerable height. The centre of gravity of such images falls backwards away from the centre because the weight of the rear portion of the Prahhavali is heavier than that of the front portion of the image. Though images are fixed on pithas by inserting projecting tenon into the sockets, the possibility of their fall cannot be ruled out. Under these circumstances, the images need support at a higher level from the rear wall (e.g., Temple of Lakshminarayana at Balaganur and Sangameswar at Kurdi in Raichur district of Karnataka). Most of the temples in Goa have the main deity at the centre of the sanctum and placed over pranala. Some garbhagrihas, which are longer, and against the principle 84 axis, also can be seen. Garbhagriha used to be very small in the beginning and could admit only one worshipper at a time, though the shrine was meant for public and the basic shrine, sanctum alone constituted the real temple. This type of single cell shrines also can be seen in the present day temple architecture, which are mainly dedicated to the Mother Goddess or gramadevatha or gramapurush. The temple should consist of a sanctum in which the icon is to be installed and housed. The structural involvements nearby the temple are also essential for the principal worship and rituals. Texts like Sri Prasna describes that the sanctum is the body of the divinity and the icon is its soul (Jiva). Usually it is a stone structure, square in shape and simply plain with some projected slabs in the wall or niches. There should not be any pillars in the sanctum hall. The sanctum should be provided with windows for air and light, which eventually help in preservation of the icon. In olden days, the wooden stucco or clay windows were provided to the sanctum.
  • 94.
    94 The sanctum representedthen by an empty low platform (Vedi) in the dark room. A copper vessel (kumbha), a sacrificial fire place (kunda) or a sculpted icon (bimba) used to be placed on a seat in the dark room to prevent ill effects of weathering besides the mystery of the divine presence in the sanctum. The sanctum was usually built in stone, but constructions in brick are not rare 6 . Vishnu Tilaka mentions that while the stone sanctum is the best, the brick one is the next best. The wooden sanctum however is inferior and the mud sanctum is to be considered the worst '. The sanctum of the temple must be constructed first. Before construction of the sanctum a significant ceremony known as 'impregnating' (Garbha-dana or Garbha-Nyasa) should be performed. This ritual involves letting into the earth a ceremonial copper pot containing nine precious stones, several metals and minerals, herbs and soil (purified earth by ants), symbolizing creation and prosperity. The building that contains the womb is said to be prosperous. After completion of this ritual, a stone slab (Adhara-sila) is placed over the spot. The copper pot here symbolizes the womb and the icon symbolizes the soul. This is the significance of the sanctum, which is called the 'womb-house' 8 . Texts like Silparatna, Tantra-Samuchchaya and Isana- Shivaguru Paddhati give an elaborate account of this ritual. When the arrangement of the garbhagriha is more than one in some temples, they are called as a Dwikutachala, Trikutachala temples and so on. In a few temples, projecting slabs and niches are found in the walls of garbhagrihas. (e.g. Tambdi Surla temple has projecting slabs and in Mahadeva Temple at Curdi have niches). The functional aspects of these are for providing space for keeping certain objects used for worship. These niches and projected slabs are provided according to their convenience and orientation of the temple entrance e.g. projected slabs in Mahadeva temple Tambdi Surla were fixed in the western wall of the sanctum (rear wall), while a recessed niche was provided in the Mahadeva Temple at Curdi in the southern wall of the sanctum. Some garbhagrihas will have a stone projection from the rear wall of sanctum touching the image kept at the centre. The images of deities in standing posture are of considerable height. The centre of gravity of such images falls backwards away from the centre because the weight of the rear portion of the Prahhavali is heavier than that of the front portion of the image. Though images are fixed on pithas by inserting projecting tenon into the sockets, the possibility of their fall cannot be ruled out. Under these circumstances, the images need support at a higher level from the rear wall (e.g., Temple of Lakshminarayana at Balaganur and Sangameswar at Kurdi in Raichur district of Karnataka). Most of the temples in Goa have the main deity at the centre of the sanctum and placed over pranala. Pradakshinipatha: All around the sanctum a passage is kept often narrow, permitting the devotees to pass round the sanctum in the customary act of devotion. This circumambulatory path (Pradakshinirpath or hhrama) subsequently became a structural involvement as the temple grew in size; it was more open naturally, as it was in the early phase. The temple, which has the circumbulatory passage, is known as Sandhara temple, e.g. Jain temple at Kudne and the temples of Ponda and Bardez talukas have this feature. The temple, which doesn't have pradakshinapatha is known as Niradhara temple e.g. Mahadeva temples of Curdi and Tambdi Surla, Saptakoteswar temple at Opa, Agasthipur temple etc.". Sikhara Sikhara or superstructureis the top member of a shrine. A flat roof stone slab that covers the sanctum is also called as Kapota. Flat roof (Kapota) of the sanctum on which the tower rests and rises is over-laid by a single stone slab, known in the
  • 95.
    95 texts as 'Brahmarandra sila' (the stone). This serves as the base (adhisthana) for the superstructure that rises above the sanctum known as Vimana or Sikhara', which forms the important part of the temple.
  • 96.
    96 According to Shivpuran,only a half-parikrama of Shivalinga should be carried out. This is because Shiva is Anadi and Anant himself. He has immense energy and the energy or Shakti flowing out is represented through Nirmili (the outlet for milk and water designed in modern-day Shivlinga). Image Credits: Patrika News It’s said that Shiva’s Shakti is so fierce that none could ever interfere or come in the line of it. Whoever does it has to face the wrath of Lord Shiva. As per an old legend, once King Gandharva who was a Shiva devotee over-stepped the Nirmili while performing the ‘Abhishek’ on Shivlinga during the Parikrama. This resulted in losing all his might, power and intellect. Nirmili is a sacred part of the Shivling and must never be over-stepped. Therefore, it is advised to only perform half-parikrama of Shivlinga to avoid stepping over the Nirmili.
  • 97.
    97 Another reason accordingto Shastras : The Shastras prescribe only a half pradkashina for Shiva.That is why we do not complete the pradakshina. For the Pancha Devata Deities therules(for pradakshina ) are as follows: Eka Chandaya Raveh Sapta Tirstra Karya Vinayake|| Hareschatarstrah Kartabyah Shivasya ardha Pradkshina|| (For Durga(Chandi) (one should do) 1 pradkshina,for Surya(Ravi) 7,for Ganesha(Vinayaka) 3,for Vishnu(Hari) 4 & for Shiva only 1/2. Refer to image above.The pradakshina should not go beyond the "Gomukhi".As the holy water constantly drips and gets collected there(this is the most rational reason i can think of). By half pradakshina is meant a "SomaSutra Pradakshina" as stated in the next Sloka: Shivam PradaksiniKurvanSomasutram na Langhayeth,Iti Vachanantaraat.
  • 98.
    98 (While doing ShivaPradakshina the order(of Shastras) is that one should not break the Somasutra). By Somasutra is meant the Half Moon like curve that is traced out in the process. n Shiva temples, the devotees start the Pradakshina as usual from the front and go clockwise till they reach the gomukhi (the outlet for abhisheka water) from the Sanctum Sanctorum. As usual, the clockwise perambulation is maintained outside of the Bali stones. The outlet for the ritual ablution offered on the Shiva Linga with water, milk, curd, coconut water, ghee, ashes (bhasma), etc. is not to be crossed. So the worshippers have to return in an anti-clockwise direction till they reach the other side of the outlet to complete the circle. During this anti-clockwise perambulation, the devotee should tread a path inside of the Bali stones. The Bali stones are always to be kept on the right side of the devotees. After reaching the drainage outlet, they have to return to the front in the clockwise direction keeping the path outside the Bali stones. Thus one Pradakshina is completed. No women in Garbagriha: Siva temples are built based on the Saiva agama (essentially the rule book for building a temple). Any temple that is built according to this system usually does not allow anyone entering the sanctum sanctorum. Primarily because Saiva agama says that anyone who steps on the Abhisheka jalam on foot will lose all his/her punya accumulated thus far. The result of Punya is comfort and since we lose all punya, we won’t be left with any comforts for the remainder of lives.
  • 99.
