capitulo 3

3
ITS Applications in Developing Countries:
A Case Study of Bus Rapid Transit and
Mobility Management Strategies in
Dar es Salaam – Tanzania
Philemon Kazimil Mzee and Emmanuel Demzee
Transportation Management College
Dalian Maritime University, Dalian
PR China
1. Introduction
Mobility problem and planning technique suffered a revolution in the 1980s. We still
encounter many of the same transport problems of the 1960s and 1970s: congestions,
technology, pollution, accidents, financial deficits and so on. However, it was possible to
learn a good deal from a long period of weak transport planning, limited investment,
emphasis on the short term and mistrust in strategic transport modeling and decision
making. A new contemporary dimension is the fact that most developing countries are
suffering serious transport problems as well. These are no longer just the lack of roads to
connect distant rural areas with markets. Indeed, the new transport problems bear some
similarities with those prevalent in the industrialized world: congestion, pollution,
technology, and so on. Fortunately, transportation technologies and mobility management
strategies are emerging that can help to meet the transportation challenge; these include ITS
technology that provide and foster more reliable operation guidance, information, fare
technology, automotive, fuel technologies and so on. For the purpose of this chapter we
assume that intelligent transport system (ITS) should be taken to include all those systems
that use information technology. The impact of information system and other ITS innovation
on travel demand and transport system performance can be modeled in many different
ways, but the key ways of the modeler is to determine the appropriate level of aggregation.
This will be determined primarily by the purpose of the exercise. At one extreme strategy
planner might welcome an aggregate model which uses information theory to predict the
consequences that ITS innovation should have for the efficiency of the transport system.
Implementation of Bus Rapid Transit - BRT and mobility management strategies can
enhance the mobility in the city and reduce the demand for private vehicles. It can be
concluded from this chapter that the introduction of a BRT system in Dar es Salaam has
numerous evident gains in terms of improving the current public transport supply.
Nevertheless, some shortcomings have been identified that limit the contribution of the
system in its endeavor towards creating a sustainable urban mobility system in the city.
These shortcomings are the inequitable distribution of services across population groups;
the need to limit the growth in the number of cars; the lack of involvement of the current
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42 Intelligent Transportation Systems
public transport operators in the planning process and the heedless handling of their fates.
Mobility and transportation are also the leading indicators of economic growth of a society.
Unfortunately, if left unchecked, these indicators show a declining trend with the passage of
time (i.e., traffic congestion) because transportation systems are often designed to overcome
the present crisis without considering the increasing nature of the population of a country.
Under Dar es Salaam city in Tanzania the conditions of accessibility of existing public
transport and mobility is deeply creates great hardship for the citizen they have bad seat
arrangements, overload passengers, not follow allocated routes, speed and drive recklessly,
emit large amount of large amount of pollutants and Carbon Dioxide (CO2), and so on.
Hence you can find that in developing countries can quickly reveal the source of customer
dissatisfaction with public transport and non-motorized options poor transit services and
these push consumers to private vehicle options. The splendid transit system called Bus
Rapid Transit System with more mobility when compare to heavy rail/ light rail transit. It is
an integrated, well defined system with design features similar to light rail rapid transit
systems. BRT represents a way to improve mobility at a relatively low cost through
incremental investment in a combination of bus infrastructure, operational movements and
technology. BRT will utilize intelligent transportation system technology, modern land use
planning and transportation policies to support new concept for rapid transit system.
2. Over view of population and urbanization
2.1 Population growth and urbanization
Although travel has been part of a human experience for many centuries, the 20th century
seems to have depicted a quite distinct experience (OECD, 2000). The century happens to be
characterized by remarkable rates of growth in population, mobility and urbanization such
that, globally, motorized transport increased by more than one hundred fold while
population increased by fourfold (OECD, 2000). Along with these changes, urban land has
been rapidly expanding due to the modern patterns of city growth that are land intensive as
well as the improvements in transportation services that made commuting easier (UNFPA,
2007). The sum total of these phenomena has thus been a continuing movement of people
resulting in tremendous growth of urban areas (UNFPA, 2004). Accordingly, at present, for
the first time in history, more than half of the world’s population dwells in cities and it is
estimated that all regions of the world will have urban majorities by 2030 (Habitat, 1996a).
This gives urban areas, and the issues related to them, an increasing importance in
contemporary socio - economic and environmental discussions.
2.2 Population trends in Tanzania
The country has experienced continued, steady population growth over the past three
decades. According to the data from National Population and Housing Census, which has
been conducted four times by the National Bureau of Statistic (NBS), the population of
Tanzania mainland has increased nearly triple since 1967; the population extended from 11.9
million persons in 1967 to 17.0 million persons in 1978, 22.4 million persons in 1988 and to 33.4
million persons in 2002 (Table 2.1). The average annual population growth rate was 3.3 percent
between 1967 and 1978, 2.8 percent between 1978 and 1988 and 2.9 percent between 1988 and
2002. Tanzania represents one of the larger African countries on a population basis. According
to the World Bank population index of year 2004, Tanzania had fifth largest population size
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ITS Applications in Developing Countries: A Case Study of Bus Rapid
Transit and Mobility Management Strategies in Dar es Salaam – Tanzania 43
following Nigeria, Egypt, Ethiopia and South Africa. Population size is roughly comparable to
Sudan and Kenya (Table 2.2). Population density is relatively modest at approximately 43
persons per square kilometer of land area. The share of urban populations was 36.4 percent in
Tanzania, which was lower than South Africa (57.4 percent), Kenya (40.5 percent) and Sudan
(39.9 percent) and much higher than Ethiopia (15.9 percent) and Uganda (12.3 percent).
Year
Tanzania
Mainland
Average Annual
Growth Rate (percent per annum)
1967 11,958,654
1978 17,036,499 3.27 (1 967-1 978)
1988 22,455,207 2.80 (1 978-1 988)
2002 33,461,849 2.89 (1988-2002)
Source: The United Republic Tanzania Population and Housing Census, NBS.
Table 2.1. Population Trends in Tanzania Mainland.
2.3 Population growth and urbanization in Dar es Salaam City
The increasingly trend of urbanization worldwide can be demonstrated using the rapid
increase over the past decades in urban population in almost all regions of the world
(UNFPA, 2004). According to the United Nations World Urbanization Prospects (WUP,
2005), urban population has grown from 29% in 1950 and 37.2% in 1975 to 48.7% in 2005.
That represented an annual rate of change of 2.65% which was more than double the rate for
rural population, 1.12% (Habitat, 1996a). Following this increasing trend, it is estimated that
the global urban population will reach as much as 5 billion by 2030, which would represent
60% of the world’s population (UNFPA, 2004). Although both developed and developing
countries have been experiencing an increase in urban population, the rates of change in
these regions vary greatly. According to (WUP, 2005), the urban population in developing
countries increased annually at 3.61% between 1950 and 2005 while developed countries
had the increase at only 1.37% per year. Likewise, these rates are estimated to be 2.20% and
0.47% for developing and developed countries, respectively, over the years between 2005
and 2030 (Habitat, 1996a). This is quite plausible as internal migration (i.e. the movement of
people within a country) from rural areas to urban areas is high in the developing world for
several reasons (UNFPA, 2004). The most important ones appear to be the so called demand
pull and supply push factors that denote productivity and monetary reward prospects in
urban areas and rural poverty due to traditional agriculture. (Borris. S.L Bertinell & E. Strobl
2006) While social changes induced by need for higher education, rising incomes, and
emerging life styles are other reasons (Button, K & P. Nijkamp 1997) Being an African city,
Dar es Salaam has for decades been experiencing rapid population growth (Olvera, L.D Plat
& Pochet 2003). States, for example that the population of the city grew at an annual growth
rate of 9.4% between 1968 and 1978 and at 4.7% between 1978 and 1988. The past decades
showed similar patterns such that the population of the city reached 2.5 million by 2002,
doubling the population since 1988 (Lupala J 2002). Currently, the population growth rate of
the city is estimated to be 4.1% (JICA, 2008). This denotes a pressure directly exerted on the
transport demand in the city, be it in terms of the need for more vehicles or the need to
commute longer due to a geographical growth of the city. Figure 2.1 below shows the map
of Dar es Salaam city.
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Source: Study Team based on World Bank data. Ranking in descending population size
Table 2.2. African Population Patterns in Year 2004.
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2.4 Urban sprawl
In accordance with the observed population growth in urban centers, almost all cities
throughout the world experience expansion in their geographical space (UNFPA, 2007). This
assumes different reasons in different parts of the world. In the developed world, and
particularly in North America, urban sprawl results largely as people move into suburb areas
in search of a higher quality of living (White hand J. & J. Larkham, 1992). While in the
developing world, and typically in African countries, urban sprawl occurs as people build
illegal houses in the peripheries of cities and render cheap rental conditions thereby attracting
more and more settlers (Habitat, 19996a). Driven largely by many factors, the surface area of
Dar es Salaam has increased rapidly over the past decades. (Olvera, L. D. Plat & P. Pochet,
2003) State, for example, that the land coverage of the city increased by many factors between
1968 and 1982. Likewise (Lupala. J 2002) records the geographic growth of the city during the
period between 1963 and 2001 to be an increase by more than 18 times (from 3,081 ha to 57, 211
ha). Presenting this differently, (Olvera, L. D. Plat & P. Pochet, 2003) shows that the distance
from the city center to the edge has increased from 15 km in 1978 to 30 km by the mid 1990s.
Currently Dar es Salaam has a size of about 1800 km/sq (Hall. F, 2004 & JICA 2008)
Fig. 2.1. Map of Dar es Salaam.
2.5 Designing model approach for the bus networks to grow with cities
This simple model looks at the rapid growth of a hypothetical city. The city is divided into
zones of 1km square, each with a density of 200 inhabitants per ha, where bus passengers
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can reach a route by walking a maximum of about 500m. For the first stage, of 80,000, one
simple “square” bus route, as marked in blue, can connect all the zones. If a new zone is
added, this route can simply be extended from A to allow access to the entire city. Figure 2.2
below express the effect of city grow on bus routes (80,000 to 180,000)
Fig. 2.2. The effects of city grow on bus routes (80,000 to 180,000).
When the city grows to 180,000, four (4) basic routes are needed: ABD; ACD; AD; and BC.
Again, for a new zone, an extension of the three (3) routes AD and ABD and ACD give full
accessibility. Figure 2.3 below express the effect of city grow on bus routes (180,000
Fig. 2.3. The effect of city growth on bus routes 180,000.
In figure 2. 4: The city reaches a population of 320,000 by expanding in area, adding an extra
25% on each side. The route network needed to link the different zones starts to adopt the
zigzag pattern typical of larger towns, and the routes have become longer 5 to 6 km instead
of 2 to 4 km. eight routes are now needed for all zones to be connected: AMP; ADP; AP; MD;
BFGL; CGFJI; EFJKO; HGKJN. There are also several routes superimposed, with excess
capacity although this still leaves no direct connection between B and J; C and K; H and F; L
and J; O and G; N and F; I and K; and E and G. Passengers between these zones must change
buses and pay an extra fare. A new zone added to this structure will require six (6) extended
routes, causing these routes to share the available demand and become 1km longer. This
expansion is doomed to be unprofitable. Other typical problems of this “organic growth”
are also shown: the purple route develops an irrational pathway; the black route has two (2)
variations (say “Black a” and “Black b”), which means that the frequencies at the end points
are unsatisfactory; and there is an oversupply of capacity at the route endings. If the city
plans to develop new districts, with five (5) new zones at specific locations, each zone will
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need several new routes to reach the existing city areas, including a route that offers a direct
link between the zones themselves. Figure 2.4 routes on grid for a city of 320,000
Fig. 2.4. Routes on a grid for a city of 320,000.
In the larger city an expanded system for a city of 320,000; needed each new development
zone full accessibility to the main destinations (see Figure 2. 5). If this is not available, the
passenger either has to use another mode to reach a satisfactory route, take more than one
route, or simply not use public transport. At this stage in a city’s development, there is a
need to follow the integrated approach. This allows the system to expand in order to meet
the demands of planned city growth. Figure 2.6 shows how expansion in two (2) main
corridors, north - west and south - east, can be included into the existing system by adding
two (2) new interchange terminals at C and D. The main trunk route becomes C to D, using
high capacity vehicles and some form of bus priority. The extra ten (10) zones at the same
density would have an additional population of 200,000, taking the city to 520,000
inhabitants. Once the basic infrastructure is in place, access to the entire transport network is
simplified and thus can become an essential factor in promoting the desired urban
development. Figure 2.5 and 2.6 below express system for a city of 320,000 and expended
integrated system on a grid for a city of 520,000 respectively.
Fig. 2.5. An expanded system for a city of 320,000.
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Fig. 2.6. Integrated system on a grid for a city of 520,000.
3. Mobility management and strategies in developing countries
3.1 Structural principles for sustainability
To achieve viability and sustainability of the transport systems in the developing countries,
a set of structural principles are prepared:
i. A strategic policy must be set which integrates and coordinates all aspects of urban
development and planning;
ii. The system needs to define single responsibility and accountability;
iii. Risk and responsibility must be appropriately assigned between parties (government
and agency); No party should carry risk it cannot manage;
iv. The responsible agency needs adequate resources (self generating revenue mechanisms
or allocated budgets) to perform its task;
v. The institution needs to be involved in setting its own internal business strategy in
accordance with strategic policy guidelines;
vi. The necessity of a sound business model that delivers efficiency, sustainability, value
for money (and integrated value added benefits), prioritization, economic, social and
environmental benefits;
vii. Use of performance/outcomes - based contract to specify and document the
undertakings of both parties and establish the working relationship between them.
Normal contractual conditions will specify general terms and conditions while the
specifications of service outlines the quantity of service, payments as well as
performance indicators, and the monitoring and enforcement conditions
viii. The contract is commercially oriented in that it is fully funded to provide its services.
No public service obligations or implications cloud its task and responsibilities;
ix. Key Performance indicators must relate clearly to outputs and outcomes (deliverables,
measurable data) as evidenced in service delivery, or outcomes (quality of life
indicators) showing policy objectives are being met.
