5.1 major analytical techniques

Topic 5.1 Major Analytical Techniques
Regional vs. Systematic Analysis
Cognitive Description
Morphometric Analysis
Causes and Effect Analysis
Temporal Mode of Analysis
Ecological and Functional Analysis
Systems Analysis

Introduction
Explanations in geography is to clarify general and
empirical Laws. These are as follows:
(i) Regional Vs Systemetic
(ii) Cognitive Description
(iii) Morphometric Analysis
(iv) Cause and Effect Analysis
(v) Spatio-Temporal Analysis
(VI) Functional and Ecological Analysis.
Explanations in geography has been carefully examined by
Harvey, who has offered the following explanations. Harvey
recognized six forms of scientific explanations, covering
methodological statements and generalizations from empirical
studies.

Regional Analysis
Appropriate regional units are identified by areal differentiations.
Connecting lines and flows between individual regions may then be
observed. The peculiarity of complex regional analysis is that the
inter-regional analysis of the distribution of phenomena, their
positive and feedback relationships are examined. Regional analysis
combines the results of spatial and ecological analysis.
In his scheme, Haggett tried to arrange his themes under the
primary headings of ecological and complex regional analysis It may
be seen that all the three types of analysis, i.e., spatial, ecological,
and complex regional have theoretical and applied aspects.
The theoretical aspect of spatial analysis deals with spatial
interaction theory, diffusion theory, and others; while its applied
aspect covers watershed development, urban places, and others.

 Ecological analysis also has theoretical and applied aspects. Under the theoretical
aspect, environmental structure, ecosystems, etc., are analyzed; while its applied
side analyzes natural resource geography, hazard appraisal and others.
 A regional complex analysis is concerned with regional growth theory, inter-
regional flow theory, etc.; while the applied side looks into regional forecasting,
regional planning and other relevant matters. This analysis is involved with
functional regions.
 A functional region has been defined with reference to the contact of
relationship between a centre and its tributary surrounding regions . The
boundary of this region is established at the point where the influence of the
centre is not stronger than that of another centre. Functional regions are linked
through complex hierarchical models. Such an analysis becomes possible through
the use of sophisticated quantitative techniques.
 In brief, modern geography focuses its attention on spatial analysis, a systematic
geography constructed with newer, expanded models; ecological analysis, a
regional study based on homogeneous regions; and regional complex analysis, a
regional geography based on functional regions. Thus, geography is a science of
synthesis.

Systems Analysis
Geographers have been using forms of system concepts since the dawn of the
subject.
Geography deals with complex relationships of living and non-living organisms
in an ecosystem.
System analysis provides a framework for describing the whole complex and
structure of activity. It is, therefore, peculiarly suited to geographic analysis since
geography deals with complex multivariate situations.
It was because of this advantage that Berry and Chorley suggested system
analysis and general system theory as the basic tools for geographic
understanding.
In the opinion of Chorley (1962), there is great significance of system analysis in
geographical studies. The main advantages of system analysis are:
1. there is need to study systems rather than isolated phenomena;
2. there is need to identify the basic principles governing systems;
3. there is value in arguing from analogies with subject matter; and
4. there is need for general principles to cover various systems.

The abstract understanding of a system has a number of
important advantages, which are given below:
(i) Any geographical region (landscape) has a number of
phenomena. System analysis attempts to reduce this complexity to
a simpler form, in which it may be more easily comprehended and
which models can be constructed.
(ii) It allows, for example, the development of an abstract theory
systems which is not tied down to any one particular system or set
of systems.
(iii) This theory provides us with good deal of information about the
possible structures, behaviours, states, and soon, that might
conceivably occur.
(iv) It provides us with the necessary technical apparatus for
dealing with interactions within complex structures.
(v) System theory is associated with an abstract mathematical
language, which, rather like geometry and probability theory, can
be used to discuss empirical problems.

Spatial Analysis
Spatial analysis is a type of geographical analysis which seeks to
explain patterns of human behavior and its spatial expression in terms of
mathematics and geometry, that is, locational analysis. Examples include nearest
neighbor analysis.
It concerns itself with varieties in the localization and distribution of a
significant phenomenon or group of phenomena; the analysis of spatial
distribution of rainfall, or the average yield of wheat or rice in a given region.
If a geographer tries to ascertain the factors which control the distribution of
rainfall and yield levels, in order to make the distribution more effective or just,
he is doing a spatial analysis.
“…the purpose of geographic inquiry is to examine relationships between
geographic features collectively and to use the relationships to describe the real-
world phenomena.” (Clarke 2001).

Cognitive Description
Under cognitive description are included collection, ordering, and classification
of data. No theory may be explicitly involved in such procedures, but it is
important to note that a theory of some kind is implied.
Thus, classification involves some kind of a priori notions about structure and
these notions really amount to a primitive theory.
In the early stages of a discipline’s development such theoretical assumptions
may be amorphous and ill-defined.
Cognitive geography is the study of cognition, primarily human cognition,
about space, place, and environment. Cognition is knowledge and knowing by
sentient entities, including humans, nonhuman animals, and artificially
intelligent machines. Cognitive structures and processes include those of
sensation, perception, thinking, learning, memory, attention, imagination,
conceptualization, language, and reasoning and problem solving. Some of these
structures and processes are consciously accessible, potentially available to
awareness; others are nonconscious, outside of awareness. Cognition is
functionally and experientially intertwined with affect, motivation, and behavior.
Our beliefs and knowledge influence, and are influenced by, what we feel and
what we do. Cognitive geography emerged as an approach within human
geography and as an interdisciplinary link with psychology and other fields during
the 1960s.