    99 For a Sivalingam abhishekam is an always on process. It never ceases. It is a rule that always the Dhaara Patra must keep dropping water on It. The exception to this is the priest since according to the agama, Siva resides in 8 parts in the temple and priest is one of them. Secondly, to perform worship of Siva Lingam is one step above the idol worship. It is not same as an idol. It is called ‘Aruparupi’, meaning one with and without form. Worship of Siva Lingam requires more levels of meditation than the idol worship. The rule is that one who is not Siva cannot worship Siva. Therefore, to perform Abhishekam, one must follow a process of submission called ‘Mahanyasam’. In this process, one has a dress code that no upper cloth is allowed. One has to instill different forms of the Lord on different parts of the body along with the application of Bhasma on the body. For all practical reasons, this is not possible for women. Therefore, only men are suggested to be allowed inside the Garbha Griha. One more reason for not allowing people inside is that there is no ‘punah pratishtah’ for a siva lingam unlike temples with idols. However, there are exceptions where some temples allow everyone to visit and touch the Siva Lingam. Kasi Viswanath temple allows and Grusneswar temple in Maharashtra also allows. Instead of worrying about being not allowed inside, it is better if we (regardless of gender) pray from outside with the hope that it is for our best interest. Lastly and most importantly, our worship has to have an essential ingredient called ‘devotion’. The one with devotion will only be accepted by Lord and one without devotion cannot please the Lord even by worshipping Him with diamonds or anything one feels is the most precious. Others allow- I have done the Lord Shiva pooja in Garbha gruha, normally during Monday's and specifically on Shivaratri. Ladies were always allowed to attend the pooja in Garbha gruha. So not sure as why question came up. Could be a specific Temple issue! Please do not genaralise this. Woman have equal rights in Hindu darma. Actually speaking, woman have more rights, only during last 1000 years, due to various invasions faced by India, things have changed. This must be the case of a few specific temples. In all the Shiva temples I have been to, either the garbha griha is off the limits for all visitors, or men and women may enter them alike. Apart from the many smaller Shiva Temples I have visited, the above is true of all the major Shiva temples to which I have been a pilgrim - including Kashi Vishwanath, Vaidyanath Dham in Deoghar, Mahakaleshwar in Ujjain, Omkareshwar, Nageshwar in Gujarat, and the Dvadash Shivas in Dakshineshwar.There are no restrictions in some other temples. I cannot think of any possible reason except sexism, by a handful of people. Women, since the ages, have been the most enthusiastic devotees of Shiva. Shiva Ratri rituals are dominated by women across the country. His biggest worshipper, the One Who could break His trance, is Goddess Parvati, and She was no male.
  • 100.
    100 No statute buta symbol: In all Shiva temples, the identity of Lord Shiva. Lord Shiva is also called as Jyotirlingam that means, His original /real form (shape, design, frame) is a Divine Light. He does not have a physical body like us, because, He is ajanma (the one who has no birth). He is also known as swoyambhu (that appears on its own) because when He comes from Supreme abode (Brahm Lok) to this earth to rejuvenate and purify (Patitpavan) it, He does not take birth (ayonija) like us, but enters into an experienced old man and imparts Brahm Gyan to all. Subsequently, He names the old man as Brahma (that's why Lord Brahma is shown with white beards and moustaches; no other deities are shown with beards etc). So, this Jyotirlingam is Parambrahm (Supreme Soul). We should not confuse and say that, Shiva (Parambrahm) and Shankar (Mahadev) is one and the same. Please recall your school days prayers which says “Guru Brahma guru Vishnu guru Dev Maheswara, Guru sakshat Parambrahm tasmey Sri gurave namah”. It clearly says that Parambrahm is different from Maheswar/Mahadev”. So, I hope, you got your answer that, since Jyotirlingam God Shiva does not have a physical body, no statue like other deities is shown in Shivalaya (not Shankaralaya). The ovel shaped statue that is shown in Shivalaya is coined from the flame (Light) of a sacred earthen lamp (Deepam) to represent Divine Light. It is said that, prior to invade of foreign rulers over India, the ovel shaped statues of Lord Shiva were made of diamonds to represent the glowing light of Jyotirlingam. But when the invaders looted those glowing diamonds, the devotees compelled to go for black marble statues.
  • 101.
  • 102.
    102 1. ROCK TEMPLE ChennakeshavaTemple, also referred to as Keshava, Kesava or Vijayanarayana Temple of Belur
  • 103.
    103 Chennakeshava Temple, alsoreferredto as Keshava, Kesava or Vijayanarayana Temple of Belur, is a 12th-century Hindu temple in the Hassan district of Karnataka state, India. It was commissioned by King Vishnuvardhana in 1117 CE, on the banks of the Yagachi River in Belur also called Velapura, an early Hoysala Empire capital. The temple was built over three generations and took 103 years to finish. It was repeatedly damaged and plundered during wars, repeatedly rebuilt and repaired over its history. It is 35 km from Hassan city and about 200 km from Bengaluru. Chennakesava (lit, "handsome Kesava") is a form of the Hindu god Vishnu. The temple is dedicated to Vishnu and has been an active Hindu temple since its founding. It is reverentially described in medieval Hindu texts, and remains an important pilgrimage site in Vaishnavism. The temple is remarkable for its architecture, sculptures, reliefs, friezes as well its iconography, inscriptions and history. The temple artwork depicts scenes of secular life in the 12th century, dancers and musicians, as well as a pictorial narration of Hindu texts such as the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas through numerous friezes.[1][4][5] It is a Vaishnava temple that reverentially includes many themes from Shaivism and Shaktism, as well as images of a Jina from Jainism and the Buddha from Buddhism. The Chennakeshava temple is a testimony to the artistic, cultural and theological perspectives in 12th century South India and the Hoysala Empire rule. The Belur temple complex along with the nearby Hindu and Jain Temples at Halebidu have been proposed to be listed under UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
  • 104.
    104 The Chennakeshava Templeis an active Hindu temple and a major Vaishnava pilgrimage site. It is located on the banks of Yagachi River (also called Badari River in historic texts), a tributary of Hemavati River. Example Belur temple inscription in Sanskrit, written in Old Kannada script/ Artwork at Chennakeshava temple. The Hoysala period of South Indian history began about 1000 CE and continued through 1346 CE. In this period, they built around 1,500 temples in 958 centres. Belur is called Beluhur, Velur or Velapura in old inscriptions and medieval era texts. It was the early capital of the Hoysala kings. The city was so esteemed by the Hoysalas that it is referred to as "earthly Vaikuntha" (Vishnu's abode) and "dakshina Varanasi" (southern holy city of Hindus) in later inscriptions. One of the Hoyasala kings was Vishnuvardhana, who came to power in 1110 CE. He commissioned the Chennakeshava temple dedicated to Vishnu in 1117 CE, a temple considered as one of "five foundations" of his legacy. According to Dhaky – a scholar of Indian temple architecture and temple history, this temple reflects the rising opulence, political power, deep spiritual dedication to Sri Vaishnavism of Ramanujacharya, and it is his magnum opus. The main temple is called Vijaya-Narayana and the smaller temple next to it built by his queen Santala Devi is called Chennakesava in the inscriptions of his era, but these two temples are now called the Chennakesava temple and Chennigaraya temple respectively. The main Chennakeshava temple at Belur was complete and consecrated in 1117 CE,[10] though the complex continued to expand over 100 some years.[1] Vishnuvardhana moved his capital to Dorasamudra, (also referred to as Dvarasamudra, now Halebidu), famous for the Hoysaleswara Temple dedicated to Shiva. Its construction continued till he died in 1140 CE. His legacy was continued by his descendants who completed the Hoysaleswara Temple in 1150 CE, and other temples about 200 kilometers away such as the Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura in 1258 CE. The Hoysalas employed many noted architects and artisans who developed a new architectural tradition, which art historian Adam Hardy calls the Karnata Dravida tradition.
  • 105.