For the case of Dar es Salaam city in Tanzania, the establishment of Dar es Salaam Rapid
Transit Agency - (DART Agency) addressed in detail many of above principles and outlines
in considerable detail the objectives and methodologies of implementation and
administration of the agency. At a higher level, Dar es Salaam Urban Transport Authority
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(DUTA) will provide direction and coherence across all sectors so they operate
harmoniously. The Institutional Development in Dar es Salaam Transport Authority has
proposed to establish the Dar es Salaam Urban Transport Authority (DUTA) as an
accountable and transparent authority responsible for the transport system development of
Dar es Salaam. The management of urban transport as a function is almost nonexistent in
Dar es Salaam specifically due to the lack of guidance attention for responsible agencies and
the number of responsible entities involved, with municipalities and also national
authorities cross - cutting into urban transport affairs. This has resulted in a fragmented
planning process and lack of coordination, vertically and horizontally between levels of
government and departmental disciplines. As one of the strategic policies to meeting these
challenges DUTA has been proposed and its conceptual design has to be presented.
3.2 Transport demand
Transport problems have become more widespread and severe than ever that in both
industrialized and developing countries alike. Fuel shortage are (temporarily) not a problem
but general increase in road traffic and transport demand has resulted in congestion, delay,
accidents and environmental problems well beyond what has been considered acceptable so
far. These problems have not been restricted to road and car traffic alone. Economic growth
seems to have generated levels of demand exceeding the capacity of most transport
facilities. The demand for transport service is highly qualitative and differentiated. There is
a whole range of specific demands for transport which are differentiated by time of day, day
of week, journey purpose, type of cargo, importance of speed and frequency, and so on. A
transport service without the attribute matching this differentiated demand may well be
useless. The demand for transport is derived; it is not an end in itself. With the possible
exception of sightseeing, people travel in order to satisfy a need (work, leisure, education,
health) at their destination. This is even more - true of goods movement. In order to
understand the demand for transport, we must understand the way in which facilities to
satisfy these human or industrial needs are distributed over space, in both urban and
regional content. A good transport system widens the opportunity to satisfy these needs; a
heavily or poorly connected system restricts options and limits economic and social
development.
3.3 Transportation demand in Dar es Salaam City
Burdened with a rapid population growth and city expansion, Dar es Salaam’s transport
sector depicts a situation where the gap between public transportation needs and provision
is continuously widening (Olvera et al., 2003). This situation has been worsened as public
transport is the only alternative for the poor. Two World Bank surveys done in 1994 and
1996 show, for example, that about 43% of all the trips done in Dar es Salaam were done
using public transport, whereas only 7% of these trips were done with cars and motorbikes
and 3% by bicycles (SSATP, 2005). A recent study by (Kombe et al. 2003) & (Kanyama et al.,
2004) also shows that as much as 60% of all trips made in the city are done on buses.
Furthermore, the city’s transport sector is burdened with high travel demand soaring from
the uneven distribution of public and private facilities within the city (SSATP, 2005). This
denotes, firstly, a concentration of employment and market opportunities in the city center.
According to (Olvera et al. 2003), for example, Dar es Salaam’s main urban facilities; its port,
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the main hospital, the largest market and the commercial district Kariakoo are all located in
the center of the city which obliges the inhabitants to commute to access the opportunities
there. And secondly, it denotes lack of services, as schools and health units, within or close
to residential areas that makes commuting unavoidable. (Olvera et al. 2003) demonstrates
this by analyzing a 1993 Dar es Salaam Human Resources and Development Survey that the
closest public secondary school and the closest public hospital are located on average at 4.8
km and 3.9 km, respectively, away from any home in the city, with higher figures for poor
neighborhoods. The private alternatives are on average 3.9 km and 5.4 km away (Ibid).
Although the figures given above duly portray the level of stress on the public transport in
the city, accurate information can be gained by looking at the overall travel demand. A 2007
survey done by the Japan International Cooperation Agency - JICA has established that 2.87
million trips per day are made in total in the city using all modes of transport and that 2.13
million (74%) of those trips are made by motorized modes (JICA, 2008).
3.4 Transport delivery
Over view of the characteristic of transport supply is that it is a service and not a good.
Therefore, it is not possible to stock it, for example, to use it in times of higher demand. A
transport service must be consumed when and where it is produced, otherwise its benefit is
lost. For this reason it is very important to estimate demand with as much accuracy as
possible in order to save resources by tailoring the supply of transport service to it. Many of
the characteristics of transport system derive from their nature as a service. In very broad
terms a transport system requires a number of fixed assets, the infrastructure, and a number
of mobile units, the vehicles. It is the combination of these, together with a set of rules for
their operation. That makes possible the movement of people and goods. It is often the case
that infrastructure and vehicles are not owned nor operated by the same group or company.
This is certainly the case of most transport modes, with the notable exception of many rail
systems. This separation between supplier of infrastructure and provider of the final
transport service generates a rather complex set of interaction between government
authorities (central or local), construction companies, developers, transport operators,
travelers and shippers and the general public. The latter plays several roles in the supply of
transport service: it is usually the resident affected by a new scheme, or the unemployed in
an area seeking improved accessibility to foster economic growth.
3.4.1 Interactive fuzzy mult-objective linear programming to transportation planning
decision
In real-world transportation planning decision (TPD) problems, input data or related
parameters are frequently imprecise / fuzzy owing to incomplete or unobtainable
information, a novel interactive fuzzy multi objective linear programming (i-FMOLP) model
for solving TPD problems with multiple fuzzy objectives. The proposed i-FMOLP model
attempts to minimize simultaneously the total production and transportation costs and the
total delivery time with reference to available capacities at each source and forecast demand
at each destination. The transportation planning decision (TPD) problem involves the
distribution of goods and services from a set of sources (e.g. factories) to a set of destinations
(e.g. warehouses). With a variety of transporting routes and differing transportation costs
for the routes, the aim is to determine how many units should be shipped from each source
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to each destination so that all demands are satisfied with the minimum total transportation
costs. Basically, the TPD problem is a special type of a linear programming (LP) problem
that can be solved using the standard simplex method. Some special solution algorithms,
such as the stepping stone method and the modified distribution method, allow TPD
problems to be solved much more easily than the general LP method. However, when any
of the LP method or the existing effective algorithms is used to solve the TPD problems, the
goal and related inputs are generally assumed to be deterministic/crisp (L .Li & K. Lai,
2000). In most practical TPD problems, input data or related parameters are often
imprecise/ fuzzy owing to incomplete or unobtainable information. Obviously,
conventional LP method and solution algorithms cannot solve all fuzzy TPD problems. In
1976, (Zimmermann, 1997) first introduced fuzzy set theory into an ordinary LP problem
with fuzzy goal and constraints. Following the fuzzy decision-making method proposed by
(Bellman & Zadeh, 1970), that the chapter confirmed the existence of an equivalent LP
problem. Since then, fuzzy linear programming (FLP) has developed into several fuzzy
optimization methods for solving TPD problems. (Chanas et al. 1984) presented an FLP
model for solving the TPD problem with crisp cost coefficients and fuzzy supply and
demand values. Moreover, (Chanas & Kuchta, 1998) proposed the concept of the optimal
solution of the TPD problem with fuzzy coefficients expressed as L-L fuzzy numbers, and
developed an algorithm for obtaining the solution. Related works on the use of FLP to solve
TPD problems included (Bit et al. 2001, Chanas et al. 1984, and Chanas and Kuchta 1998).
However, in real-world TPD problems, the decision maker (DM) must simultaneously
handle conflicting aims that govern the use of the resources within organizations. These
aims are minimizing total production costs, total transportation costs and total delivery
time/distance, and maximizing total profits, total relative safety, customer service level and
utilization of equipment and facilities (Bit et al. 2001, Chanas et al. 1984, and Chanas and
Kuchta 1998). Particularly, the DM must simultaneously optimize these conflicting
objectives in a framework of fuzzy aspiration levels. In 1978, (Zimmermann 1997) first
extended his FLP approach to a conventional multi-objective linear programming (MOLP)
problem. For each of the objective functions in this problem, the DM was assumed to have a
fuzzy objective, such as “the objective function should be substantially less than or equal to
some value”. Subsequent works on fuzzy goals programming (FGP) included (Luhandjula
1982, Sakawa 1988, Chen and Tsai 2001). Subsequently, researchers have developed several
FOP methods to solve multi-objective TPD problems. Bit et al. proposed an additive fuzzy
programming model that considered weights and priorities for all non equivalent objectives
for the multi objective TPD problem. (Li and Lai 2000) designed a fuzzy compromise
programming method to obtain a non-dominated compromise solution for multi-objective
TPD problems in which various objectives were synthetically considered with the marginal
evaluation for individual objectives and the global evaluation for all objectives. (El-Wahed,
2001) developed a fuzzy programming approach to determine the optimal compromise
solution of a multi objective TPD problem by measuring the degree of closeness of the
compromise solution to the ideal solution using a family of distance functions. Related
works on fuzzy multi objective TPD programming problems included (Bit et al. 2001). This
thesis develops a novel interactive fuzzy multi objective linear programming (i-FMOLP)
model for solving TPD problems with multiple fuzzy objectives. The proposed i-FMOLP
model attempts to simultaneously minimize the total production and transportation costs
and the total delivery time with reference to available capacities at each source and forecast
demand at each destination.
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3.4.2 Problem description, assumptions and notation
The TPD problem examined herein can be described as follows. Assume that a distribution
center seeks to determine the transportation plan of a homogeneous commodity from m
sources to n destinations. Each source has an available supply of the commodity to
distribute to various destinations, and each destination has a forecast demand of the
commodity to be received from the sources. The TPD proposed herein attempts to
determine the optimal volumes to be transported from each source to each destination to
simultaneously minimize the total production and transportation costs and the total
delivery time. The TPD problem proposed in this work focuses on developing an interactive
i-FMOLP model for optimizing the transportation plan in fuzzy environments. The
mathematical model developed herein is based on the following assumptions.
i. All of the objective functions are fuzzy with imprecise aspiration levels.
ii. All of the objective functions and constraints are linear equations.
iii. The values of all model parameters are certain over the planning horizon.
iv. The transportation costs and delivery time on a given route is directly proportional to
the units shipped.
v. The total supply available at all sources just equals the total demand required at all
destinations.
vi. The linear membership functions are assigned to represent the fuzzy sets involved, and
the minimum operator is used to aggregate all fuzzy sets.
Assumption (i) concerns the fuzziness of the objective functions in practical TPD problems,
and incorporates the variations in the DM’s judgments for the solutions of fuzzy multi
objective optimization problems in a framework of fuzzy aspiration levels. Assumptions (ii)
to (iv) indicate that the linearity, certainty and proportionality properties must be
technically satisfied as a standard LP problem. Assumption (v) is the ‘necessary and
sufficient’ condition for a feasible solution to the TPD problem. Assumption (vi) is made to
convert the original fuzzy MOLP problem into an equivalent LP problem that can be solved
efficiently by the standard simplex method (H .J. Zimmermann 1997).
3.4.3 Problem formulation
This chapter chose the multi-objective functions for solving the TPD problem by reviewing
the literature and considering practical situations.(Diaz , S.S Chanas et al, 1984) specified
three objective functions to minimize the total transportation costs, total delivery time, and
total relative time for a TPD problem with fuzzy multiple objectives. Practical TPD problems
typically minimized the total production costs, total transportation costs and total delivery
time (Li and K. K. Lai at el. 2000) accordingly, two objective functions were simultaneously
considered in developing the proposed MOLP model, as follows.
 Minimize total production and transportation costs
m n
  1
     (1)
in ij ij ij
1 1
i i
C Q
 
 Minimize total delivery time
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   (2)
2
n m
in ij ij
1 1
i j
t Q
 
Where:
1  total production and transportation costs ($)
2  total delivery time (hours)
ij Q units transported from source i to destination j (units)
ij  production cost per unit from source i to destination j ($/unit)
Cij transportation cost per unit from source i to destination j ($/unit)
tij transportation time per unit from source i to destination j ($/unit)
The symbol ‘  ’ is the fuzzified version of ‘=’ and refers to the fuzzification of the aspiration
levels. In real world TPD problems, the environmental coefficients and operation
parameters are usually uncertain because some information is incomplete or unobtainable
over the planning horizon. Accordingly, Equations. (1) & (2) are fuzzy with imprecise
aspiration levels, and incorporate the variations in the DM’s judgments regarding the
solutions of fuzzy multi objective optimization problems. For each of the objective functions
of the proposed MOLP model, this work assumes that the DM has such imprecise objective
as, “the objective functions should be essentially equal to some value”. These conflictin
objectives are required to be simultaneously optimized by the DM in the framework of
fuzzy aspiration levels.
3.4.4 Constraints
Constraints on total supply available for each source i
    (3)
,
1
1,2, ,
n
ij i
j
Q S i m

 Constraints on total demand for each destination j
    (4)
,
1
1,2, ,
n
ij i
i
Q D i n

 Non – negativity on total constraints on decision variables
Q  0, i  1,2, m , j  1,2,
n (5)
ij
Where si denotes the total supply available of source i (units), and
Dj denotes the total
demand of destination j (units). This work addresses a practical application of a FGP model
for solving the TPD problem with fuzzy multiple objectives. Therefore, the constraints (3)
and (4) in the proposed MOLP model are assumed to be crisp. Notably, the MOLP model
described above has a feasible solution only if the total supply available at all sources just
equals the total demand required at all destinations
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3.5 Transport delivery in Dar es Salaam City
The present public passenger transport system is composed of about 7000 buses, about 4000
taxis and a certain number of rickshaws (SUMATRA, Dar es Salaam City, 2009). All of these
vehicles are owned and operated by private entrepreneurs (Ibid). The existing public
transport buses, so called daladalas, dominate the public transport delivery in the city
(SSATP, 2005). The service provided by daladalas is rather hideous. A comprehensive report
by (Kanyama et al. 2004), for example, evaluates their service poor and chaotic. The article
elaborates that daladalas are unscheduled and thus incur long travel times; they have bad
seat arrangements, overload passengers, not follow allocated routes, speed and drive
recklessly, etc. The report argues also that most daladalas are “not only second hand but
third hand or fourth hand or more” that they emit large amount of pollutants and Carbon
Dioxide (CO2). A visit to any number of developing cities can quickly reveal the source of
customer dissatisfaction with public transport and non-motorized options. Poor transit
services in the developing world push consumers to private vehicle options. Public
transport customers typically give the following reasons for switching to private vehicles:
i. Inconvenience in terms of location of stations and frequency of service;
ii. Failure to service key origins and destinations;
iii. Fear of crime at stations and within buses;
iv. Lack of safety in terms of driver ability and the road worthiness of buses;
v. Service is much slower than private vehicles, especially when buses make frequent
stops;
vi. Overloading of vehicles makes ride uncomfortable;
vii. Public transport can be relatively expensive for some developing nation households;
viii. . Poor quality or nonexistent infrastructure (e.g., lack of shelters, unclean vehicles, etc.)
ix. Lack of an organized system structure and accompanying maps and information make
the systems difficult to use; and
x. Low status of public transit services.
However, all of these problems can be rectified within the modest budgets of developing
nation municipalities. Cities such as Bogotá (Colombia), Curitiba (Brazil), and Quito
(Ecuador) have dramatically improved transit services with simple solutions. In each case,
the city relied upon low cost improvements in public transit and non motorized
infrastructure rather than expensive tailpipe technologies. Figures below illustrates the poor
quality of public transport in developing cities creates great hardship for the citizen. Figure
3.1 indicate effects of pollution and noise from traffic combustion of fossil fuels produces a
number of substances that directly impact upon human health. In the ideal situation, the
only result of such combustion is water vapor and carbon dioxide, neither damaging to
human health, although carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas with impacts on the
global climate. However, in reality, combustion is most often not complete and results in the
production of substances such as carbon monoxide (CO) and particles (a basic component of
particulate matter). Other pollutants due to incomplete combustion processes include
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and sulphur dioxide (SO2). If
lead has been added to the fuel, lead aerosols are also produced. These by products from
combustion, apart from damaging human health, also react in the environment, producing
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secondary transport pollutants such as sulphuric acid, sulphates and ozone. Atmosphere
and climate, together with urban form, population and street density, influence the extent to
which populations are exposed to primary and secondary pollutants.
Fig. 3.1. Emission is a threat to peoples’ health.
Figure 3.2 indicate overloading in the buses was a problem for people as it often led to
incidents of pick - pocketing, impaired air circulation, and bad smells due to warm weather
and sweat. The respondents were also worried that overcrowding in the buses could lead to
the spread of communicable diseases such as Tuberculosis (TB). Furthermore, overcrowding
and squeezing in the buses led to incidents of women being sexually abused by men. When
scrambling to enter in the buses become extreme, it is possible to see commuters entering in
the buses through the windows. In general, overloading of the buses creates hard travelling
conditions for parents with children, women, disabled people and the elderly
Fig. 3.2. Survival of the fittest: Commuters board a bus through the windows during rush
hour.
Figure 3.3 indicates that small buses (daladalas) are the most common mode of motorized
public transport for households, irrespective of income, in Dar es Salaam. The most
dominant types of buses with a capacity of transporting 15 passengers
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Fig. 3.3. A series of small buses with capacity of 15 passengers and uncomfortable sitting
arrangement.
3.6 Transport balance in the life of the city
There is a high dependence on public transport and also walking is a major mobility function
across communities in Dar es Salaam. It follows accordingly that, in order to improve the
quality of life of its citizens, the city’s development must cater in a large way for these two
modes of transport. A major risk or a challenge to the city is the explosion in private car
ownership and use generated by incomes increases. A large scale rise in car use demands
heavily on public resources to cater for the necessary infrastructure such as roads, but a
demand frequently proven to be beyond the capacity. Furthermore, increased pollution,
congestion, wide traffic thorough fares and the imposition of cars on walking and living
spaces will develop an undesirable living environment. Dar es Salaam has the opportunity to
avoid many pitfalls encountered by other developed cities and the initiative already taken to
prioritize public transport through the BRT system, which is a major positive step in defining a
balanced city. This balance involves applying the right priorities between personal mobility
(walking, NMT, cars); the essential movement of goods and freight (port and service vehicles);
and an orderly planned public transport system (BRT and associated bus networks).
Ultimately, the city is best served if it can create livable communities through a sustainable
transport system that enhances and empowers its communities.
3.6.1 Dar es Salaam City towards the world city concept
World cities emerged from the globalization of trade, commerce, and leisure are driven by on
line communication and computing technologies and are undoubtedly a “new” breed of cities
of which the characteristics surpass these of the well know “mega - city”. According to this
service based approach, there are three (3) groups of World Cities, complemented by three (3)
groups of cities evolving towards becoming a world city (Table 3.1). In the service based
classification for world class status, consideration is given to the global capacity of cities in
terms of selected services they provide. Global capacity is defined empirically (calculated) in
terms of aggregate scores and interpreted theoretically as concentrations of expertise and
knowledge. The focus for this classification was on four key services: accounting, advertising,
banking and law although other economic activities can also be considered. Cities are
evaluated as global service centres in each of these sectors and aggregation of these results to
other “supporting” domains provides a measure of a city's global capacity.
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Established World Cities
Classification ALPHA CITY (ǂ city) BETA CITY (ǃ city) GAMMA CITY (Γ city)
Description Full service world cities Major world cities Minor world cities
Examples
First
level
London; New York;
Paris; Tokyo
San Francisco,
Sydney, Toronto,
Zurich
Amsterdam, Boston,
Caracas,
Dallas, Düsseldorf, Geneva,
Houston Jakarta,
Johannesburg, Melbourne,
Osaka, Prague, Santiago,
Taipei, Washington
Second
level
Chicago, Frankfurt,
Hong Kong, Los
Angeles, Milan,
Singapore
Brussels, Madrid,
Mexico City, Sao
Paulo
Bangkok, Beijing, Montreal,
Rome, Stockholm, Warsaw
Third
level
Moscow, Seoul
Atlanta, Barcelona, Berlin,
Budapest, Buenos Aires,
Copenhagen, Hamburg,
Istanbul, Kuala Lumpur,
Manila, Miami,
Minneapolis, Munich,
Shanghai
Emerging World Cities
Relative strong
evidence
Athens, Auckland, Dublin, Helsinki, Luxembourg, Lyon, Mumbai, New
Delhi, Philadelphia, Rio de Janeiro, Tel Aviv, Vienna.
Some evidence
Abu Dhabi, Almaty, Birmingham, Bogota, Bratislava, Brisbane,
Bucharest, Cairo, Cleveland, Cologne, Detroit, Dubai, Kiev, Lima, Lisbon,
Manchester, Montevideo, Oslo, Riyadh, Rotterdam, Seattle, Stuttgart, The
Hague, Vancouver, Ho Chi Minh City.
Minor evidence
Adelaide, Antwerp, Arhus, Baltimore, Bangalore, Bologna, Brasilia,
Calgary, Cape Town, Colombo, Columbus, Dresden, Edinburgh, Genoa,
Glasgow, Gothenburg, Guangzhou, Hanoi, Kansas City, Leeds, Lille,
Marseille, Richmond, St Petersburg, Tashkent, Tehran, Tijuana, Turin,
Utrecht, Wellington.
Source: J.V. Beaverstock, R.G. Smith and P.J. Taylor. A Roster of World Cities, in Cities, 16 (6), (1999), pp
445-458
Table 3.1. Classification of principal World Cities.
The advantage of the “producer service approach” is, according to (Sassen, 1994) that the
ranking firmly associates the cities with their tendency to engage with the
internationalization, concentration, and intensity of producer services in the world
economy. According to the classification methods above, London, New York, Paris, and
Tokyo are prime examples of world cities and are also mega cities. However, it is possible
and even common for cities that are not mega cities to be world cities and vice versa,
overall a world city, also known as a “world class city” can be defined by ten
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characteristics and the level to which the city incorporates these characteristics determines
its status as world city:
i. Name familiarity where the city name is sufficient and there is no need to add the
country name.
ii. Active influence and participation in international events and world affairs, with the
city housing international headquarters such as the UN (New York), the EU
Commission (Brussels) or the European Central Bank (Frankfort).
iii. A fairly large population with at least one million inhabitants but typically several 16
million.
iv. A major international airport acting as high profile hub for several international
airlines.
v. An advanced transportation system offering multiple modes of (public) transportation
and a highly developed road network.
vi. Home to international cultures and communities or a city which attracts large foreign
businesses and related expatriate communities.
vii. Home to international business and stock exchanges that influence the world
economy.
viii. Advanced communications infrastructure with WIFI and high--speed broadband.
ix. World renowned cultural institutions and events and a lively cultural scene, including
festivals, premieres, music, opera, and theatre scene.
x. Several powerful and influential media outlets with an international reach
3.7 Development frame work, integrated approach and economic growth in Dar es
Salaam City
The vision for Dar es Salaam city presents the long term perspective and framework for the
Dar es Salaam Transport Policy and System Development Master Plan. It discusses both the
general development vision for Dar es Salaam with the year 2030 perspective and the more
specific and directly inters - related vision for the future transport system in Dar es Salaam.
The year 2003 National Transport Policy underwrites the principle of achieving “... efficient
and cost effective domestic and international transport services to all segments of the
population and sectors of the national economy with maximum safety and minimum
environmental degradation.” Realizing the principle requires substantial efforts oriented to
creating “...safe, reliable, effective, efficient and fully integrated transport infrastructure and
operations which will best meet the needs of travel and transport at improving levels of
service at lower costs in a manner, which supports government strategies for, socio -
economic development whilst being economically and environmentally sustainable.” The
transport policy thus proclaims that initiatives taken in its policy, economy, society and
environment will define the city’s long - term development. Figure 3.4 below is the
development frame work of Dar es Salaam city. The “National Transport Policy and System
Development Master Plan” argues that the fundamental requirement for improvement is the
establishment of an adequate institutional framework. Creating the appropriate institutional
framework cannot be realized successfully without a balanced and integrated approach
where vision, strategy, and action are intertwined and part of a wider vision for sustainable
economic development (Figure 3.5).
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Fig. 3.4. Developing frame work.
Fig. 3.5. Integrated approach and economic growth.
The National Transport Policy acknowledges the need for an integrated approach when it
links the efforts in the field of transport with the long term development goal of the country
as expressed in other national guidelines such as the National Poverty Reduction Strategy
Paper (PRSP), the Rural Development Strategy (RDS), the Civil Service Reform Program,
and reform programs aiming at private sector involvement in economic development,
strategic environmental sustainability, gender issues, eradication of diseases and literacy
campaigns. The National Transport Policy therewith recognizes the pivoting role of
transport and acknowledges that the realization of objectives in “...priority sectors such as
education, health, water, agriculture, manufacturing, tourism, mining, energy, land and
good governance hinges on the availability of adequate and reliable transport to reach
inputs to production points and also to distribute outputs from production points to
consumption points/markets. The integrated approach is thus imperative and finds
justification in the scale and scope of the urban transport problem including: “... high cost,
low quality services due to various reasons including the existence of high backlog of
infrastructure maintenance and rehabilitation, inadequate institutional arrangements, laws,
regulations and procedures which are not consistent or compatible with each other to create
conducive climate for investment and hence growth of the sector, inadequate capacity
caused by low level of investment in resources, and low level of enforcement of safety,
environmental sustainability and gender issues. The “Transport Policy and System
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Development Master Plan” therefore entrenches the future transport system for Dar es
Salaam into a wider vision related to the long term social and economic development of the
City. The Dar es Salaam Development Vision follows a sequential logic where the Vision
leads to a Strategy, itself defined by a number of concrete Actions of which the development
of an integrated urban transport system is one, albeit critical, component (Figure 3.6). The
approach for the transport policy and system development master plan follows a structured
and hierarchical (sequential) approach:
Fig. 3.6. Integrated approaches for the new urban transportation system.
i. The vision is a long term and final objective according to which all initiatives need to be
targeted. Achieving this vision might take several decades but it provides a general
framework along which strategies can be / are developed that contribute to proceeding
towards the realization of the vision
ii. The strategy for Dar es Salaam is the translation of the vision into concrete initiatives in
different areas that contribute to the realization of the vision (the growth and
development of Dar es Salaam towards becoming a world class city). The key of the
strategy is that all actions (sub strategies) need to work towards the transformation of
the city into a sustainable and attractive city.
iii. The Actions necessary to create a sustainable and attractive city: Actions are needed in
different areas, such as urban planning, land use planning, environmental protection,
etc. One of the critical areas for concrete action is the (long - term) urban transport
strategy for which the “Transport Policy and System Development Master Plan” will
formulate the “Dar es Salaam Transport Vision - 2030” which provides the four (4)
building blocks essential to achieving attractiveness and sustainability of the city,
namely:
a. Governance: considering the most efficient structure to develop and manage an
integrated transport system, now and in the future;
b. Society: ensuring that the transport system is accessible to all, including (and in
particular) to the less fortunate and the poor members of the community as well as
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the physically challenged persons. At the same time, it should be of a quality that is
attractive and acceptable for visitors, in particular tourists and business persons.
c. Economy: where realism on the affordability of the transport system should be the
guiding principle which means that infrastructure planning and transport services
should consider budgetary constraints, not only focusing capital investments but
equally and maybe even more importantly considering long term maintenance and
operating costs. To increase the possibilities of capital expenditure for major
infrastructure developments, a gradual reduction of the present dependence up on
international donors and IFI’s should be pursued by inviting the private sector to
participate in the efforts.
d. Environment: where the (long term) impact on the environment, in particular on
fauna and flora and on the quality of air should be considered important elements
of sustainability and attractiveness of the city. Lack of fauna and flora is
unattractive and creates “unsafe” population concentrations while a poor quality of
air impacts the health of its inhabitants (e.g., respiratory problems). All these
problems will increase the cost of social well being and will put pressure on the
city’s public budget and spending capacity.
The “Transport Policy and System Development Master Plan for Dar es Salaam” thus
should recommend concrete actions for the creation of an integrated transport system in the
city. The action plan will be embedded in the comprehensive strategy to create a sustainable
and attractive city, based upon a clear vision about that future development of Dar es
Salaam. The figures 3.7 and 3.8 below illustrate the dual dimension of the city plan and
integrated transportation system respectively.