    105 The Hoysala Empireand its capital was invaded, plundered and destroyed in the early 14th century by Malik Kafur, a commander of the Delhi Sultanate ruler Alauddin Khalji.[12] Belur and Halebidu became the target of plunder and destruction in 1326 CE by another Delhi Sultanate army.[13] The territory was taken over by the Vijayanagara Empire. The Hoysala style, states James C. Harle, came to an end in the mid 14th century, when Hoysala king Veera Ballala III was killed in a war with the Muslim Madurai Sultanate followed by his son. Inscriptions Historians have found 118 inscriptions in the temple complex, dated between 1117 CE to the 18th century, which provide a history of the temple, the grants made to the Chennakeshava temple for its upkeep and the repairs during later times.  An inscription found on the east wall near the north entrance of the temple's main mandapa (hall) states that Vishnuvardhana commissioned the temple for god Vijayanarayana in 1117 CE. Some historians have interpreted this inscription as stating that the Chennakeshava Temple was completed in 1117 CE.  The Chennigaraya temple was built concurrently with the main temple, and the queen sponsored it.  Narasimha I of Hoysala dynasty made grants to the temple for its maintenance and operation.  Ballala II in 1175 CE added temple buildings for kitchen and grain storage in the southeast corner, and a water tank in the northeast corner of the temple.  The original temple was without boundary wall. The main mandapa was also open for the devotees to view and appreciate the intricate carvings inside the temple. For security of the temple, a high wall was constructed around the temple, a wood-and-brick gateway and doors added by Somayya Danayaka during the rule of Veera Ballala III (1292–1343), as well as the open mandapa was covered with perforated stone screens. The new screens darkened the inside of the temple making it difficult to see the artwork but allowed enough light for the darshana of the garbha griya.  The temple was raided, damaged and its gateway was burnt down in a raid by a Muslim general Salar and his army working for Muhammed bin Tughlaq (1324-1351).  The temple was repaired by the Vijayanagara Empire under the sponsorship of Harihara II (1377–1404). In 1381, they added four granite pillars; in 1387, a gold plated kalasa was added by Malagarasa to a new tower above the sanctum; it added a new seven storey brick gopurum in 1397 replacing the destroyed gateway.  An Andal shrine, the Saumyanayaki shrine, the dipa-stambha at the entrance, the Rama and Narasimha shrines were added during the Vijayanagara Empire era.  The main temple had a shikara (superstructure tower) but it is now missing and the temple looks flat. The original tower, suggest the inscriptions, was made of a combination of wood, brick and mortar. It was destroyed and rebuilt several times.  The Vijayanagara Empire sponsored the addition of smaller shrines dedicated to goddesses and the Naganayakana mandapa within the temple complex. These were constructed by collecting the war ruins of other demolished temples in Belur area and reusing them.  The temple premises were again damaged after the destruction of Vijayanagara Empire by a coalition of Sultanates. The first repairs were done in 1709, followed by additions in 1717 and 1736. The temple was repaired in 1774 by an officer of Hyder Ali during a period when Hyder Ali was the de facto ruler on behalf of the Wadiyar dynasty.
  • 106.
    106  In late19th-century, the collapsing tower above the sanctum was removed to save the lower levels and never replaced. In 1935, parts of the temple was cleaned and restored with financing by the Mysore government and grants by the Wadiyar dynasty. The Chennigaraya shrine was rebuilt, new images of Ramanuja and Garuda added along with many other facility improvements and repairs to the complex. These repairs were inscribed in stone for a historical record, just like earlier inscriptions. Chennakeshava temples and monuments layout The Chennakeshava complex at Belur consists of a 443.5 feet by 396 feet court with several Hindu temples and minor shrines inside a walled compound. The compound is entered from the east through a Gopuram added during the repairs of the Vijayanagar empire era. The temples and monuments found inside the walled complex are:  Chennakesava temple, also called as Kesava temple, is the main temple. It is in the middle of the complex, faces east, in front of the gopuram. Including the improvements added later, it is 178 feet by 156 feet. The temple stands on a wide platform terrace (jagati) about 3 feet high. The temple is dedicated to Vishnu in the form of Kesava.
  • 107.
    107  To thesouth of the Kesava temple is the Kappe Chennigaraya temple measuring 124 feet by 105 feet. It has two sanctums inside, one dedicated to Venugopala and the other to Chennigaraya (local popular name of Chennakeshava, Vishnu). The temple is called Kappe Chennigaraya because, according to a local legend, a Kappe (frog) was once found near its navel. This smaller temple was built by the queen concurrently with the main temple, and is believed to be similar smaller version  A stone slab with a couple standing side by side in a namaste posture under a canopy. The monument is damaged. Temples and monuments of Chennakeshava complex Eastern gopuram Kesavatemple View from center-southwest Templesin the west end Andal temple Water tank inside the complex The Chennakeshava temple includes a number of smaller shrines and monuments. To the west of the Kesava temple is the Viranarayana temple measuring 70 feet by 56 feet. It is a small but complete temple with a navaranga (nine square hall) and a garbha griya (sanctum) with 59 large reliefs on the outer walls. These reliefs are dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma, Bhairava (angry Shiva), Lakshmi, Parvati, Saraswati and others. Some panels depict the Bhima story from the Mahabharata. The temple is also dated to the 12th century.
  • 108.
    108 To the southwestof the Kesava temple is a small temple to Somyanayaki (form of the goddess Lakshmi), also dated to the 12th century. However, the temple was expanded and enhanced later. This temple is notable because the local tradition holds that its tower is miniature version of the major tower that once rose above the main Kesava temple. The Andal temple, also called Ranganayaki shrine, is to the northwest of the Kesava temple. Its outer wall are decorated with artwork such as elephants and nature. It also displays 31 large images of deities from the Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism traditions of Hinduism. It also has intricately carved Venugopala, Mohini and Lakshmi, as well as friezes showing legends in the Puranas. The complex has a number of small shrines. To the east of Kappe-Chennigaraya temple are shrines for Narasimha, Rama, Jiyar and Alvars of the Bhakti movement fame. To the east of Andal temple are shrines for Krishna, and Vaishnavism scholars Desikar, Bhashyakara and Ramanuja of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta fame. On the base of the shrines for Alvars are friezes showing stories from the Ramayana. Some of these shrines were added later because few of these scholars such as Desikar lived after the 12th century. Two main sthambha (pillars) are found in the temple complex. The pillar facing the main temple, the Garuda (eagle) sthambha was erected in the Vijayanagar period while the pillar on the right, the Deepa sthambha (pillar with lamp) dates from the Hoysala period. Near the Viranarayana temple is a mandapa where annual procession ratha and temple vehicles have traditionally been stored. It is called vahana mandapa. The complex also has a kalyana-mandapa in the southeast corner for ceremonies. It was added in the 17th century. A granary for storing food reserves is found in the northwest corner of the complex. There is smaller northern gate to the complex, near which is a pakasale or community kitchen built in the 13th century. A stepped water tank, called kalyani or Vasudeva-sarovara in inscriptions, is found in the northeast corner with two stone elephants on its side. The complex has many other small monuments and features, such as the ane-bagilu or "elephant's gate" just south of the gopuram and a memorial of past destruction in the form of pillars and statues in the northwestern part of the complex. Main temple: Kesava The temple is a ekakuta vimana design (single shrine) of 10.5 m by 10.5 m size. It combines elements of North Indian Nagara and South Indian Karnata style architecture. The temple stands on an open and wide platform designed to be a circumambulatory path around the sanctum. The
  • 109.
    109 temple and platformwere without walls and the platform surrounded an open mantapa, following the contour of the temple. A visitor would have been able to see the ornate pillars of the open mantapa from the platform. Later walls and stone screens were added, creating an enclosed vestibule and mantapa, providing security but creating too much dark to appreciate the artwork inside. The vestibule connects the circumambulatory platform to the mandapa (hall). There is intricate and abundant artwork both on the outside and inside the temple. The temple has a simple Hoysala plan and features one sanctum. The building material used in the Chennakesava temple is chloritic schist, more commonly known as soapstone. It is soft when quarried and allows artists to more easily carve details. Over time the material hardens. This Hoysala temple, according to the art critic and historian Settar, deployed the Western Chalukyan artists and their tradition that originally developed in Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal. It is simpler than later Hoysala temples (including the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu and the Keshava temple at Somanathapura). Bands of carvings on one side of the circumambulatory platform. Platform The temple is built on a jagati (literally, "worldly"), a symbolic worldly platform with a wide walking space for circumambulation (pradakshina-patha). There is one flight of steps leading to the jagati and another flight of steps into the mantapa. The jagati provides the devotee the opportunity to do a pradakshina around the temple before entering it. The jagati carefully follows the staggered square design of the mantapa[35] and the star shape of the shrine. Exterior walls The visitor sees numerous artwork during the circumambulation of the temple over the jagati platform in horizontal bands. The bottom band is of elephants with different expressions, as symbolic supporters of the entire structure. Above it is an empty layer, followed by cornice work with a periodic lion face. Above it is another band of scroll and then cornice band, except at the back of the temple where a row of horsemen in various riding positions are depicted.
  • 110.
    110 The fifth carvedband is of small figurines, mostly females with various expressions facing the viewer, while periodically the band includes Yakshas who face towards the inside of the temple. This layer also has numerous dancers and musicians, as well as professionals with their toolsThe band above has pilasters between some of which are carved secular figures mostly females and couples. A nature and creepers band wraps the temple above the pilaster band, with scenes of the Ramayana epic included in this band. Above this layer are scenes from common life depicting kama, artha and dharma. Included here are couples in courtship, eroticism and sexual scenes, followed by couples with children, economic and festive activities. Towards the north outer wall, friezes with scenes from the Mahabharata are portrayed. Two styles of light screens used in Kesava temple: geometric artwork (left) and Puranic stories artwork. Above these bands is later construction that added 10 perforated stone windows and screens to north side and 10 to the south side of the temple. The later artists engraved Purana scenes in ten of these later additions, and the other ten have geometric floral designs. The perforated screens with characters show:[39] 1. Hoysala court scene, with the king, queen, officers, attendants and two gurus with their students 2. Kesava with Hanuman and Garuda, 3. the Vamana dwarf, Bali and Trivikrama legend, 4. the Krishna Kaliyamardana legend, Shiva on Nandi with Ganesha and Kartikeya, 5. the Prahlada, Hiranyakashipu and Narasimha legend (notable for Thenkalai namam style Urdhava pundra symbols on Prahlada's forehead), 6. Yoga-Narasimha with Hanuman and Garuda, 7. the Samudra manthan legend, 8. the Krishna killing Kamsa legend, 9. Ranganatha reclining on Sesha, 10. the Hanuman and Garuda fighting over Shiva linga legend.