Fig. 3.7. The dual dimension of the Transport Plan.
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Fig. 3.8. Integrated transportation system.
3.8 General urban transport enhancement strategy
Transport is an entitlement to the citizens of Dar es Salaam, and good transport networks
have multiplicity of benefits; socially, economically, environmentally and culturally. Equity is
also important as transport should be affordable to all so that there is equal and affordable
access to opportunities of employment, education and social inclusion. Furthermore the
paybacks in both direct and indirect terms are substantial and will contribute directly to
improved economic performance, productivity and greatly reduce the negative stresses that
citizens endure on a daily basis. The increasingly difficult urban transport situation in the
city, characterized by a high degree of traffic congestion, constrained resources for urban
transport and deteriorating air quality, lies in the forefront of concerns. Urban transport
problems are borne out of a set of complex and diverse environmental and economic factors
and profound institutional failures. In Dar es Salaam, due to a low level of car ownership
and high dependence on public transport, the problems of public transport are synonymous
with the problems of urban transport because public transport vehicles (Dala Dala) serve
such a large proportion of total trip demand. The present public transport system in Dar es
Salaam is highly unsatisfactory from the perspectives of all stakeholders: the public, the city,
the operators and the users. Government is now addressing its growing transport problems
with the introduction of the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) with the essential associated
administrative and institutional reforms. A key consideration in this regard is that, most
certainly within the near term planning horizon, the need to move people must take
precedence over the need to move vehicles. However, in the medium to longer term, other
transport pressure will arise. If history holds any lessons, it is that future growth in income
will inevitably catalyze an increase in trip making, as well as changes in the modes used to
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accomplish such trips. It is likely that private modes of transport, such as passenger cars,
will continue to become increasingly popular with the citizens of Dar es Salaam. It is
expected that the current 74,000 private vehicles located within the metropolitan area will
increase to about 180,000 by year 2015, and near 515,000 by year 2030 (JICA 2008). This
means that vehicle ownership will more than triple from 25 cars per 1,000 persons in year
2007, to 89 cars per 1,000 persons by year 2030. Pronounced impacts on Dar es Salaam
congestion, and the need for additional road infrastructure, are consequently expected. The
construction of BRT will certainly be a key mitigating factor in defining the modal choice
relationship in terms of inducing mode switching and providing increased mobility for
transit dependent elements of the population. However, demand on the road network is
nevertheless expected to dramatically increase in future in line with rising socio economic
well being of the populace. No single remedy can be expected to comprehensively address
such phenomena, instead, a more holistic approach is needed which relies on intermodality
and a harmonious combination of the various modes that compromise a multi faceted and
integrated urban transport system. Herein lies the challenge; solutions are needed whose
practicality can be viewed through the prism of existing realities, and whose validity will
remain intact over the Master Plan planning horizon extending to year 2030. In defining
transport systems for the future, the chapter has fully considered a number of key features
which will dictate the nature of transport evolution from a strategic viewpoint; namely
i. The physical characteristics (space for road expansion, increasing traffic etc) and urban
structure (type and extent of land use) of the city;
ii. A developing city with constrained financial resources;
iii. The social characteristics of its people (high dependency on public transport, need for
mobility to increase opportunity and reduce poverty; increasing well being in future); and
iv. The policy and regulatory frameworks as key to developing sustainable transport.
One of the key recommendations in this chapter is that, in order to improve what is at
present an overlapping and (often) ineffective organizational approach to developing road
systems, executing traffic control and management, as well as operating public transport,
the formation of a multi disciplinary and multi modal Dar es Salaam Urban Transport
Authority (DUTA). At the same time capacity development is very necessary in the field of
transport planning and administration. Also an organization named National Center for
Transport Studies (NCTS), whose responsibility is placed on education, research and
development is proposed.
4. Intelligent transportation system innovations
Overview of the widespread application of ITS has been anticipated for some years and since
the early 1990s, there have been numerous model based attempts to predict their impact. ITS is
not just about the provision of information to travelers. It can affect the nature of the travel
experience ( e.g., by simplifying the process of paying fare or road toll, by enabling the driver
to pre book his parking space or conduct business by phone while en route to the office, or by
taking control of the vehicle in hazardous situations). It can also extend the range of levers
available to the system manager (e.g., by making it possible to charge motorist that reflect the
current level of congestion or pollution, or to detect and prosecute a wide range of traffic
violations). All of these cold influence traveler behavior in various ways, for example,
recognize that mode choices might be affected by the provision of simplified ticketing or
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tolling system or by the ability to work end route, and that the choice of car park might be
strongly influenced by the possibility of pre booking space in some location and so on.
4.1 Intelligent transportation system technologies applied to BRT system in
developing countries
ITS technologies are being implemented more commonly in European, North American
countries, and Australia than in developing countries. BRT systems in developing countries
are still limited in ITS applications because of the capital and operating costs (Wright 2004).
ITS technologies mainly contribute to the image, safety, and operating speed (Kittelson &
Associates et al. 2003, Darido et al. 2006, Currie 2006 and Sakamoto et al. 2007) but are not
essential features for a successful BRT system. The BRT systems in Bogotá, Quito, Beijing,
Mexico City, and all Brazilian systems are successful examples that have not implemented
or have very limited ITS technologies. Transit Signal Priority (TSP), real time passenger
information systems, and Automatic Fare Collection (AFC) are examples of typical ITS
applications in BRT systems. Implementation of TSP has grown rapidly among the U.S.
transit systems. Real time passenger information systems increase productivity of
passengers while waiting for buses, avoid crowding at stations, and enhance the image of
the shelters (Kittelson & Associates et al 2003). Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) systems
help track the locations of vehicles, which can be used for real time fleet management and
future planning purposes. The global positioning system based AVL system is perhaps the
most popular among the available location technologies (Gillen and Johnson 2002). One of
the new ITS technologies for BRT are lane assist systems being implemented in the BRT
systems in Orlando and Minneapolis. Lane assist permits BRT vehicles to operate at higher
operating speeds with improved safety (Kulyk and Hardy 2007). Precision docking
technology (implemented in Las Vegas, but more popular in European cities) helps reduce
dwell time. Some features below applied in several BRT systems.
i. Fare Collection Methods - Automatic fare collection (AFC), although originating in other
transit systems, has become a regular feature of BRT systems worldwide. Advanced
AFC with a common smart card allows integration of several modes in one single
system, which offers customer convenience (GTZ 2006). In surveys carried out among
transit users in Hong Kong, Taipei, New Delhi, London, Oslo, Copenhagen,
Washington D.C., San Francisco, Chicago, Rome, Bangkok, Seoul, and Istanbul, smart
cards were noted as being effective in promoting ridership, increasing customer
satisfaction, improving boarding time, and increasing ease of access (Boushka 2006).
AFC usually generates important data for demand forecasting and operational
planning (Hidalgo et al. 2007). However, three recent examples demonstrate that AFC
may not be as beneficial as it appears. The first example is AFC on the Silver Line in
Boston. AFC equipment initially was implemented with the purpose of saving running
time. However, contrary to expectations, the travel time increased after AFC
implementation. Such experience illustrates the importance of dwelling time control
(Darido et al. 2006). The second and third examples are the Quito and Jakarta BRT
systems, where the implementation time for user adaptation to AFC technology has been
considerably short, causing “insufficient testing and quality assurance.” In addition, their
fare collection systems are not compatible with other public transportation modes or even
among different BRT corridors in the same city (Hidalgo et al. 2007).
ii. Operating Speed - Operating speed depends on many factors such as guide ways,
number of stops, dwell time, etc. When Bogotá’s TransMilenio was first implemented,
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the operating speed went from approximately 15 km/h to 26.7 km/h (Cain 2007). In
Seoul, the operating speed of buses has improved after the implementation of BRT in 2004
(by 2.7 km/h to 11 km/h, depending on the corridor), and the speed has increased as
users become more familiar with the system (GTZ 2006). Operating speed has a direct
impact on ridership attraction. As the name implies, BRT service should be “rapid.”The
travel time and ridership attraction of the BRT features reviewed above, all are aimed at
reducing travel time or increasing ridership. Therefore, travel time savings (for users)
and ridership attraction (for agencies and operators) are the most important design
goals. In fact, the most distinctive features of BRT systems are the ones that contribute
most to reduction in travel time (such as guide ways, high capacity vehicles, high
service frequency, TSP, AFC) and ridership attraction (such as enhanced stations and
shelters, transit oriented development, real time passenger information systems, route
coverage).
4.2 Bus rapid transit system creating better mobility
BRT is an enhanced bus system that operates on bus lanes or other transit ways in order to
combine the flexibility of buses with the efficiency of rail. By doing so, BRT operates at faster
speeds, provides greater service reliability and increased customer convenience. It also
utilizes a combination of advanced technologies, infrastructure and operational investments
that provide significantly better service than traditional bus service. Bus systems provide a
versatile form of public transportation with the flexibility to serve a variety of access needs
and an unlimited range of locations throughout a metropolitan area. Because buses travel on
urban roadways, infrastructure investments needed to support bus service can be
substantially lower than the capital costs required for rail systems. As a result, bus service
can be implemented cost effectively on routes where ridership may not be sufficient or
where the capital investment may not be available to implement rail systems. Traffic
congestion, urban sprawl, central city decline, and air pollution are all problems associated
with excessive dependence on automobiles. Increasing recognition of the need for high
quality transit service to alleviate these conditions has fueled growing demand for new
public transportation service. Despite the inherent advantages of bus service in terms of
flexibility and low capital cost, the traveling public frequently finds the quality of bus
service provided in urban centers to be wanting. Conventional urban bus operations often
are characterized by sluggish vehicles inching their way through congested streets, delayed
not only by other vehicles and traffic signals, but also by frequent and time consuming stops
to pick up and discharge passengers. Buses travel on average at only around 60 percent of
the speeds of automobiles and other private vehicles using the same streets due to the
cumulative effects of traffic congestion, traffic signals, and passenger boarding. Moreover,
compared to rail systems, the advantageous flexibility and decentralization of bus
operations also result in a lack of system visibility and permanence that contributes to
public perceptions of unreliability and disorganization.
4.2.1 What is bus rapid transit?
Low cost investments in infrastructure, equipment, operational improvements, and
technology can provide the foundation for Bus Rapid Transit systems that substantially
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upgrade bus system performance. Conceived as an integrated, well defined system, Bus
Rapid Transit would provide for significantly faster operating speeds, greater service
reliability, and increased convenience, matching the quality of rail transit when
implemented in appropriate settings. Improved bus service would give priority treatment to
buses on urban roadways.
4.2.2 Why bus rapid transit?
Transportation and community planning officials all over the world are examining
improved public transportation solutions to mobility issues. This renewed interest in transit
reflects concerns ranging from environmental consciousness to the desire for alternatives to
clogged highways and urban sprawl. These concerns have led to a re - examination of
existing transit technologies and the embrace of new, creative ways of providing transit
service and performance. BRT can be an extremely cost effective way of providing high
quality, high performance transit. Advancements in technology such as clean air vehicles,
low floor vehicles, and electronic and mechanical guidance
4.2.3 Overview of bus rapid transit system
With population increase, increasing transportation demand has lead to debilitating traffic
in most major cities. Figure 4.1 indicate population increases of some major cities.
Bogota – Colombia California – USA
Fig. 4.1. Population increase of some major cities.
In order to address this situation, a high pax capacity transport alternative must be chosen
system pax/hour/direction capacity (‘000 pax
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Base capacity Max capacity
Fig. 4.2. Different mode of public transportation capacity.
In comparison to rail based systems, a BRT system provides a high pax system with a
significantly lower implementation cost and time. Figure 4.3 and 4.4 indicates the
different mode of transportation implementation cost (USSMM/KM) and time (Mths)
respectively.
1
18
12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Metro
BRT
Tram/VLT
Bus lines
Fig. 4.3. Implementation cost (US$ MM/.
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Fig. 4.4. Implementation time (Mths).
Bus Rapid Transit combines the benefits of light rail transit with the flexibility and
efficiency of bus transit. The goal of BRT development is to enhance ridership and reduce
operating costs with increased service levels and quality. A BRT system combines the
technology of intelligent transportation systems, traffic signal priority, cleaner and quieter
vehicles, rapid and convenient fare collection, and integration with land use policy. BRT
has demonstrated improvements in public transportation service and enabled
improvements that can be implemented at relatively low cost. The mission of Bus Rapid
Transit (BRT) is to combine the flexibility and low implementation cost of bus service with
the comfort, efficiency, cost effectiveness, land use influence and versatility of light rail
transit (LRT). Various projects around the world have indicated that BRT is an effective
alternative for congested cities at a relatively low construction and operation cost. Cities
in developing countries have struggled with the problem of how to upgrade and improve
existing transit services at a low cost. Developing countries with high transit dependent
populations and limited financial resources have increasingly attempted the use of BRT
systems because of their low costs and relatively fast implementation times. The cost of a
BRT project is considered to be approximately one third of a LRT project, which is a cost
that developing countries can afford. After construction the system is practically self
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financing with fares of about $US0.50 per trip. BRT has proved that it allows low fares
and reduced travel times for low income users. BRT systems such as Curitiba in Brazil
and Transmilenio in Colombia are great examples of the success that the BRT system has
had in Latin American countries.
4.2.4 BRT – Concepts and evolution
There is a broad range of perspectives as to what constitutes BRT. At one end of the
spectrum, BRT has been defined as a corridor in which buses operate on a dedicated right of
way such as a bus way or a bus lane reserved for buses on a major arterial road or freeway.
Although this definition describes many existing BRT systems, it does not capture the other
features that have made rail rapid transit modes so attractive around the world. BRT has
also been defined as a bus based rapid transit service with a completely dedicated right of
way and on line stops or stations, much like LRT. This is consistent with the FTA definition
of BRT as “a rapid mode of transportation that can combine the quality of rail transit and the
flexibility of buses”. For the purpose of this chapter, BRT has been defined more
comprehensively as a flexible, rubber tired form of rapid transit that combines stations,
vehicles, services, running ways, and ITS elements into a fully integrated system with a
strong image and identity. BRT applications are designed to be appropriate to the market
they serve and their physical surroundings, and they can be incrementally implemented in a
variety of environments (from rights of way totally dedicated to transit to streets and
highways where transit is mixed with traffic). In brief, BRT is a fully integrated system of
facilities, services, and amenities that are designed to improve the speed, reliability, and
identity of bus transit. In many respects, it is rubber tired LRT, but with greater operating
flexibility and potentially lower capital and operating costs. Often, a relatively small
investment in dedicated guide ways can provide regional rapid transit. This definition has
the following implications:
 Where BRT vehicles (buses) operate totally on exclusive or protected rights of way
(surface, elevated, and/or tunnel) with on-line stops, the level of service provided is
similar to that of heavy rail rapid transit (metros).
 Where buses operate in combinations of exclusive rights of way, median reservations,
bus lanes, and street running with on line stops, the level of service provided is similar
to that of LRT.
 Where BRT operates almost entirely on exclusive bus or HOV lanes on highways
(freeways and expressways) to and from transit centers with significant parking and
where it offers frequent peak service focused on a traditional CBD, it provides a level of
service very similar to that of commuter rail.
 Where buses operate mainly on city streets with little or no special signal priority or
dedicated lanes, the level of service provided is similar to that of an upgraded limited
stop bus or tram system.
Figure 4.5 describes the seven major components of BRT running ways, stations, vehicles,
service, route structure, fare collection, and ITS. Collectively, these components form a
complete rapid transit system that can improve customer convenience and system
performance.
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Fig. 4.5. Major components of BRT.
4.2.5 Limitation of BRT
However, effectiveness of BRT is not always permanent. (Vuchic, 2005) pointed out that
BRTs cannot succeed if police enforcement is not strict due to security system, citing the
examples of Philadelphia and Mexico. Experiences from the U.S. cities such as Shirley Bus
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way in Washington and El Monte Bus way in Los Angeles show that pressures by
automobile interests are threat to the existence of BRT. Relationship of BRT to other modes
is a crucial factor for the success of BRT: BRT cannot bring success as a standalone policy
and effectiveness depends on the presence of complementary transport options, such as
promotion of non motorized transport and integrated feeder services (Wright, 2001).
Another important factor for success understanding of planning and design elements, based
on experiences in real world conditions (Vuchic, 2005).
4.3 Experience of BRT System as a mode of public transport from other cities
4.3.1 The BRT system in Curitiba – Brazil
The bus system of Curitiba, Brazil, exemplifies a model Bus Rapid Transit system, and plays
a large part in making this a livable city. The buses run frequently some as often as every 90
seconds and reliably, commuters ride them in great numbers, and the stations are
convenient, well designed, comfortable, and attractive. Curitiba has one of the most heavily
used, yet low cost, transit systems in the world. It offers many of the features of a subway
system vehicle movements unimpeded by traffic signals and congestion, fare collection
prior to boarding, quick passenger loading and unloading but it is above ground and
visible. Even with one automobile for every three people, one of the highest automobile
ownership rates in Brazil, and with a significantly higher per capita income than the
national average, around 70 percent of Curitiba’s commuters use transit daily to travel to
work. Greater Curitiba with its 2.2 million inhabitants enjoys congestion free streets and
pollution free air.
4.3.1.1 Evolution of the bus system in Curitiba
The bus system did not develop overnight, nor was it the result of transit development
isolated from other aspects of city planning. It exists because thirty years ago Curitiba’s
forward thinking and cost conscious planners developed a Master Plan integrating public
transportation with all elements of the urban system. They initiated a transportation system
that focused on meeting the transportation needs of the population rather than focusing on
those using private automobiles and then consistently followed through over the years with
staged implementation of their plan. They avoided large scale and expensive projects in
favor of hundreds of modest initiatives. A previous comprehensive plan for Curitiba,
developed in 1943, had envisioned exponential growth of automobile traffic and wide
boulevards radiating from the central core of the city to accommodate the traffic. Rights of
way for the boulevards were acquired, but many other parts of the plan never materialized.
With the adoption of the new Master Plan in 1965, the projected layout of the city changed
dramatically. The Master Plan sprang from a competition among urban planners prompted
by fears of city officials that Curitiba’s rapid growth, if unchannelled, would lead to the
congested, pedestrian unfriendly streets and unchecked development that characterized
their neighbor city, São Paulo, and many other Brazilian cities to the north. As a result of the
Master Plan, Curitiba would no longer grow in all directions from the core, but would grow
along designated corridors in a linear form, spurred by zoning and land use policies
promoting high density industrial and residential development along the corridors.
Downtown Curitiba would no longer be the primary destination of travel, but a hub and
terminus. Mass transit would replace the car as the primary means of transport within the
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city, and the high density development along the corridors would produce a high volume of
transit ridership. The wide boulevards established in the earlier plan would provide the
cross section required for exclusive bus lanes in which express bus service would operate.
4.3.1.2 The Curitiba’s bus system
Curitiba’s bus system evolved in stages over the years as phases of the Master Plan were
implemented to arrive at its current form. It is composed of a hierarchical system of services.
Small minibuses routed through residential neighborhoods feed passengers to conventional
buses on circumferential routes around the central city and on interdistrict routes. The
backbone of the bus system is composed of the express buses operating on five main arteries
leading into the center of the city much as spokes on a wheel lead to its hub. This backbone
service, aptly described as Bus Rapid Transit, is characterized by several features that enable
Curitiba’s bus service to approach the speed, efficiency, and reliability of a subway system:
integrated planning ; exclusive bus lanes ; signal priority for buses ; Pre - boarding fare
collection ; level bus boarding from raised platforms in tube stations ; free transfers between
lines (single entry) ; large capacity articulated and bi-articulated wide door buses ; and
overlapping system of bus services.
Each artery is composed of a "trinary" road system, consisting of three parallel routes, a
block apart. The middle route is a wide avenue with "Express" bus service running down
dedicated high capacity express bus ways in the center two lanes, offering frequent stop
service using standard, articulated and bi - articulated buses carrying up to 270 passengers a
piece. The outer lanes are for local access and parking. Back in the 1960s the building of a
light rail system in these avenues had been considered, but proved to be too expensive. The
two outer routes are one way streets with mixed vehicle traffic lanes next to exclusive bus
lanes running "direct" high speed bus service with limited stops. Both the express and direct
services use signal priority at intersections.
Buses running in the dedicated and exclusive lanes stop at tube stations. These are modern
design cylindrical shaped, clear walled stations with turnstiles, steps, and wheelchair lifts.
Passengers pay their bus fares as they enter the stations, and wait for buses on raised station
platforms. Instead of steps, buses are designed with extra wide doors and ramps which
extend when the doors open to fill the gap between the bus and the station platform. The
tube stations serve the dual purpose of providing passengers with shelter from the elements,
and facilitating the efficient simultaneous loading and unloading of passengers, including
wheelchairs. A typical dwell time of only 15 to 19 seconds is the result of fare payment prior
to boarding the bus and same level boarding from the platform to the bus. Passengers pay a
single fare equivalent to about 40 cents (U.S.) for travel throughout the system, with
unlimited transfers between buses. Transfers are accomplished at terminals where the
different services intersect. Transfers occur within the prepaid portions of the terminals so
transfer tickets are not needed. In these areas are located public telephones, post offices,
newspaper stands, and small retail facilities to serve customers changing buses. Ten private
bus companies provide all public transportation services in Curitiba, with guidance and
parameters established by the city administration. The bus companies are paid by the
distances they travel rather than by the passengers they carry, allowing a balanced
distribution of bus routes and eliminating the former destructive competition that clogged
the main roads and left other parts of the city unsaved. All ten bus companies earn an
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operating profit. The city pays the companies for the buses, about 1 percent of the bus value
per month. After ten years, the city takes control of the buses and uses them for
transportation to parks or as mobile schools. The average bus is only three years old, largely
because of the recent infusion of newly designed buses, including the articulated buses, into
the system.
4.3.1.3 Integration of transit with land use planning
Curitiba’s Master Plan integrated transportation with land use planning, with the latter as
the driving force, and called for a cultural, social and economic transformation of the city. It
limited central area growth, while encouraging commercial growth along the transport
arteries radiating out from the city center. The city’s central area was partly closed to
vehicular traffic, and pedestrian streets were created. The linear development along the
arteries reduced the traditional importance of the downtown area as the primary focus of
day to day transport activity, thereby minimizing congestion and the typical morning flow
of traffic into the central city and the afternoon outflow. As a result, during any rush hour in
Curitiba, there are heavy commuter movements in both directions along the public
transportation arteries. The Master Plan also provided economic support for urban
development along the arteries through the establishment of industrial and commercial
zones and mixed use zoning, and encouraged local community self sufficiency by providing
each city district with its own adequate education, health care, recreation, and park areas. By
1992, almost 40 percent of Curitiba’s population resided within three blocks of the major
transit arteries. Other policies have contributed to the success of the transit system, in the
areas of zoning, housing development, parking and employer paid transit subsidies. Land
within two blocks of the transit arteries has been zoned for mixed commercial and
residential uses. Higher densities are permitted for office space, since it traditionally
generates more transit ridership per square foot than residential space. Beyond these two
blocks, zoned residential densities taper with distance from transit ways. Land near transit
arteries is encouraged to be developed with community assisted housing. The Institute of
Urban Research and Planning of Curitiba (IPPUC), established in the 1960s to oversee
implementation of the Master Plan, must approve locations of new shopping centers. They
discourage American style auto oriented shopping centers by channeling new retail growth
to transit corridors. Very limited and time restricted public parking is available in the
downtown area, and private parking is very expensive. Finally, most employers offer
transportation subsidies to workers, especially low skilled and low paid employees, making
them the primary purchasers of tokens.
4.3.1.4 Staged development of the bus system
As the population increased during the period from 1970 through the present, Curitiba’s bus
system evolved incrementally. It required expansion of service routes, frequencies, and
capacities, and improvements in fare payment, scheduling, and facility design to facilitate
the passenger transferring process. Innovative low cost and low tech options for new
services and features were chosen over more expensive alternatives at each stage. Planners
did not hesitate to abandon choices that did not work in favor of more effective solutions. At
several points throughout the bus system development, the option of constructing a rail
network was considered. Initially, buses were chosen over rail because they were far more
adaptable and cheaper for a developing city such as Curitiba. In the mid 1980s the ridership
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had grown enough to support a rail network, but capital costs were prohibitive. Instead, the
high capacity, high speed service known as "direct" service was eventually introduced on
the one way exclusive bus lanes that parallel the main corridors one block away. This
service, including the tube stations, cost about $200,000 per kilometer to build, and was far
cheaper, faster and less disruptive than the estimated $20 million per kilometer for a light
rail system. Not to be underestimated in the evolution of the transit system is the influence
of the current governor of the State of Parana, Jaime Lerner. Lerner left his position as
president of the IPPUC to become a three--time Mayor of Curitiba, and then governor. With
a stake in the development of the Master Plan, he was its champion throughout the years,
providing guidance, a firm governmental commitment to transit, and leadership. His steady
promotion of the plan enabled it to withstand any tendencies for local politics to alter its
course.
4.3.1.5 Results of bus rapid transit
The popularity of Curitiba’s Bus Rapid Transit system has affected a modal shift from
automobile travel to bus travel, in spite of Curitibanos’ high income and high rate of car
ownership relative to the rest of Brazil. Based on 1991 traveler survey results, it was
estimated that service improvements resulting from the introduction of Bus Rapid Transit
had attracted enough automobile users to public transportation to cause a reduction of
about 27 million auto trips per year, saving about 27 million liters of fuel annually. In
particular, 28 percent of direct bus service users previously traveled by car. Compared to
eight other Brazilian cities its size, Curitiba uses about 30 percent less fuel per capita,
because of its heavy transit usage. The low rate of ambient air pollution in Curitiba, one of
the lowest in Brazil, is attributed to the public transportation system’s accounting for around
percent of private trips in the city. Residential patterns changed to afford bus access on the
major arteries to a larger proportion of the population. Between 1970 and 1978, when the
three main arteries were built, the population of Curitiba as a whole grew by 73 percent,
while the population along the arteries grew by 120 percent. Today about 1,100 buses make
12,500 trips per day, serving more than 1.3 million passengers per day, 50 times more than
20 years ago. Eighty percent of the travelers use either the express or direct bus service,
while only 20 percent use the conventional feeder services. Plans for extending the rapid bus
network will reduce the need for conventional services. In addition to enjoying speedy and
reliable service, Curitibanos spend only about 10 percent of their income on travel, which is
low relative to the rest of Brazil.
4.3.2 The case of transmilenio the BRT system in Bogota – Colombia
4.3.2.1 Before the BRT implementation
This section describes the transportation conditions in Bogotá in 1998, (before Transmilenio)
in order to understand the positive transportation changes made in the city. Ninety five
percent of the road network was used by 850,000 private vehicles, which transported about
19% of the population. Close to 70% of trips shorter than 3 km were made by car. Buses
occupied a low percentage of the roadway network. Seventy two percent of trips were made
by public transit on about 21,000 buses. The average trip by bus was about 1 hour 10
minutes in duration with an average speed of 10 km/hr. The majority of the buses were
more than 14 years old with an average of 50% occupancy. A total of 48% of public transit
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vehicles were medium sized buses (40 - 80 passengers), 37% small buses (20 - 40
passengers), and 15% were minibuses. The fares ranged between US$0.30 and US$0.40
depending of the type and age of the buses (Transmilenio S.A., 2000). In general buses did
not have comfortable seats, ventilation or security. There were no defined bus stops,
therefore, buses picked up and dropped off passenger at any location along the route. There
was no motivation for car owners to switch to public transportation because of the low
quality of the system. Figure 4.6 shows some of the buses previously used in the public
transportation system in Bogotá.
Fig. 4.6. Bogotá, Before the BRT Implementation.