  • 111.
    111 Statues on capitalsupport the temple eaves. 38 of the original 40 have survived in Belur. Above the perforated screens, on capitals of the supporting pillars, are madanakai (Salabhanjika) figures. There were originally 40 madanakai, of which 38 have survived in damaged or good form. Two of these are Durga, three huntresses (with bow), others are dancers in Natya Shastra abhinaya mudra (acting posture), musicians, women dressing or doing make up, a woman with a pet parrot, men making music. A majority of these madanakai figures are also carved into miniatures in the sixth band of the outer wall around the pradakshina patha. The wall also features 80 large reliefs around the temple. Of these 32 are of Vishnu, 9 of his avatars (Narasimha, Varaha, Vamana, Ranganatha, Balarama); 4 of Shiva in various forms including Nataraja (with or without Parvati); 2 of Bhairava (Shiva); 2 of Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu); 4 of Surya (Sun god); 5 of Durga and Mahishasuramardini; 1 of Kama and Rati; 1 of Ganesha, Brahma, Saraswati, Garuda and Chandra. Other major reliefs are of Arjuna shooting an arrow to win Draupadi; Ravana lifting the Kailasha; Daksha, Bali and Sukracharya. Some of the statues present exceptional details. For example, one madanakai figure is shown with a fruit tree canopy, where a small fly is shown sitting on the fruit and nearby a lizard is preparing to pounce on the fly. In another, an eagle is shown attacking a sarabha, which in turn is attacking a lion, which in turn is pouncing on an elephant, which itself is seizing a snake, which in turn is shown in the act of swallowing a rat – a sight that includes a pondering sage. Secular life is shown in these images, such as an artist making a drawing or musicians lost in their music. A notable image is the depiction of 12th century Rudra-vina and a Lasya dance posture. Also included is the image of a Jina of Jainism. The outer wall on the side of the eastern entrance into the temple inside shows Bhairava and Durga. The outer wall on the side of the southern entrance into the temple shows Tandavesvara and Brahmani. The outer sides at the northern entrance into the temple show Vishnu and Mahishasuramardini. Interior
  • 112.
    112 The Chennakesava templehas three entrances and their doorways have decorated sculptures called dvarapalaka (doorkeepers) on either side. The central hall (navaranga) was originally open on all sides except the west where the sanctum is, but all sides were later closed with perforated screens. This reduced the amount of light significantly and the intricate art work is difficult to appreciate without secondary light. The artwork starts on entry to the three entrances to the hall. Each leads to raised verandas on both sides. The hall has carved pillars with a large domed ceiling in the center. The mandapa has 60 "bays" (compartments). The navaranga in Kesava temple at Belur is the largest of any Hoysala temple, is of triratha diamond-shaped layout, according to James Harle. Ornate lathe turned pillars in mantapa. Sanctum The mandapa leads to the garbha griya past the pillars and a doorway. The door is flanked by dvarapala, Jaya and Vijaya. Its pediment has Lakshminarayana in center. Below it are musicians playing 12th-century musical instruments. On the side are two makaras with Varuna and Varuni together riding on them. Inside the square sanctum is the image of Keshava, or as inscriptions call it "Vijayanarayana". It stands on a 3 feet high pedestal, is about 6 feet high with a halo. It has four hands, with chakra and shankha in the upper hands and a gada and lotus in his lower hands. The halo has cyclical carving of the ten avatars of Vishnu – Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vamana, Parasurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha and Kalki. The temple is active house of worship, with Keshava dressed and decorated, priests present and devotees doing darshana. Pillars and ceiling The navaranga hall has forty eight pillars. All except the central four are carved in a unique way. The central four are later additions, added in 1381 CE during the Vijayanagara Empire era, to support the internal structure of a damaged temple. The pillars are of three sizes. Two pillars are particularly notable. One is the so-called Narasimha pillar which is carved with miniature figures from top to bottom, such as a tiny bull (kadale basava). The local legend states that this pillar once could rotate because of how it was supported, but it no longer can be rotated. The other pillar is the Mohini pillar. Other than the female avatar of Vishnu, the pillar has eight bands of carvings, including those of Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, then ten avatars of Vishnu, the eight
  • 113.
    113 direction deities, mythicalanimals with the body of a lion but the face of other wildlife. The four central pillars are notable for having been hand carved while the others were lathe turned. One of four ceiling dome madanikas, with an inscription on pedestal./ temple is famous for its rendering of Mohini, the female avatar of Vishnu. In the center of the hall is a large open square, above which is a domed ceiling about 10 feet in diameter and 6 feet deep. At the top is a lotus bud with Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva carved on it. At the bottom of the dome is a series of friezes with the Ramayana story. On the capitals of the four pillars are madanikas (Salabhanjika). One represents dancing Saraswati, the Hindu god of knowledge, arts and music. The others are regular dancers, but with different expressions. One is dressing her hair, the other in a Natya posture, and the fourth has a parrot seated on her hand. The head and neck jewelry made of rock are freely mounted and can be moved. The bracelets similarly are moveable. The design of the ceiling follows the Hindu texts, and is a modified utksipta style with images placed in concentric rings. Other reliefs inside the hall include large images of Vishnu avatars, friezes of the Vedic and Puranic histories, and more scenes of the Ramayana. Superstructure The temple had a tower, which was repeated damaged and destroyed, rebuilt and restored. In the 19th-century restorations, the temple was left without a tower. According to Foekema, the tower when it existed would have been of the Bhumija style when it existed and not the regular star shaped tower that followed the shape of the vimana. The Bhumija towers, which are intact on the miniature shrines at the entrance of the hall are actually a type of nagara (North Indian) tower, being curvilinear in shape. This shape of tower is quite uncommon in pure dravidian architecture. Artists Some of the Hoysala artists signed their work in the form of inscriptions. In doing so, they sometimes revealed details about themselves, their families, guilds and place of origin. Stone inscriptions and copper plate inscriptions provide more information about them. Ruvari
  • 114.
    114 Mallitamma was aprolific artist to whom more than 40 sculptures are attributed. Dasoja and his son Chavana who were from Balligavi in modern Shimoga district made important contributions. Chavana is credited with the work on five madanikas and Dasoja accomplished four of them. Malliyanna and Nagoja created birds and animals in their sculptures. Artists such as Chikkahampa and Malloja are credited with some of the sculptures in the mantapa. These artists also contributed to the artwork found in other major Hoysala temples found within 50 kilometers of Belur. Hemakuta Hill is one among the best places in Hampi to see the sunrise and sunset; and not as tedious to reach the top say compared to the Matanga Hill nearby, which is boasted as the best location to watch sunset in Hampi. So if you find it difficult to make it to Matanga Hill for sunset view, try from Hemakuta Hill. The Myths of Hampi have it that it’s on this hill that Lord Siva (the god of destruction) did penance before marrying a local girl Pampa. Siva was impressed by her dedication for him and consent to marry her. On this it rained gold on this hill. Hema in Sanskrit language means gold. The name of the hill thus connects with this legend. Also this is the place where Siva burnt Kama (the god of lust) with his third (fire) eye. In helping Pampa to marry Shiva, Kama distracted Shiva from his penance. This attracted the wrath of Siva and eventually killed Kama by fire. Later Rathi (goddess of passion and Kama’s wife) pleaded for the life of Kama. Siva brought him back to life but only in character not as a physical being. Hence a number of temples in this area are dedicated to Lord Siva, the major one being the Virupaksha temple at the north of this hill. This place packed with the largest number of pre Vijayanagara temples. Atop is the Moola Virupaksha Temple with a pool infront, considered to be the original Virupaksha Temple One can access it mainly through two ways. The first is through the tower located close to the Virupaksha temple’s main entrance. From the very end of the Hampi Bazaar that terminates in front of the Virupaksha temple, take the left (southward) alley. You can see the giant but topless tower to the hilltop. On the way you see the Hampi post office on your right. The second access point is through the twin storied archway located near the Sasivekalu Ganesha & Kadalekalu Ganesha shrines. The top locations near this archway is a great place to get an aerial view of the Krishna Temple campus just south of it; and the Lakshmi Narasimha & Badivilinga shrines located beyond the Krishna temple.