The transportation system was operated by multiple private operators, which perceived
their income as a function of the number of buses in their fleet. The bus system growth was
very fast and disorganized. Between 1993 and 1997 the demand for bus service increased
27%. On the other hand, the bus supply increased 72%, which shows the lack of control and
planning of the system supply (Transmilenio S.A., 2000). This unbalanced growth brought a
phenomenon known as “la guerra del centavo,” which can be translated as “the war of the
cent.” The war of the cent refers to the aggressive war of the drivers for picking up the
maximum number of potential passengers. This aggressive competition between buses was
permitted in the streets. Since the revenue earned by the operators depended on the number
of passengers served, the war for passengers was very competitive. Because of the excessive
number of buses, these private operators had excessive consumption, tires, and other
operational requirements. In addition, the lack of maintenance and renovation of vehicles
brought excessive operational costs and increased contaminants and noise. Fare collection
was performed by the driver, which produced distractions that in many cases ended in
accidents. In addition, this increased the travel time making the service less attractive to the
public. Other problems included high pollution levels of 750,000 tons of atmospheric
pollutants per year generated by traffic and noise levels above 90dB on major streets. Air
pollution was a serious issue due to the higher altitude (27% less available oxygen than at
sea level) and the lack of pollution control. In addition, a high number of accidents (52,764)
and 1,174 fatalities were recorded in 1998 (Transmilenio S.A., 2001).
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4.3.2.2 After the BRT implementation
Transmilenio was created in order to reduce accidents, shorten travel times, reduce
pollution, and provide accessibility for young, elderly, and people with disabilities and to
provide affordable, high quality and advanced transportation technology. The
infrastructure, management, controls and planning are supplied by a new transit authority.
The fare collection and operation systems are controlled by the private sector. The new
transit authority, Transmilenio S.A. was created in October 1999 in order to manage, control
and plan the system. Transmilenio S.A. is supported by 3% of the fare revenues and other
activities, such as commercial advertising (Hidalgo and Sandoval, 2001). Financial resources
for the implementation of the BRT system came from a fuel tax, local revenues, a credit from
the World Bank and grants by the national government. Resources were planned to fund the
BRT infrastructure until 2006 with a possible extension to 2018. The project was planned,
designed and constructed by local and international firms. It took about eighteen months to
finish the studies and develop detailed plans for the system. Examples of BRT systems in
other Latin Countries, such as Quito (Ecuador), Curitiba, Sao Paulo, and Goiania (Brazil),
and Santiago (Chile) helped to identify important elements for the planning and design of
the system.
From the beginning of the BRT implementation the private transportation operators that
provided transit service in Bogotá were involved in the planning process. Operators of the
old system were offered the opportunity to be the operators of the new system. This strategy
was implemented by showing them the opportunities and advantages of their participation.
The operators’ experience was recognized and valued as a key aspect for the success of the
new BRT system. Having the operators of the system as part of Transmilenio, protests and
work stoppage possibilities for the service were avoided. Every time that a new
Transmilenio bus was put in service, some old buses had to leave the system. The newer
buses are used as feeder buses to take passenger from remote locations to the Transmilenio
system.
In April 2000, four different firms created by local transportation operators associated
with international investors received the contract concession to provide and operate 470
new articulated buses. Ninety-six percent of the private operators that provided transit
service acquired stock in the four firms that were awarded the contracts. This shows the
success of the program to include former transit operators in the Transmilenio operation.
The fare collection was awarded to a local firm supported by an experienced fare
collection system provider. The control system was awarded to a Spanish firm. Feeder
service and renovation of existing buses contracts were awarded to traditional transit
operators (Hidalgo and Sandoval, 2001). The new system infrastructure was constructed
by local contractors under the supervision of the Institute of Urban Development
(Instituto de Desarrollo Urbano, IDU). Their duties were to develop: 35 km of bus ways
and complementary lanes, 4 terminals, 4 parking and maintenance yards, 58 stations, 17
pedestrian overpasses, plazas, sidewalks, built or rehabilitated 126 km of roads for feeder
services, in a 24 month construction period. About 17,000 people are estimated to have
participated in the project. On December 18, 2000, Transmilenio started operation
(Transmilenio).
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4.3.2.3 Transmilenio infrastructure characteristics
The Transmilenio infrastructure consists of dedicated bus ways, streets for feeder buses
pedestrian access facilities, stations, points for bus parking and maintenance, and an
advanced control system. Bus ways are located in the center lanes of the main avenues of the
city. These bus ways are physically isolated from the mixed traffic lanes, private vehicles,
trucks, and taxis. There are two lanes dedicated for Transmilenio in each direction (See
Figure 4. 7). The two lanes in each direction were included to allow buses to pass one
another, which improves the speed of the system and allows for express or skip stop service.
In a 15 year period, 22 bus ways or main lines covering 388 km are expected to be in
operation. Table 4.1 shows the year and the number of km of bus ways that are expected
until 2018 (International Seminar on Human Mobility, 2003). Figure 4.8 shows a map of
Bogotá with the 22 bus ways expected through 2018.
Year Km of bus ways
2005 130.4
2010 252.6
2015 384.3
2018 388.9
Table 4.1. Km of Bus ways expected.
Fig. 4.7. Infrastructure Characteristics.
Fig. 4.8. Twenty two Bus ways Through the City.
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There are three types of stations;
 Simple Stations: They are located every 500 meters. At these stations passengers can
purchase tickets and enter the system.
 Intermediate Stations: These stations are the contact points between the feeder buses
and the main lines. Their objective is to provide smooth, fast and effective interaction
between the Transmilenio and feeder buses.
 Portals or Main Line Stations: They are located at the beginning and end points of the
main line routes. In these stations transfers are accomplished among Transmilenio
buses, feeder and transportation routes. The fee is integrated with the feeders, so that
when a transfer takes place double payment is not required. These stations are
provided with bicycle parking facilities.
OUT SIDE
INSIDE
Fig. 4.9. Stations.
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Walkways, plazas and sidewalks were constructed to provide adequate pedestrian and
bicycle access. Parking and maintenance areas for the buses near terminal stations were also
constructed. Each station is provided with maps and route information to facilitate the use
of the system.
4.3.2.4 Operational system
The overall system includes main lines and feeder buses. The buses are an important
element for the image of the system. The buses are operated by private contractors, but
controlled by Transmilenio. S.A. The main line circulates though exclusive corridors,
starting and ending the routes at the Portals and Front End Stations (See Figure 4.9). On the
main lines, Transmilenio is the only system operator. Feeder buses do not use the main
lines. There are two types of service on the main lines: normal and express service. Normal
service stops at every station along the routes; they are identified with the number 1.
Express service does not stop at all the stations along the route, which reduces travel time
and the size of the fleet because buses can complete more cycles. Express service is
identified with the numbers 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50. The combination of the normal and
express services allows the system to carry more passengers per hour per direction and
divide the passengers according to their destination, which is more appropriate for the size
of the buses. Normal buses run every five (5) minutes and express buses every four (4)
minutes. Passengers that use the express service can stop and take buses in the other
directions as needed. Table 4.2 shows the year and the number of passengers that are
expected through 2018 (International Seminar on Human Mobility, 2003).
Year Passengers/day
2005 2,681,000.00
2010 4,136,000.00
2015 5,004,000.00
2018 5,295,000.00
Table 4.2. Number of passengers expected.
The main line is served by articulated buses with a capacity of 160 passengers. They are 18
meters long, 2.60 meters wide, and have four doors of 1.20 meters each on the left side of the
bus. The design of the buses was focused on customers, with inside comfort, easy entrance
of passengers, clean air and noise emissions. They have pneumatic suspension, automatic
transmission, and the engines use diesel and natural gas. Feeder buses have capacities of 80
passengers (Transmilenio). A total of 6,000 articulated buses are expected by 2015. Figure
4.10 shows a photograph of the buses that serve the feeder system. Feeder buses have lower
capacity than the main line buses. New or recent model buses are used as feeder buses with
a capacity of 80 passengers. They serve areas that do not have access to the main lines.
Passengers transfer from/to the feeder buses to/from Transmilenio though the stations.
Each driver works 6hour shifts. Drivers are paid as a function of the kilometers served by
their buses, and they are not involved in fare collection. The system operates from 5:00 AM
to 11:00 PM. The system is designed to serve 5,000 trips per day with a total investment of
US$2.3 billion. This value does not include the fare collection system implementation costs
and the cost of the buses
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Articulated Buses
Feeder Buses
Fig. 4.10. Articulated buses and Feeder buses.
4.3.2.5 Fare collection system
Transmilenio uses a prepaid method of payment (off board fare collection). The passenger
pays the fare upon entry to the system in the stations. The passenger purchases a smart card
at the ticket office located at the entrance of each station. The smart card can be yellow for
one trip, red for two trips, or the capital card that permits several trips. It permits multiple
boarding reducing dwell times, bus operating cost, and travel times for passengers. Access
turnstiles are located at the entrances and exits of the stations to validate and register the
number of passengers using the system.
4.3.2.6 Advanced control system
An advanced control system is a very important part of the BRT system. A satellite control
center allows continue supervision of the operation of the buses. Each bus has a Global
Positioning System (GPS) receiver to report the bus location, a computer that contains the
schedule, a tracking communication system that shares information with a control center
located in Transmilenio, S.A. and the police, and a transponder that sends the information to
receivers at the entrances and exits of every station. This communication system provides
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real time information and is the basis for the control of the system. This makes it possible to
adjust the schedule and identify possible new routes into the system.
4.3.2.7 Infrastructure result
Phase 1 was implemented between 1999 and 2002. The system began with 21 stations and
was 15.5 km in length. In November 1999 there were 35 km of bus ways, 100 km of feeder
routes, 401 articulated buses and 103 feeder buses (Hidalgo and Sandoval, 2001). Three main
lines were constructed within the city: Calle 80, Troncal Caracas, and Autopista Norte.
Forty-one kilometers of new bus ways were built through the three corridors (See Figure
4.11- This figure also includes phase II). Seven feeder zones with 309 kilometers of feeder
routes within 74 neighborhoods were installed to move passengers from remote areas to the
main BRT system. Along the main lines four terminal stations, four intermediate integration
stations, and 53 simple stations were constructed. In addition, 30 pedestrian overpasses,
plazas and sidewalks were constructed. In this phase there were US$240 million of
investment (International Seminar on Human Mobility, 2003).
Fig. 4.11. Phase I and Phase II Main Lines.
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4.3.2.8 Operational result
In December 18, 2001, the mayor of Bogotá, Enrique Peñalosa, along with Transmilenio S.A.
Company, inaugurated the new BRT service in the city. Until January 2001 the service was
free. In November, 2000, the system demand grew by 550,000 passengers per week (Hidalgo
and Sandoval, 2001). During phase 1 the system moved an average of 770,000
passengers/day with 34,000 passengers per hour per direction on the busy sections of the
system, averaging 5.3 passengers per kilometer. A total of 344,162,256 people were
transported, and buses covered 66,035,715 kilometers through the main lines (International
Seminar on Human Mobility, 2003). There are 470 articulated and 235 feeder buses in use.
They have an average speed of 26 km/hour in the main lines. The speed increased from 10
km/hour to 26 km/hour with the implementation of the system (International Seminar on
Human Mobility, 2003).
Ticketing and fare collection: In phase I, 90 ticket booths were installed, 359 barriers and 1.3
million smart cards have been used. The fare began at 800 Colombian pesos and ended at
900 Colombian pesos, which is about US$0.40. This low fare makes the system affordable for
low income users. This phase had daily revenue of about US$270,000 from about 770,000
passengers (International Seminar on Human Mobility, 2003).
Advanced control system: Six control stations were implemented. Each station is able to
monitor and control 80 articulated buses. Each articulated bus has a GPS system to track its
location at six-second intervals and with +/-2 meter accuracy. Schedule adherence can be
verified and adjusted accordingly. A total of 94 supervisors controlled the buses by the end
of phase 1. Continuous communication between operators and the control center
supervisors was achieved by the end of this phase (International Seminar on Human
Mobility, 2003).
Accident, pollution and safety: The reductions in pollution and accidents as well as safety
improvements were some of the most important impacts observed at the end of phase 1.
There was observed a reduction of about 92% in fatalities, about 75% in injuries and about
79% in collisions. Robberies at transit stops were reduced by 47% (Hidalgo and Sandoval,
2001). A monitoring study at the one of the main lines (Troncal Caracas) in 2000 and 2001
showed a reduction of about 43% of sulfur dioxide (SO2), 18% of Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2),
and 12% of particulate matter of less than 10 microns (PM-10) (Hidalgo and Sandoval, 2001).
Travel time: A reduction of 32% in the travel time for public transportation users was
measured. The speed along the Calle 80 and Caracas main lines increased from 10 km/Hour
and 18 km/hour to an average of 27 km/hour. Surveys show that 83% of the users perceive
the increase in speed as the main reason to use Transmilenio. Thirty seven percent of the
users perceive that they spend more time with their families because of a faster commute
(Hidalgo and Sandoval, 2001).
Hence we can conclude that the various projects in Latin American countries indicate that
obstacles have surfaced, but the BRT system is a good alternative to improve and upgrade
the transportation system at a cost that developing countries can afford. Examples such as
the BRT system in Bogotá, Colombia, demonstrate that the BRT system can be as efficient,
cost effective, comfortable and versatile as the LRT. During the first phase of operation the
transportation system in Bogotá became more organized and effective and with higher
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quality. There has been observed a reduction in travel time, pollution, and accidents as well
as increases in safety and speed through the network when influenced by the BRT system.
People are leaving their cars at home and users seem to accept and like the system. Surveys
in Colombia show that the 49% of the users find the system very good and another 49% find
the system good during the first phase of operation. The BRT system in Colombia can be
taken as an example for other developing countries to follow in the future.
4.3.3 Lesson from Curitiba and Bogota
The example of Curitiba - Brazil and the experience of the Transmilenio BRT system in
Bogota - Colombia illustrate the potential of improved bus services to address mobility
needs in metropolitan areas. Buses provide flexible and cost effective public transportation.
Metropolitan areas throughout the city can build on the experience of Curitiba and other
developing cities to develop Bus Rapid Transit systems that provide fast, reliable, and
convenient service in cities and suburbs.