  • 115.
    115 Vijayanagara architecture canbe broadly classified into religious, courtly and civic architecture, as can the associated sculptures and paintings. The Vijayanagara style is a combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles which evolved earlier in the centuries when these empires ruled and is characterised by a return to the simplistic and serene art of the past. STONES- 3 Chambered Temples of Hampi For the approximately 400 years during the rule of the Western Chalukya and the Hoysalas empires, the most popular material for temple construction was chloritic schist or soapstone. This was also true for sculpture as soapstone is soft and easily carved. During the Vijayanagar period the local hard granite was preferred in the Badami Chalukya style, although soapstone was used for a few reliefs and sculptures. While the use of granite reduced the density of sculptured works, granite was a more durable material for the temple structure. Because granite is prone to flaking, few pieces of individual sculptures reached the high levels of quality seen in previous centuries. To cover the unevenness of the stone used in sculptures, artists employed plaster to give the rough surface a smooth finish and then painted it with lively colours. Vijayanagara temples are usually surrounded by a strong enclosure. Small shrines consist simply of a garbhagriha (sanctum)
  • 116.
    116 and a porch.Medium-sized temples have a garbhagriha, shukanasi (antechamber), a navaranga (antrala) connecting the sanctum and outer mandapa (hall), and a rangamantapa (enclosed pillared hall). Large temples have tall Rayagopuram built with wood, brick and stucco in Chola style. The term Raya is added to indicate a gopura built by Vijayanagar Rayas. The top of the gopuram has a shalashikhara resembling a barrel made to rest on its side. Large life-size figures of men, woman, Gods and Goddesses adorn the gopuram. This Tamil dravida-influenced style became popular during the rule of king Krishnadevaraya and is seen in South Indian temples constructed over the next 200 years. Examples of Rayagopuram are the Chennakesava Temple in Belur and the temples at Srisailam and Srirangam. In addition to these structures, medium-size temples have a closed circumambulatory (Pradakshinapatha) passage around the sanctum, an open mahamantapa (large hall), a kalyanamantapa (ceremonial hall) and a temple tank to serve the needs of annual celebrations. Temple pillars often have engravings of charging horses or hippogryphs (Yali) — horses standing on hind legs with their fore legs lifted and riders on their backs. The horses on some pillars stand seven to eight feet tall. On the other side of the pillar are usually carvings from Hindu mythology. Pillars that do not have such hippogryphs are generally rectangular with mythology themed decoration on all sides. Some pillars have a cluster of smaller pillars around a central pillar shaft. The bottom supports of these pillars have engravings of Gods and Goddesses. Carvings of hippogryphs clearly show the adroitness of the artists who created them. The Mandapas are built on square or polygonal plinths with carved friezes that are four to five feet high and have ornate stepped entrances on all four sides with miniature elephants or with Yali balustrades (parapets). The Mantapas are supported by ornate pillars. The 1,000- pillared style with large halls supported by numerous pillars was popular. The 1,000-pillared
  • 117.
    117 Jain basadi atMudabidri is an example. Larger temples have a separate shrine for the female deity. Some examples of this are the Hazara Rama, Balakrishna and Vitthala temples at Hampi. Some shrines in the Vitthalapura area inside Vijayanagara were consecrated specifically for Tamil Alwar saints and for the great Vaishnava saint, Ramanujacharya. Architecturally they are different in that each shrine has an image depicting the saint for whose worship the temple was built. Each shrine has its own enclosure and a separate kitchen and pilgrim feeding hall. The water storage tank inside the royal center, the [stepwell stepped tank] called, "Pushkarni", is a recent archaeological discovery. The stepped tank is fashioned with finished chlorite schist slabs arranged in a symmetrical formation with steps and landings descending to the water on all four sides. This is clearly a Western Chalukya-Hoysala style tank and is seen in many parts of present-day Karnataka. The inscriptions on the slabs indicate the material was brought from Hampi or Hampe, also known as the Hampi Group of Monuments, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site in India's east-central Karnataka. It is the historic Vijayanagara Kingdom's lost capital, with a plethora of awe-inspiring temples. Each of the Hampi temples has its own significance, and the majority of them were constructed as per Hindu tradition. Between the 14th and 17th centuries, Hampi was the capital of the Vijayanagara Kingdom. Trade flourished, and the rulers lavished their wealth on the construction of Hampi's temples and royal enclosures. Hampi, now in ruins, gives us a glimpse into the glorious era of the Vijayanagara Empire more than 600 years ago. Over the years, tourists and visitors have flocked to this region to discover its rich history, stunning art, and picturesque scenery. Here are the 5 most magnificent temples in Hampi that you must see: Vijaya Vittala Temple: Vijaya Vittala Temple is the epicentre of Hampi's attractions. It was established in the 15th century during the reign of Devaraya II, one of the Vijayanagara Empire's monarchs, and is dedicated to Vittala, Lord Vishnu's incarnation. The temple is nestled near the banks of the Tungabhadra River in Hampi's northeastern region. The workmanship of the artisans of the Vijayanagara Empire will spellbind you once you enter the complex. The Stone Chariot and the intriguing Musical Pillars are two of the temple's most famous stone structures. The cause for the pillars making rhythmic music is unknown, yet they continue to captivate tourists worldwide. Virupaksha Temple: The oldest and most important temple in Hampi, Virupaksha Temple, was established in the 7th century AD. Dedicated to Lord Virupaksha, an aspect of Lord Shiva, the temple walls feature various inscriptions about Lord Shiva engraved in the 9th and 10th centuries. Built in the South Indian style, the temple contains large towers or gopurams that serve as doorways to the inner sanctums. The gopurams lead to numerous internal hallways and halls, all of which are ornately carved with stonework. Every year in February, when the annual chariot festival is held here, Virupaksha Temple lures numerous visitors.
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    118 Sasivekalu Ganesha Temple: Oneof the most important landmarks in Hampi's heritage city is the Sasivekalu GaneshaTemple. The inscription houses a massive statue of Lord Ganesha carved out of a single block of rock that stood around 8 feet tall and was erected in honour of King Narasimha II of the Vijayanagara dynasty. Lord Ganesha is noted in Hindu mythology for his fondness for food. As per Hindu mythology, Ganesha once ate a lot of food to the point where his tummy was about to burst. Having exhausted all other options, Ganesha grabbed a snake and tied it around his stomach to keep it from bursting apart. The snake tied around Ganesha's tummy, which can be seen on the statue, results from a mythical incident. Both the Sasivekalu Ganesha Temple and Lord Ganesha's statue are excellent examples of Indian sculpture.
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    119 Lakshmi Narasimha Temple: LordNarasimha, one of Lord Vishnu's eleven avatars, is honoured at the Lakshmi Narasimha Temple. It is Hampi's largest monolith statue. During the time of King Krishnadevaraya, the magnificent temple was built in 1528 AD. Goddess Lakshmi was initially seated on Lord Narasimha's lap in the Lakshmi Narasimha Temple. However, Goddesses Lakshmi's idol was destroyed and removed after a Mughal raid in the 16th century. As a result, Lord Narasimha's idol has been known as Ugra Narasimha ever then, which is the most terrifying avatar of Lord Vishnu in the absence of Goddess Lakshmi. Ugra Narasimha is depicted as a half-lion, half-man sitting cross-legged with a ferocious face. Hampi has attracted many national and international spiritual and historical buffs ever since the medieval ruins were found. Every inch of this place bears evidence of the magnificence it once exuded.
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    120 Visit Hampi towitness the city’s architectural splendour by exploring the prominent temples. Get to learn about the city's antiquities and edifices that date back to the Vijayanagara Empire and still stand as a testament to the glorious era. 3 Chambered Hemakuta Hill Temple Complex: The Hemakuta group of temples is a collection of ancient temples in Hampi's Hemakuta Hill. Although built in the pre-Vijayanagara and Vijayanagara periods, the architecture of the Hemakuta complex of temples atop Hemakuta Hill is significantly different from the traditional Vijayanagara style. The Hemakuta temples are tiny three-chambered constructions with granite pyramid-like tops. Some of the temples on the hill's northern slope are built in the Trikutachala style of architecture, in which three shrines are arranged perpendicularly to one another and face a shared central hall. Many of these temples have succumbed to the ravages of time, and others are now in ruins, despite efforts by the Archaeological Survey of India to restore them to their former glory.