Upgrading the performance of bus services to meet the objectives of Bus Rapid Transit
will require policies that give priority to bus operations and provide for investment in
crucial system components: infrastructure that separates bus operations from general
purpose traffic; facilities that provide for increased comfort and system visibility; and
technology that provides for faster and more reliable operations. New guidance,
information, and fare technologies offer an expanded range of possibilities for operating
bus systems that have the potential to produce marked improvements in performance,
surpassing previous standards and changing public perceptions of bus service. High
quality bus operations have the potential to create new, improved land use options that
provide for compact, pedestrian-friendly and environmentally sensitive development
patterns that preserve neighborhoods and open space. Bus Rapid Transit thus will have
maximum benefit when developed in close coordination with land use policies and
community development plans.
Implementation of Bus Rapid Transit poses a number of challenges, ranging from the
need for adequate cross sections on city streets to provide separate rights of way for
buses, to maintaining the quality of general purpose traffic flow and minimizing local
noise and air quality impacts. These challenges require detailed analysis in the context of
specific local applications to identify appropriate solutions and to determine where Bus
Rapid Transit can have the greatest benefit. Bus Rapid Transit is a concept that merits
widespread evaluation and consideration as an adaptable, effective public transportation
alternative to automobiles
4.3.4 The bus rapid transit system in Dar es Salaam City – DART system
To mitigate the aforementioned public transport challenges, a Bus Rapid Transit system - so
called DART, for Dar Rapid Transit has been proposed since 2003 and succeeded in gaining
sufficient funding and political will to be fully implemented by 2030 (JICA, 2008). It is a
citywide 137 km system designed to completely replace the existing public transport called
daladalas (Dar es Salaam City Council, 2007) Figure 4.12 and 4.13 below is phase 1 and
complete route map respectively. It is therefore expected to provide reliable and comfortable
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Fig. 4.12. DART Phase 1.
Fig. 4.13. Completed Route Map of DART.
trips with short travel times as its buses run on exclusive and segregated lanes. It is also
expected to be more environmentally friendly (and sustainable) as its buses will be EURO 3
standard and thus less polluting than the existing public transport (daladalas). Although the
following specific questions have been developed: Would the BRT buses ensure equitable
access to all population groups in the city? Does the new system accommodate the current
public transport operators? How does vehicular emissions of CO2 and CO in the city before
and after Dart implementation.
4.4 Evolution of road network and BRT coverage in Dar es Salaam City
A total of 1,091 km roads including the proposed expressway are expected at the year of
2030 (Figure 4.14 and 4.15) respectively. Most of the roads in Kigamboni side are new roads
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that are expected to attract future urban development in the south of Dar es Salaam. An
expressway system is proposed, which runs through the entire Urban Growth Boundary
(UGB) area as a spine road system for the region. The transport policy suggests that the
priority should be given to people’s mobility, but at the same time mobility of cars is
important in order to improve the attractiveness of Dar es Salaam as a Gamma World City
in future. The expressway runs in parallel with the Morogoro road in the future urban
business/commercial axis, hence which provides direct access with motorists to go to their
destinations along the BRT Phase 1 corridor. This expressway alignment will contribute to
the urban regeneration of the BRT Phase 1 corridor as well
Fig. 4.14. Year 2030 Network by the number of lane.
Fig. 4.15. Year 2030 Network by road class.
4.4.1 Network planning and efficiency
Dar es Salaam is well progressed to developing a ‘state of the art’ BRT system but it is
necessary to place this into a proper and objective planning context. BRT is not a ‘cure all’
and its success is dependent on where it sits in the overall public transport of Dar es Salaam
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and whether it meets the essential criterion necessary for success. All successful public
transport systems need to include the demand oriented services; Bus priority (including
BRT where appropriate) giving; increased bus speeds; reduced travel time; access and
integration; efficient network design.
4.4.2 Demand oriented services
Under traditional public ownership, buses were mostly ‘supply oriented’ building the
system on technical or regulatory premises on the assumption that patronage will follow.
More recently, transport planners have understood that consumers have greater choice, so
for public transport to survive demands a ‘demand responsive’ approach. For the transit
user, the transit experience is more than just a bus trip; it is a total journey (from door to
door) and judged in terms of access, convenience, travel time and comfort. Network
design should take this into account and involve all aspects of route planning, passenger
waiting facilities, ticketing, bus quality, service frequency, comfort and convenience in the
planning process. For a ‘demand oriented system’, passenger convenience is the main
issue, being that the system can be used with ease and ultimately saves the user time. This
concept needs to be embedded into policy objectives and the design and management of
the system. The figure: 4.16 and figure: 4.17 below show the bus priority and the role of
DART manager respectively. Each city must develop its own strategic approach for Bus
Priority and BRT as 24 part of the total system network. BRT is not an ‘off the shelf’ bus
solution; it needs to be carefully adapted to the prevailing conditions, but in Dar es
Salaam, high public transport dependency creates a natural opportunity for a BRT system
and hence to insure the role of Dart manager in the implementation and running the
system management model.
Fig. 4.16. Bus priority.
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Fig. 4.17. System Management Mode.
4.4.3 DART system
Dar Rapid Transit - DART will be a high quality mass transport system in Dar se Salaam -
Tanzanian operating on specialized infrastructure and offering affordable mobility,
environment improvements , and a batter quality of life of the resident of Dar es Salaam.
The DART mission is to provide quality and affordable mass transport system for the
residents of Dar es Salaam which will reduce emissions, enable poverty reduction, lead to
sustainable economic growth, improve the standard of living and act as a pioneer of private
and public investment partnership in the City. DART will achieve this by using: Modern,
privately managed buses with low emissions; segregated bus lanes; Scheduled bus services;
High capacity bus stations with a central platform; on level boarding; Privately-managed
fare collection system; and Average bus speeds over 22 km/hr.
The system has five system actors. The DART Agency, a public agency, will regulate and
manage the system and the service. Two private sector bus companies and one private
sector fare Collector Company will provide the system services, which will be publicly bid.
The winners of the bid will be awarded 20 year concessions. Finally, one fund manager will
ensure fiscal accountability and transparency of the fare revenue.
i. DART Agency - a government agency responsible for overall management of the
system, policy--setting, regulation, planning and controlling of operations and
marketing.
ii. DART Fare Collector - one private sector company responsible for daily fare collection,
maintenance of the physical infrastructure at the bus stations, acquisition and
maintenance of equipment used at the station, as well as cleanliness and security at
stations.
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iii. DART Bus Operator(s) - two private sector companies responsible for acquisition,
operation and maintenance of buses along specified trunk and feeder routes.
iv. DART Fund Manager - one institution responsible for financial management and
reporting, liquidity control and payments to the system actors (bus operators, far
collector, DART agency and the fund manager).
All system actors will adhere to the DART system values of: Customer Driven and User
Friendly, Innovative, Cost Effective and Affordable, Timely and Reliable, Team Work, Safe,
Financially Sustainable and Profitable, Environmentally Friendly, Poverty Reduction
through Economic Development. Dar Rapid Transit will provide several direct benefits to
the City, including:
Category Description
Economic Cheaper means of mass transportation
Reduce travel times
Less congestion
Segregated lanes for buses
Fast boarding and disembarkation
Centrally controlled communications system
Increase economic productivity
fair return on investment
building of Public Private Partnerships
Less cost for customers and Government in general
Better working conditions for drivers and conductors
Create employment
Social Reliable and comfortable
Reduce accidents and air pollution-related illnesses
Increase civic pride and sense of community
Environmental Less vehicle pollutants emissions
Reduce noise levels
Prioritizes and integrates Non Motorized Transport
Political Delivery of mass transit system within one political term
Delivery of high-quality resource that will produce positive
results for virtually all voting groups
Urban form More sustainable urban form
City Beautification
Table 4.3. Dar Rapid Transit benefits.
4.4.4 DART will be the first full BRT system in Africa
DART is a high capacity bus rapid transit system with closed stations and physically
segregated lanes. Phase 1 of the system consists of 21 km of segregated median bus ways, 29
stations, 6 feeder stations, 5 terminals, and a network of feeder routes operating in mixed
traffic. It will offer seven trunk line services, using (136) air conditioned, 18 meter articulated
buses with a 140 passenger capacity and 15 feeder bus services, using (111) air conditioned,
8.5 meter micro - buses with a 50 passenger capacity. The baseline proposed fare to the
public will be: Table 4.4 below highlight the proposed fare.
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Trunk and Feeder 500Tshs
Trunk Only 400Tshs.
Feeder Only 400Tshs.
Table 4.4. Proposed fare highlights.
Customers will enter stations and feeder buses with contactless smart cards. There will be
an option to pay cash both on the feeder buses and in the stations. The DART Agency has
set baseline fares at Tsh 400 for trunk service and Tsh 400 for feeder service. A customer
transferring from a trunk bus to a feeder or vice versa will pay a combined fare of Tsh 500 if
using a contactless SMART card. Those using cash must pay Tsh 400 to use the trunk bus
services and Tsh 400 to use the feeder services. There will be 392,217 passengers per day on
the system for a total annual ridership of 117.7 millions of trips. The projected total fare
income is estimated to be TZS 46 billion in the project’s first year of operation, rising to TZS
73.6 billion in 2028. Table 4.3 below highlights the system’s revenue stream for the first 20
years of operations.
Revenue Allocation
('000 TZS) 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Tariff revenue 46,162,583 47,752,845 49,397,890 51,099,605 52,166,113
Table 4.5. System’s revenue highlights.
The goal of DART is to transform Dar es Salaam’s informal system of “daladala” minibuses
into a customer--oriented public transportation service. To this end, the DART Agency will
prohibit 43 of the daladala routes that utilize Morogoro and Kawawa North Roads. The
Agency plans to cancel all of the daladala routes on Morogoro Road. On Kawawa North
Road, daladalas continuing south, away from the BRT corridors, will be permitted to
operate, but those turning onto the Morogoro corridor will be cancelled. Table 4.4 below is
the operation highlights of the DART system.
Trunk Feeder
Peak headway (min.) 1.5 1.1 to 7.5
Off--peak headway (min.) 6 15
Average commercial speed (km/hr) 23 17
Hours of operation 5:00 to 23:00 5:00 to 23:00
Daily service kilometers 45,000 26,000
Table 4.6. Operational highlights.
4.4.5 System scheduling and control
There are two parts to the system control. The first is scheduling the services - every week,
every day, and every hour for each service (all initial 7 trunk services and 15 feeder route
services) for each operator. The second is controlling the system to ensure quality of the
service, including if the buses are running on time and know if the drivers are going too
slow or too fast. Control also involves addressing contingencies if there are problems in
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operations (i.e. a bus breaking down, strikes) and the ability to speak directly with drivers to
let them know about all these conditions. In order to ensure system cohesion and technical
integration, as well as achieve economies of scale, the FCS operator is responsible for
providing:
The scheduling software and the control software to the DART Agency, training on the
respective software’s to the DART Agency; the communications and physical equipment for
the control functions of the system, including data transmission, on board logic units and
GPS on the buses, and radio services; terminals at the bus depots with software for receiving
the scheduling from the DART Agency; WLAN points at the depots to facilitate data
transmittal; and Specifications to the bus operators for the Logic Units that are on--board the
buses to do the control so that they can plan for them in the bus layout.
i. Scheduling - The DART Agency schedules the bus service. The two main inputs are
the number of buses (which is a fixed number) and the number of total passengers
and number per station (which is dynamic and comes from the Fare Collection
System information). While the bus operators are responsible for providing the
scheduled service, the FCS operator is responsible for providing the number of
passengers. Since it is the FCS operator’s responsibility to provide the passenger
number information, it is also responsible for providing the software for scheduling
to the DART Agency to ensure coherence between the information from the FCS and
the software used to do hourly, daily, weekly, monthly scheduling per service. The
DART Agency will create monthly, weekly, and daily schedules for the bus operators.
They produce the longer term schedules in order to help the bus operators schedule
maintenance for the buses.
The DART Agency sends to the depot of each operator the daily schedule (routes and
services) at least one day in advance for all services, including truck and feeder. There will
be one terminal (with appropriate software) in each depot provided by the fare collector that
will receive that information. The bus operator then takes that information and assigns
specific buses and specific drivers to the service. The software the bus operator uses to do
that bus allocation and crew scheduling is their own responsibility. The bus operator
sends the scheduling with the specified bus and driver back to the scheduler in the DART
Agency control center. The control center then must verify that it matches the schedule
that was sent originally and do their first control looking at what buses are running to
ensure buses are being rotated for maintenance and how long the drivers are scheduled to
work to ensure that safety and legal standards are met The control center then must
approve the schedule. Once the bus operator gets the approval, they then must save the
information of the service of each bus on the Logic Unit (on board computer) of each bus,
both trunk and feeder. The Logic Unit is bought by the Fare Collector. However the
technical specifications must be given by the Fare Collector to the bus operators before
they procure the buses in order for the manufacturers to know the cable specifications, as
well as support required for and the dimensions of the Logic Unit. When the bus
operators send information of detailed scheduling back to the control center, they also
save it on the on board computer to help the driver be on time. Station stops and times
appear on the logic unit’s display for the driver. Only the driver assigned to a particular
bus may operate that vehicle. This can be ensured by giving each driver a specific code
that unlocks the bus. For a particular bus, both the service and the driver will change
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daily. The important consideration is to save the correct service and driver information to
the bus specified for that day’s service. For feeder buses, the driver is joined by a
conductor working for the Fare Collection Company. The bus operator and the Fare
Collection Company will have to work together to coordinate the schedules of personnel
(conductors on the buses) and coordinate the timing issues with depositing the money
collected each round trip. Finally, the card readers on the feeder buses are the
responsibility of the Fare Collection Company to maintain, but there will be fines to the
bus operator for negligence if equipment is damaged. The bus operator is not paid for
dead kilometers meaning the kilometers from the bus depot to the start of the service and
the kilometers from the end of the service to the depot. They are only paid for the
kilometers of service provided. Once the bus is in service, the driver only talks to and
follows directions from the DART control center.
ii. Controlling - The main form of control will be using GPS tracking and sending that
information to the control centre via GPRS data packets. The buses will be equipped
with Global Positioning System (GPS) transponders that are procured by the Fare
Collector in the Logic Unit. These transponders will record arrival times and location of
the bus and periodically during the day this information will be sent to the control
center for verification. The distance traveled will be determined by the control center
computer and checked against odometer readings, beginning with the place where
service was started and ending where the service finished. With GPS, the central
computer system will record arrival times at stations and terminals and then check
them against the assigned schedule. The bus driver proceeds to drive the scheduled
service that is on the Logic Unit. The bus driver is charged with maintaining the service
and the frequency on the schedule and adjusting his driving to match those
specifications.