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    121 Hemakuta group ofTemples, Hampi – A Cluster of Ancient Shrines The Hemakuta group of temples is a cluster of ancient temples situated on the Hemakuta hill in Hampi. The Hemakuta hill is located in the southern side of the Hampi village and the hilltop is dotted with a large number of temples. The temples on the Hemakuta Hill are among the oldest cluster of shrines in Hampi. The Hemakuta Hill as well as the group of temples situated on the hilltop are popular destinations for the tourists on the Hampi trail. Hemakuta group of temples on Hemakuta hill in Hampi. History of Hemakuta group of Temples, Hampi The Hemakuta hill is sprinkled with ancient temples that belong to both, pre-Vijayanagara as well as Vijayanagara periods. A large number of these temples dates back to 9th to 14th century and hence, belong to the era before the Vijayanagara Empire was founded. The Hemakuta Hill can be described as a canvas of stones. In the ancient times the whole hill was fortified with tall stone walls. Traces of the ruined fortification can be seen even today. The top of the hill is a stretch of rocky sheet that is almost flat. All the temples dotting the face of the hill are hundreds of years old and represent a historical era of art and culture. Mythology Associated with Hemakuta group of Temples, Hampi Most of the Hemakuta group of temples are dedicated to Lord Shiva. According to local folklore there is a mythological reason behind this. According to mythology, Lord Shiva performed penance on Hemakuta Hill before marrying a local girl named Pampa or Parvati. Lord Shiva was pleased with the dedication of the girl and consented to marry her. Due to this decision of Lord Shiva it rained gold on the hill. Since gold is known as Hema in Sanskrit, this hill came to be known as Hemakuta. Another legend has it that Hemakuta Hill was also the place where Lord Shiva had burnt Kama, the God of lust. Kama had helped Pampa to marry Shiva by distracting Shiva from his penance. This act of Kama angered Shiva and he killed Kama by emitting fire from his third eye. However, after Kama’s wife Rathi pleaded with Shiva for the life of her husband, Shiva relented. Shiva brought back Kama to life but only in character and not as a physical being. As such, Hemakuta Hill came to be deeply associated with Lord Shiva and many temples were built on the hill to worship Shiva. Architecture of Hemakuta group of Temples, Hampi The architecture of the temples on the Hemakuta Hill is quite different from the typical Vijayanagara style of architecture found in many other temples in Hampi. The Hemakuta group of temples have a distinct style of their own. These temples are often mistaken for Jain temples due to their architecture, which is in some ways similar to that of the Jain temples. As such, they are sometimes mistakenly referred to as Jain temples. The Hemakuta group of temples are compact triple chambered structures with pyramid like roofs made from granite. Some of the temples located on the northern side of the hill are built in the Trikutachala style of architecture. In this style of architecture, three shrines are placed in perpendicular position to each other face a common central hall.
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    122 The temples havealmost plain outer walls, except for the horizontal chain of floral motifs that provide some ornamentation to the walls. A Few Popular Temples on the Hemakuta Hill, Hampi There are more than 35 temples on the Hemakuta Hill. The largest and most elaborately decorated temples are situated on the northern side of the hill and face the Virupaksha temple compound. On the way to the southern side of the hill is the ancient or the original Virupaksha temple, also known as Mula Virupaksha Temple. Though not as grand as the one built by the Vijayanagara rulers, the Mula Virupaksha Temple represents a style of architecture that was popular before the Vijayanagara style came into being. There is a small pond in the courtyard of the temple. It is one of the few ancient temples which are still under active worship. Further south, one can get an aerial view of the Krishna Temple, the Sasivekalu Ganesha, the temple of Lakshmi-Narasimha and the Badavilinga temple. There are several other temples in this area that ate built in the pre-Vijayanagara style of architecture. The beauty of the ancient temples and the relative calm of the place make it a popular spot for tourists to spend some peaceful moments on the hilltop. Present condition of Hemakuta group of Temples, Hampi Among the Hemakuta group of temples, some are in total ruins while some are in comparatively better condition. Some of the temples have partially sunk to the ground. The Archaeological Survey of India is undertaking efforts to renovate these temples and bring back their lost glory. Some of the temples that had escaped destruction during the Mughal invasions have suffered damage from the wear and tear of weather. However, the Hemakuta group of temples remain one of the major attractions in Hampi.
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    123 This cave isdedicated to God Vishnu. It is the largest cave in the complex. It has intricately carved friezes and giant figures of Trivikrama, Anantasayana,Vasudeva,Varaha, Harihara and Narasimha. The cave has been sculpted 48 feet deep into the mountain, fifteen feet high and it is supported by six pillars. Badami Cave Temples, cave 3, 6th century
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    125 The WOODEN GARBAGRIHAof the MALLIKARJUNA Temple in Goa Original Photographs by the author Dr Uday Dokras Jyotirlingas are sacred shrines of Lord Shiva; it is believed that Lord Shiva himself visited these places and hence they have a special place in the hearts of devotees. There are 12 of them in India. Jyotirlinga means ‘column or pillar of light’. The ‘stambha’ symbol represents that there is no beginning or end. When Lord Brahma and Lord Vishnu had an argument about who was the supreme god, Lord Shiva appeared as a column of light and asked each one to find the ends. Neither could do it. It is believed that the places where these columns of light fell is where the jyotirlingas are located. The Mallikarjuna temple in Goa is located in the far south of the state in the Canacona district. One of the 12 jyotirlingas, Mallikarjuna Jyotirlinga is in Mallikarjuna Temple and is dedicated to both Lord Shiva and his consort Goddess Parvati. History of Mallikarjuna Jyotirlinga Several rulers contributed to the building and maintenance of the Mallikarjuna Swamy temple. However, the first records appear in 1 AD in the books of the Shathavahanas empire builders.Subsequently, Ikshvakus, Pallavas, Chalukyas, and Reddis, who were also followers of the Mallikarjuna Swami contributed to the temple. The Vijayanagara Empire and Chhatrapati Shivaji also improved the shrine and temple (building the gopuram in 1667 AD) respectively.Worship was halted here during the Mughal era but resumed during the British rule. However, it was only after independence that this temple came back into prominence. What is the story behind Mallikarjuna Jyotirlinga? Lord Shiva and his consort Goddess Parvati could not make up their minds as to which of their sons, Ganesha or Kartikeya should get married first. To determine who would be first, they set a
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    126 contest for thetwo: whoever would go around the world first would be the winner.Lord Kartikeya immediately set off on his mount, the peacock. Lord Ganesha, on the other hand, went around his parents claiming that they were the world to him. It is said that going around one’s parents is equivalent to going around the world. So, he outwitted his brother and won the race. The pleased parents married their son off to Siddhi (spiritual powers) and Riddhi (prosperity). In some legends, Buddhi (intellect) is also believed to be his wife. When Lord Kartikeya heard about this on his return, he was upset and decided that he would remain unmarried. (However, in some Tamil legends he is said to have two wives.) He left for Mount Krounch and started living there. His parents visited him there and hence there is a shrine for both there – a linga for Shiva and a Shakti Peetha for Parvati. Interesting facts about Mallikarjuna Jyotirlinga  Mallikarjuna Jyotirlinga is special in that it is both a jyotirlinga and a Shakti Peetha (special shrine to Shakti Devi - there are 18 of them) – there are only three such temples in India.  It is believed that Lord Shiva appeared as Arjuna on Amavasya (No moon day) and Goddess Parvati as Mallika on Poornima (full moon day), and hence the name Mallikarjuna.  The temple is a work of architecture with its tall towers and beautiful carvings. It is also enclosed within tall walls that fortify it.  Devotees believe that visiting this temple brings them wealth and fame.  It is believed that Goddess Parvati fought the demon Mahishasura by transforming herself into a bee. Devotees believe they can still hear a bee buzzing through a hole in the Bhramaramba temple! While this temple hosts visitors throughout the year, it would be best to visit it in the winter months i.e. October to February. Visiting it during Mahashivratri (February 21st this year) would be the ultimate treat for any devotee! The Shri Mallikarjuna temple dedicated to Lord Mallikarjun, an incarnation of Lord Shiva is situated in the Sristhal village which is 7 km northeast of Chaudi in Canacona taluk in the South Goa district of Goa, India. The shrine is known to be one of the oldest in Goa and is situated amidst beautiful natural surroundings in a valley completely surrounded by mountains. The
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    127 temple is believedto be constructed during the middle of the 16th century, as per the writing on a plaque near the temple dome, by ancestors of the Kshatriya samaj. It was refurbished in the year 1778. The main deity of the temple is referred to as Advat Sinhasanadheeshwara Mahapati by his devotees. His consort is referred to as Devati. There are about 14 Mallikarjuna shrines spread over Goa. The striking similarity in these shrines is that all idols are in phallic shape and covered with metallic masks accompanied by Trishula. These phallic shaped wooden idols are known as Nirakar(formless) by the local population. These idols probably point to the era when Natha Sampradaya was prominent in the Western Deccan region. The lingas are believed to be Swaymbhu lingas. According to the records two ancient shrines of Mallikarjun existed in Bardez at Assgao and Pomburpa which were demolished by the Portuguese. The temple has around 60 Hindu deities and it celebrates a number of festivals with the annual jatra being the most unusual amongst most of the festivals in Goa. The temple also celebrates the festivals of Rathasaptami and Shigmotsav which attract a number of devotees.
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    128 Legend has itthat the location of the temple was the place where Lord Shiva united with his consort Parvati after a long period of separation. Another source.. mentions that the demon Malla was fighting with one of the Pandava brothers, Arjuna. Shiva assumed the form of a hunter and killed Malla and saved Arjuna and hence the name ‘Mallikarjun'. The temple is also known as Adavat Sinhasanadhishwar Mahapati Canacona among the locals. The Linga is believed to be Swayambhu lingam, uncovered by a member of the Kunbi community while clearing the forest and it is a phallic shaped uncut stone covered with a metallic mask. The Kshatriya samaj- The temple is believed to be constructed during the middle of the 16th century, as per the writing on a plaque near the temple dome, by ancestors of the Kshatriya samaj who descended from the royal Surve family of Prachitgad near Shringarpur of Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra.This Kankunkar clan was founded by prince Kashi Purush and his band of brothers who founded the various Gharwais under Shristhal, Canacona. They were escaping from Mahmud Gawan's wrath after his father switched loyalties from Bahamani to Vijayanagara. Since Goa's Goud Saraswat Brahmins were known to work for Vijaynagara they chose to settle in Canacona. RaoRana Shurveer Suryarao(Suryaji) Surve who was respected and valued by Shivaji despite being his adversary belonged to the family that stayed back at Shringarpur after the scuffle with Mahmud Gawan and hence was extremely loyal to the Bahamanis. Architecture:The temple with its beautiful wood and silver carvings is reputed to have been erected by Habu Brahmins of the Dravidian dynasty. One can see some of the finest surviving art on the six pillars in the mantapa or the assembly hall. One of the wooden pillars in the mandapa is used as the oracle pillar in the temple. These pillars have intricate carvings with scenes from the Puranas and Mahabharat. On either side of the doors leading to the inner sanctum one can see beautifully carved silhouettes of the doorkeepers or dwarpal. The daily worship is performed by Brahmin priest only for a certain designated period and during the rest of the period, the Kunbi priests namely Velip and Zalmi perform the daily worship.[2] The ritual of hunting is associated with some of the Mallikarjuna shrines. Shisharani: This typical ritual alternates every year with the Veeramel celebration held at the time of the traditional Shigmo festival. The word Shisharani is supposed to mean a cooking place on top of a human head. This ritual involves cooking rice in an earthenware kept on the head of three men who sleep on the ground with their heads touching each other and fire is lit
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    129 between the headsto cook the rice. The heads are covered with wet cloth and layers of plantain trunk.a Jatra: The annual festival (Jatra) held at the temple is quite unique among the temple festivals of Goa. Early morning on the day of the festival, the idol of the deity is taken out in a procession which travels for almost 2–3 hours to reach the nearby Rajbag beach. A number of rituals including a special bath for the deity are held at the beach, after which the deity is taken back to the temple. Hundreds of devotees have a holy bath at the same time on the seashore. Veeramel: This celebration is held once every two years at the time of the traditional Shigmo festival. During this celebration which occurs close to midnight, selected local youth who are called Gade, rush from house to house with swords in their hands followed by people with drums and other musical instruments. swayambhu Idol of this temple: Often, the word swayambhu is used to describe a self manifested image of a deity, which was not made by human hands, but instead is naturally arisen, or generated by nature. According to the Ramayana and mahabharata Vishnu called swayambhu. The word etymology of swayambhu is 'Svayam' (स्वयम्) which means 'self' or 'on its own' and 'bhu' (भू) which means 'to take birth' or 'arising'. This is applicable to the physical and tangible idols of Gods that we see or to the intangible yet existing God whom we cannot see. For example, the jyotirlingas are considered swayambhu- the idol of Venkateshwara at Tirumala and some other ones are considered Swayambu- which means they are not installed by any person but they exist on their own. The word Swayambhu is also applicable to Gods- for example- Vishnu is described as swayambhu in Ramayana, Vishnu is called swayambhu in Matsya purana. Based on details in Bhagavata Purana and Matsya Purana, Narayana or Krishna is said to be the self-manifested svayambhu form of Brahman as the first cause of creation. Inside the 40 m (130 ft) high Amarnath cave, the stalagmite is formed due to freezing of water drops that fall from the roof of the cave on to the floor and grows up vertically from the cave floor. It is considered to be a Shiva Linga by Hindus. The Cave waxes during May to August, as snow melts in the Himalayas above the cave and the resultant water seeps into the rocks that form the cave and gradually wanes thereafter. As per the religious beliefs, it has been claimed that the lingam grows and shrinks with the phases of the moon reaching its height during the summer festival
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    131 TECHNICALS Architecture:The temple withits beautiful wood and silver carvings is reputed to have been erected by Habu Brahmins of the Dravidian dynasty. One can see some of the finest surviving art on the six pillars in the mantapa or the assembly hall. One of the wooden pillars in the mandapa is used as the oracle pillar in the temple. These pillars have intricate carvings with scenes from the Puranas and Mahabharat. On either side of the doors leading to the inner sanctum one can see beautifully carved silhouettes of the doorkeepers or dwarpal. TEAK CARVINGS: See above pic Most seekers who follow Bhaktiyoga (Path of devotion) for God-realisation begin their journey by worshipping a Deity. A temple is the basic requirement for puja (Ritualistic worship). Nowadays, the Devghar of Garbagriha or Sanctum is designed as per convenience or as a showpiece without giving much thought to the scientific aspect in making it. In Spirituality, there are certain scientific aspects underlying every act being performed in a specific way. This article provides details such as the direction in which the Temple should be placed, its colour, shape, aesthetics and arrangement of Deity in it according to Spirituality.
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    132 1. What shouldbe the features of the Temple A. What material should the Garbhagriha or Devghar be made of ? As far as possible, the temple at home should be made of sandalwood or teakwood. Sandalwood is expensive and may not be viable for the average individual. Comparatively, teakwood is cheaper and has better ability to retain and emit sattvik (Sattva-predominant) waves. Eventually it is the bhav towards God that attracts the Divine waves to the top of the temple, which are further dispersed in the house as per the requirement. B. What should be the colour? Though the modern trend is to paint the temple at home with different colours in the name of decoration, it is ideal to retain the original colour of wood, that is, pale brown. God operates through two Principles, namely saguṇ Principle and nirgun Principle. Pale brown colour symbolises the border between the saguṇ and the nirgun, meaning the transition phase of the journey from saguṇ to the nirgun. Human beings with Panchatattvās (Five Cosmic Principles) as their constituents fall in the saguṇ category and the formless God falls in the nirguṇ category. Since a simple religious act like worship of a Deity amounts to spiritual practice, it helps the individual in traversing from the state of saguṇ to nirgun, meaning, from duality to non-duality. Obviously, the pale brown colour of the devghar is complementary to this spiritual journey. C. What should be the shape? A three dimensional body is determined by its width x depth x height. When deciding the shape of the temple at home from spiritual perspective, the dimensions can be determined from the information given ahead. These examples have been provided so as to understand the proportion. 1. Sketch 1 : ‘The proportion of ‘width x depth x height’ should be ‘2 : 1 : 4’. Proportionately other measurements are given. Terminology of measurement – 2’ : 2 feet, 8” : 8 inches, 1’ 2” : 1 foot 2 inches The distance between two poles of the temple is considered from their periphery. D. How should be the two sides ? The temple is made with the intention that the worshipper gets maximum Chaitanya from the worship of the Deities. The two sides of the temple are left open so that the Chaitanya (Divine consciousness) emitted by the devghar is not blocked and the worshipper benefits directly. This is applicable to the temple at home that is located in a common room, where all the members have free access. When the temple is in a bedroom of a couple, its sides should be closed for the following reasons. During the menstrual cycle, women are not permitted to enter a temple; because the sattvikta in the temple is likely to cause distress to them. Similarly, during their menstrual cycle they are also likely to suffer from distress due the Chaitanya emitted by the temple at home. When two sides of the temple at home are closed, the quantum of Chaitanya emitted is relatively less; hence, it suits the bedroom of a couple.