However, this will also be monitored by the control center that can then request that the
driver to slow down or speed up to meet the assigned schedule. While on the road, bus
drivers have direct contact with the control center. This communication can be through
radios or using cell phone technology / GSM chips in the logic unit with pre configured
panel activation buttons. As soon as the driver is on the corridor, he should only take
direction from one source and that source should be the DART Agency control center never
from the bus operator office or depot. The logic unit will also record the number of
kilometers driven and the times the driver arrived at the station or predefined Feeder Bus
Stops, as determined by the GPS locator and recorded by the Logic Unit. This information
will be sent to the control center via GPRS technology at pre determined intervals. There
will be a mechanism on the bus that the driver activates in order to open the sliding doors at
the station. When the bus returns to the depot, all that information from the Logic Unit,
including the odometer reading, will be sent to the control center by the Depot Terminal.
For manual control, when the bus reaches the first terminal, the DART Agency controller
visually verifies the time of arrival and the condition of the bus. If there are any problems,
the controller can contact the control center to remedy via radios or GSM chip / cell phones.
If there is a problem in the system (bus early, bus late, bus in poor condition), the people in
the terminals must transmit immediately to the control center for them to fix directly with
the driver or with the depot, in order to send a reserve bus, for example. The timing
information will also be transmitted via GPRS from the bus directly. The control center is
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responsible for comparing scheduling versus actual, both the time scheduling and the
kilometers. Those numbers get shared with the financial planning team. The onboard
computer and software is provided by the FC as a bundled unit to the bus operators and the
FC is responsible for ensuring / guaranteeing data transmission. Figure 4.18 below
illustrates the control system.
Fig. 4.18. Control system.
4.4.6 Fund manager
The transparent and fair distribution of revenues is fundamental to the DART System and in
operating a network of integrated transit providers. (Figure 4.19 the passenger revenues). To
ensure confidence in the distribution of revenues in the private sector, as well as the DART
Agency, an independent trust fund manager acts as a custodian of the revenues and pays
out according to fixed rules and regulations as stipulated in the contracts. This fund
manager will be paid a fixed fee for maintaining this fund and paying the appropriate
operators. This fund manger receives the money every day from operations (from the fares)
and then pays all the system operators based upon the contracts and the information given
to them by the DART Agency. The fund manager will be responsible to the DART Agency
and will carry out the following functions:
i. Put systems in place for the management of the DART resources;
ii. Makes payments to the various actors within the DART system upon instruction from
the DA. This will be on the basis of pre agreed terms;
iii. Prepare regular financial reports for submission to the DA.
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Fig. 4.19. Passenger revenues.
The fare collection system is managed by a separate private company that successfully bid
for the fare handling concession. The fare handling company has no involvement with any
of the bus operating companies on the BRT system. Since the fare collection company itself
is due part of the proceeds, it would be a source of potential suspicion if the fare collection
company was to fulfill the function of fund manager. This ticketing system operator collects
the fare revenue and deposits it into the account of the trust fund manager. Finally, to
ensure transparency of the system, the entire process will be independently audited by
another professional firm. This auditing process provides a check on the handling of
revenues by the fare collection company and the fiduciary company. The auditing process in
conjunction with the electronic verification of fares collected, as well as the presence of the
fiduciary company, all help contribute to an environment of confidence in the system. The
figure 4.20 below shows how the revenue will be managed in the DART System.
Fig. 4.20. Dart system revenue management.
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4.4.7 Dart project risks and mitigating actions
The success of the DART Project is challenged by the following key factors:
i. Price sensitive market. The majority of commuters in Dar es Salaam fall in the low
income bracket that is sensitive to price changes. A contingency fund will therefore be
established to cushion against sudden or unusual fare increases.
ii. Unstable fuel prices. The operators will strive to form strategic alliances with oil
companies and possibly enter into forward contracts that will shield against unforeseen
fuel price increases.
iii. High borrowing costs. The project requires specific buses, equipment, computers and
technology that are of modern standards. Acquisition of most of the project assets
requires external financing. In Tanzania interest rates are high and this can only be
minimized by the DART system operators obtaining a syndicate loan(s).
iv. Unreliable power supply. Power fluctuations and interruptions are common in the city
and this can disrupt DART services. Power generators have been considered as an
alternative power source at bus stations and terminals.
v. General resistance from the public (commuters) and other stakeholders. An aggressive
marketing strategy is in place to enable the DART Agency to sensitize the public and
create awareness or acceptance.
vi. Security of cash in transit. The risk of theft or robbery of DART collections during
transit points i.e. to and from stations/terminals and the bank can be mitigated by
enlisting the services of a reputable and experienced bank offering secure cash-in transit
services.
Hence in order to achieve the above revenues targets, the Project will consider the following
critical success factors: Tax waivers on bus importation; banning of dala dalas (and
enforcement of ban) from Phase One Corridor; obtaining financing for the project at an
affordable rate; close collaboration of the public and private sectors.
5. Intelligent transportation system technology in bus rapid transit
The use of new Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) or Advanced Public Transportation
Systems (APTS) applications could contribute to improved bus service and increased bus
operating speeds. Some ITS and APTS applications that a Bus Rapid Transit system might
employ are described below, but this list is by no means exhaustive:
i. "Smart" card fare collection methods - use read and write technology to store dollar value
on a microprocessor chip inside a plastic card. As passengers board a bus, the card
reader determines the card’s value, debits the appropriate amount for the bus ride, and
writes the balance back onto the card, all within a fraction of a second. There are two
types of card readers, the proximity reader which can read cards held a few inches
away, and the contact reader which requires physical contact with a card. Under
development are systems that will be able to read cards carried in passengers’ pockets,
wallets and purses. Cashless systems such as "smart" cards speed up the fare collection
process and eliminate expensive cash handling operations at transit agencies. "Smart"
cards can also be programmed for distance - based pricing by recording where a
passenger enters a transit system and debiting the appropriate amount from the card
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balance according to the point where the passenger exits the system, regardless of the
number of internal transfers.
ii. Automatic vehicle location (AVL) systems - enable transit agencies to track their vehicles in
real time and provide them with information for making timely schedule adjustments
and equipment substitutions. AVL systems are computer based vehicle tracking
systems that measure the actual real time position of each vehicle, and relay the
information to a central location. The measurement and relay techniques vary, but the
most common are: signpost and odometer, wherein a receiver on a bus detects signals
sent by signposts along the bus route and transmits the identity of the signpost and the
odometer reading to the control center; and global positioning satellite (GPS)
technology, wherein an onboard GPS receiver determines the bus position and
transmits the information to the control center. AVL systems can be augmented by
geographical information systems (GIS) on control center computers that display the
location of the vehicles on route map grids.
iii. Computer aided dispatching and advanced communications - are systems that enable transit
dispatchers, in combination with AVL systems, to maintain bus system efficiency by
performing service restoration activities and communicating instructions to and
receiving messages from drivers. Service restoration activities include such operations
as adjusting dwell times at bus stops or transfer points, adjusting vehicle headways,
rerouting vehicles, adding buses to routes, and dispatching new vehicles to replace
disabled vehicles. Communications can be received in buses via radiotelephones,
cellular telephones, or mobile display terminals.
iv. Precision docking at bus stops - uses sensors on buses and on the roadside to indicate the
exact place where the bus should stop. Bus doors opening at the same location each
time make it possible for passengers to be in position for immediate boarding once a
bus has stopped, shortening dwell time.
v. Tight terminal guidance - uses sensors similar to those for precision docking to assist
buses in maneuvering in terminals with limited space. This type of system can help
minimize the amount of space needed for bus terminal operations, as well as reduce the
overall amount of time a bus spends at terminals.
vi. Warning systems - are beginning to appear on the market to assist the bus driver in a
number of safety areas: collision avoidance, pedestrian proximity warning, attentive
driver monitoring and warning, intersection collision avoidance, and low tire friction
warning. Safety improvements can help any bus system increase its reliability and
efficiency by reducing the likelihood of accidents and incidents.
vii. Passenger information systems - give passengers the means to make informed decisions
about their transit travel. Of the many technologies now available for passengers to
access this type of information, the APTS applications most appropriate for Bus Rapid
Transit are in vehicle information systems. These systems automatically announce
approaching bus stops, allowing disembarking riders to position themselves near the
doors prior to arriving at their stops, and speeding up the unloading and loading
operation.
viii. Automated enforcement systems for exclusive bus lane - are being enhanced by new
technology, including automatic video cameras and infrared sensors. These state-of-the
art systems are just now appearing on the commercial market.
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6. Effect of bus rapid transit
Successful Bus Rapid Transit systems can be expected to produce improvements in bus
service, operations, and ridership, and to affect traffic congestion and air quality:
i. Bus speeds and schedule adherence - Perhaps the most fundamental effect of a Bus Rapid
Transit system, travel times would likely improve due to the lack of impediments to bus
movement along exclusive bus lanes. Bus speeds would be expected to improve not
only in absolute terms, but also relative to the automobile traffic that parallels the
exclusive lanes.
ii. Ridership - Ridership would be expected to increase due to improved bus speeds and
schedule adherence. Customers who use buses infrequently might ride more often, and
some automobile users might convert to transit. A visible improvement in bus speeds
might be noticeable to drivers of other vehicles, presenting a positive image of transit as
an alternative to driving.
iii. Other traffic - If the creation of exclusive bus lanes reduces the number of lanes available
for other traffic, then in the short term the possibility of increased congestion on the
roadways is raised. Traffic flow on cross streets and turning traffic may be disrupted as
buses use their signal priority to travel uninterrupted through intersections. Further,
mobility on alternate routes may deteriorate, as drivers seek ways to avoid roads with
exclusive bus lanes. One of the challenges of implementing an exclusive bus lane would
be to minimize this disruption.
iv. Air quality - Long term, as ridership increases and the overall level of general purpose
traffic decreases, urban areas may experience improved air quality due to reduced
emissions from automobiles
7. Conclusion
The example of Curitiba - Brazil, the experience in the Bogota – Colombia, South Africa and
the application of Bus Rapid Transit system in Dar es Salaam Tanzania illustrate the
potential of improved bus services to address mobility needs in metropolitan areas. Buses
provide flexible and cost effective public transportation. Metropolitan areas throughout the
developing cities can build on the experience of Curitiba, Bogota and other developing cities
to develop Bus Rapid Transit systems that provide fast, reliable, and convenient service in
cities and suburbs. Upgrading the performance of bus services to meet the objectives of Bus
Rapid Transit will require policies that give priority to bus operations and provide for
investment in crucial system components: infrastructure that separates bus operations from
general purpose traffic; facilities that provide for increased comfort and system visibility;
and technology that provides for faster and more reliable operations. New guidance,
information, and fare technologies offer an expanded range of possibilities for operating bus
systems that have the potential to produce marked improvements in performance,
surpassing previous standards and changing public perceptions of bus service. High quality
bus operations have the potential to create new, improved land use options that provide for
compact, pedestrian friendly and environmentally sensitive development patterns that
preserve neighborhoods and open space. Bus Rapid Transit thus will have maximum benefit
when developed in close coordination with land use policies and community development
plans. Implementation of Bus Rapid Transit poses a number of challenges, ranging from the
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need for adequate cross sections on city streets to provide separate rights of way for buses,
to maintaining the quality of general purpose traffic flow and minimizing local noise and air
quality impacts. These challenges require detailed analysis in the context of specific local
applications to identify appropriate solutions and to determine where Bus Rapid Transit can
have the greatest benefit. Bus Rapid Transit is a concept that merits widespread evaluation
and consideration as an adaptable, effective public transportation alternative to automobiles
that has the potential to meet a broad range of mobility needs and support an improved
quality of life.
8. Acknowledgment
The author would like to express appreciation to Prof. Yan Chen for guidance and Dr. Qu
Lili for providing useful contact. This work was supported by specialized research fund for
the doctoral programme of Higher Education (No 200801510001) and National Natural
Science foundation of China (No. 70940008).
9. References
A. K. Bit, M. P. Biswal and S. S. Alam (1993), Fuzzy programming approach to multi
objective solid transportation problem, Fuzzy Sets and Systems, Vol. 57, pp. 183–194.
Barrios, S., L. Bertinelli & E., Strobl. (2006). Climate Change and Rural-Urban Migration: The
Case of Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Urban Economics, 60, 215-218.
Button, K. & P. Nijkamp (1997). Social Change and Sustainable Transport. Journal of
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Intelligent Transportation Systems
Edited by Dr. Ahmed Abdel-Rahim
ISBN 978-953-51-0347-9
Hard cover, 206 pages
Publisher InTech
Published online 16, March, 2012
Published in print edition March, 2012
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) have transformed surface transportation networks through the
integration of advanced communications and computing technologies into the transportation infrastructure. ITS
technologies have improved the safety and mobility of the transportation network through advanced
applications such as electronic toll collection, in-vehicle navigation systems, collision avoidance systems, and
advanced traffic management systems, and advanced traveler information systems. In this book that focuses
on different ITS technologies and applications, authors from several countries have contributed chapters
covering different ITS technologies, applications, and management practices with the expectation that the
open exchange of scientific results and ideas presented in this book will lead to improved understanding of ITS
technologies and their applications.
How to reference
In order to correctly reference this scholarly work, feel free to copy and paste the following:
Philemon Kazimil Mzee and Emmanuel Demzee (2012). ITS Applications in Developing Countries: A Case
Study of Bus Rapid Transit and Mobility Management Strategies in Dar es Salaam - Tanzania, Intelligent
Transportation Systems, Dr. Ahmed Abdel-Rahim (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-0347-9, InTech, Available from:
http://www.intechopen.com/books/intelligent-transportation-systems/its-applications-in-developing-countries-a-case-
study-of-bus-rapid-transit-and-mobility-management-s
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