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    133 E. Should ithave a dome ? The function of the dome is to attract and emit far and wide the waves of Chaitanya into the atmosphere. The level of bhakti (Devotion) and bhav (Spiritual emotion) in an average individual is not high. Hence, so that whatever little Chaitanya that is generated because of the worship of the Deity does not spread far and wide through the dome on the temple and the worshipper avail its benefit, it is appropriate for temple at home not to have a dome. The level of bhakti and bhav in individuals with spiritual level above 50% is high and hence, the amount of Chaitanya generated as a result of their worship of the Deity is also high. If such individuals have a high dome for their temple through the medium of this dome the Chaitanya spreads far and wide and that not only helps others, but also purifies the environment to a large extent. In this case, along with individual benefits, the broader benefit of the society is sought. 2. What should be the direction ? ‘The temple should always be in the east-west direction. When the temple faces the east, the waves emitted by the Deity get activated on the strength of kriyashakti (Energy of action) accumulated in the hollow in the east. This helps the nirgun (Non-materialised) waves of the Deity transform into saguṇ (Materialised) waves. When the kriya-shakti from the universe associated with the east-west direction manifests due to the waves emitted by the Deity, its direction is mostly upwards. The effect of the upward mobile waves on the environment lasts much longer than that of the downward mobile waves. Hence, for the effect of the sattvik (Sattva-predominant) waves emitted by the Deity to last longer, the direction of the temple at home should be east-west. On the other hand, when ichha-shakti (Energy of will) accumulated in the north-south direction gets activated, it flows downwards. This fl ow activates the tiryak waves (The Raja-Tama-predominant waves causing distress) in the environment. This causes obstruction to the sattvikta emitting from the Deity and as a result the benefit obtained by the individual when compared with the first arrangement is less.’ There is a great diversity of wood work and its techniques in Indian Art . It is possible that a grammar of decorative art might be written from the study of wood carving alone and there is a circumstantial fact that the wood and the stone carvers belong to one and same caste. This may be accepted as an additional evidence in favour of gradual production of the one form the other and that at not very ancient date. There are various techniques by which the 'Wood' has been ornamented in several specific ways such as by carving, inlaying, veneering, lacquering, etc. The art of wood carving have been greatly influenced by the grain of the timber employed, that is possible with type of woods such as teak, red wood, walnut and low relief of Sheesham and Deodar the incised design of ebony. The intricate and the ornamental details of the Sandal and the barbaric boldness of Rohira, Sal and Babul and other coarse grained and hard woods. India has a range of woods and every kind has its own particular properties of grain and strength. The skillful wood-workers has worked on it tirelessly and evolved styles and items depending on the quality of available wood and their own ingenuity to tackle it, thus creating an enormous range in wood products of all kinds. In Tamil Nadu, Virdunagar was once a traditional centre, Devakottai and Karaikudi are known to make traditional wooden panels in different sizes and Nagercoil and Suchindram have traditional carvers who make religion figures. Wood carvings are appreciated also for the special type of wood used in them, like rosewood for its
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    134 faint perfume likerose water and lovely ebony-black colour. Madurai is famed for rose wood carving marked by its bold style and very detail works. Tirupati area of Andhara pradesh has red sandal wood known as 'Raktachandan' which is blood coloured Sandal wood. The coppery glow in this wood brings special charm. Sandal wood from karnataka is also known for its own intrinsic quality and superb carving possibility. This region is inhabited by many of the most talented wood carvers . The technique type of carving are in the round, in relief, chip, incised and piercing. In the first the object is totally detached from main wood background such as 3D form of a human and animal figure. In relief the figure etched and raised on the background wood, which can be high or low relief. Chip consist of evolving designs by chipping the wood used mostly in ornamental and decorative work. Incised is done without ground work mostly put out flowers and creeper motifs. Pierced is for effective ornamentation in which the wood is completely cut away leaving just the design that calls for extra scale. Karnataka is also famous for Rosewood artefacts, some of the best specimen of wood work is provided by the mighty pyramidal gateway of temple. An extension of this covers Temple chariots or Rathas, as they are called. The one in which the deity is carried is called Agami and is the most heavily ornamented with numerous sculptures such as flying angels, horsemen, elephant, eagle, swan, tigers etc. Another style of ornamentation is painting and inlay, often with precious metals like silver and gold. FIVE REASONS WHY TEAK IS THE BEST WOOD FOR TEMPLES The interiors have murals and wood carvings depicting scenes from the Hindu mythology .Teak is the hardest, most durable and strongest of the hardwoods, making it the perfect material for outdoor furniture that lasts. Used in shipbuilding since the middle ages, it continues to be used today in the construction of ships and high-end yachts and boats. 1. OIL OF TEAK IS WEATHER RESISTANT An outstanding feature of teak outdoor is the ability to withstand all types of weather. It is one of the few woods in the world containing a natural oil which repels water, keeping it from warping, cracking or becoming brittle. Outdoor furniture made from teak will withstand the harsh effects of hard rains, severe winter snow storms and broiling sun without its strength diminishing. The outdoor furniture found at most high-end ski lodges is made from teak due to this wonderful quality. 2. TEAK IS PEST RESISTANT The same resins and oils that protect against weather, also serve as repellents against insects like termites and marine borers. By choosing teak, you know you wont need to worry about pests. 3. TEAK IS LOW MAINTENANCE Teak wood needs no paint or varnish. With the wood’s high oil content teak will fade to a beautiful even colored patina and will not look patchy or black. If your desire is to show off it’s showroom luster, then a natural teak sealer can be applied needed. 4. TEAK LASTS A LIFETIME There are century-old teak carvings – a testament to the durability of this wood. 5. TEAK IS BEAUTIFUL AND STAYS BEAUTIFUL When new, Teak wood has a honey brown color. Over time it will age naturally into an elegant patina grey. In it’s original state or weathered grey, the natural teak wood complements any indoor/’outdoor space with class. Further, teak never rusts. Other woods will start to rust and deteriorate when in contact with metal. Teak is one of the few woods which does not. Since many pieces of temple carvings made from teak wood have metal fittings, this is another amazing quality of this outdoor furniture which keeps it looking good for years to come.
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    135 Wood carving involvesvarious techniques of removing wood from an original raw piece, and then finishing the carved object. This involve traditional carving tools, chisels, gouges, knifes, hammers, along with sanding, painting, or otherwise finishing your object. A wood carver must be able to adapt a number of basic wood carving techniques and skills to finish a project from beginning to end. Techniques used by the Wood Carver Woodworking Carving involves having the right tools, but also learning correct technique and have the right wood for any projects. Once proper technique is learned it takes time and practice to master them. Fixing Damaged Woodcarvings There are many types of damage and subsequent repair that occur on carvings. The few basic types of repairs I will address here deal with a carving in progress. The most important thing to remember about a repair is also the most challenging: the repair must be permanent and invisible. The best repair should never be seen. Poorly executed repairs can be a detriment to the appearance of a carving, so it's important to exercise as much care in their execution as you do in any other phase of carving. Carving is both a skill and an art. Why an individual carver decide how they are going to carve a piece explains why there is such variety in finished piece. Knowing what you want to accomplish in you carvings will help with the technique you use to get the work finished. After learning the basic, and trying out some simple project, anyone with advance skill can move on the wood carving for art's sake. Doing it right takes time, talent, technique, supplies.
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    137 The lion symbolismand its cultural depictions can be found in Hindu and Buddhist art of India and Southeast Asia. The lion symbolism in India was based upon Asiatic lions that once spread in Indian subcontinent as far as the Middle East. Here are seen 2 lions on the pedestal at two ends of the Main Entrance of the temple premises. Narasimha ("man-lion"), also spelt Narasingh, Narasinga, is described as an incarnation (Avatara) of Vishnu in the Puranic texts of Hinduism. It is worshiped as "Lion God" and considered sacred by all Hindus in India. Peepal tree:One can see the Peepal or fig tree in the opening portion of the property. In Latin, Ficus Religiosa (sacred fig), the peepal is sacred in Indian tradition — it is also known as the Bodhi tree or Aswatha tree. Krishna said: I am the Peepal (Aswatha in Sanskrit). Vishnu was born under such a tree.
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    139 Avatar Purush: These areactually smaller deities called Avatar Purush located at three nearby places: Asali, Khalvade and Bhatpal where they are worshipped. But once a year, they are taken in a magnificent procession at night to the main temple at Sristhal.The magnificent wooden Charioys parked in a “Garage” are used to ferry the idols from and to various holy destinations. Pulled by the youth in turns.Besides these, the temple celebrates a number of common Goan festivals like the Rathasaptami and Shigmo. Rich wood work on windows.BELOW