Morphometric Analysis
Morphometric analysis is a type of cognitive description. It involves a space-
time language rather than a property language. Morphometric analysis thus
provides a framework within which the geographer examines shapes and forms
in space.
Morphometric analysis can lead to certain types of predictive and simulation
models. In this analysis, stress is on measurement whereas studies of landscape
morphology usually take the form of cognitive description.
The locational theories and the central places are the results of this type of
analysis.
Geometrical predictions of this nature have had increasing significance in
geography.
For example, the morphometric analysis of the drainage basin and channel
network play an important role in understanding the geo-hydrological behavior
of drainage basin and expresses the prevailing climate, geology, geomorphology,
structural antecedents of the catchment.
Morphometric analysis of a drainage basin expresses fully the state of dynamic
balance that has been attained due to dealings between matter and energy.

Causes and Effect Analysis
The cause and effect analysis develops from the assumption that previous
causes can explain observed phenomena.
It is the noting a relationship between actions or events such that one or more
are the result of the other or others.
We look for causal relationships in their simplest form, of the type “cause A
leads to effect B”. This implies that cause B cannot lead to result A. Causal laws
may be discovered by hypothetic deductive method, or more simply, by
comparing data from different phenomena in a region.
By comparing a map, showing the black-earth soil region of India
(Maharashtra, Gujarat and Western Madhya Pradesh), with a map showing
cotton concentration and its yield pattern, we may arrive at the result that there
is close relationship between the black-earth soil and the quantity of cotton
output. From this example, it may be inferred that black-earth (soil) influences
the cotton yield; but that a high yield of cotton will make the soil or a region
black cannot be inferred. The causal relationship is not a simple device; it
demands multiple regression or factor analysis.

Temporal Mode of Analysis
Temporal analysis may also be termed as historical analysis. This analysis is a
type of cause and effect analysis, which is established over a long period of time.
The assumption is that a particular set of circumstances may be explained by
examining the origin and subsequent development of phenomena by the
operation of process laws.
In the words of Darby, “the foundations of geographic study lie in
geomorphology and historical geography”—both of which were dominated by
temporal modes of explanation.
Temporal analysis helps in understanding the spatial distribution of many of
the phenomena, but it cannot be taken as the only approach of geographic
explanations. History can be seen as a causal series which started at the vaguely
defined ‘dawn of history’ and ends today. In practice it will never be possible to
understand such a comprehensive causal series; the analysis, therefore, must be
restricted to some determined period of time.

Ecological and Functional Analysis
It concerns itself with the study of connections between human and
environmental variables. This type of analysis is done in a closed or partly closed
ecosystem, i.e., it is an intra-regional and not an inter-regional analysis of the
spatial distribution of phenomena.
The cause and effect analysis was rejected by the positivists to avoid the
metaphysical and normative trappings. To counter the cause and effect
relationship functional analysis was developed.
Functional analysis attempts to analyze phenomena in terms of role they play
within a particular organization. Towns may be analyzed in terms of function they
perform within an economy (thus functional classification of towns is
developed), rivers may be analyzed in terms of their role in denudation and so
on.
Ecological and functional thinking have been important in geography. At the
present time there are numerous geographers who regard ecological concepts as
providing an important basis for geographic explanation.

Approaches in Geography
Qualitative Approaches
A qualitative "approach" is a general way of thinking about conducting
qualitative research. It describes, either explicitly or implicitly, the purpose of
the qualitative research, the role of the researcher(s), the stages of research,
and the method of data analysis. here, four of the major qualitative approaches
are introduced.
Ethnography
Ethnography is an extremely broad area with a great variety of practitioners
and methods. However, the most common ethnographic approach is participant
observation as a part of field research. The ethnographer becomes immersed in
the culture as an active participant and records extensive field notes. As in
grounded theory, there is no preset limiting of what will be observed and no
real ending point in an ethnographic study.

Phenomenology
Phenomenology is sometimes considered a philosophical
perspective as well as an approach to qualitative methodology. It has
a long history in several social research disciplines including
psychology, sociology and social work. Phenomenology is a school
of thought that emphasizes a focus on people's subjective
experiences and interpretations of the world. That is, the
phenomenologist wants to understand how the world appears to
others.

5.1 major analytical techniques

• (i) Cognitive geography is an interdiscipline of cognitive
(mental precess) science and geography, which studies maps
in the mind.
• An important topic in cognitive geography is the cognitive
map. Cognitive geography has been described as "the study
of the maps in people’s minds.“
• It also investigates "how peoples may see their world.“The
cognitive processes include environmental perception and
cognition, wayfinding, the construction of cognitive
maps, place attachment, the development of attitudes
about space and place, decisions and behavior based on
imperfect knowledge of one's environs, and numerous other
topics.

(ii) Morphometric analysis, quantitative description and analysis of
landforms as practiced.
Morphometry refers to the quantitative analysis of form, a concept
that encompasses size and shape.
The morphometric analysis of the drainage basin and channel
network play an important role in understanding the geo-
hydrological behavior of drainage basin and expresses the prevailing
climate, geology, geomorphology, structural antecedents of the
catchment.
Morphometric analysis of a drainage basin expresses fully the state
of dynamic balance that has been attained due to dealings between
matter and energy.

• (iii) Spatio-temporal Approaches presents a well-built set of
concepts, methods and approaches, in order to represent
and understand the evolution of social and environmental
phenomena within the space. It is based on examples in
human geography and archeology (which will enable us to
explore questions regarding various temporalities) and
tackles social and environmental phenomena.
• (v) Functional and Ecological Analysis is concerned with the
study of connections between human and environmental
variables. This type of analysis is done in a closed or partly
closed ecosystem, i.e., it is an intra-regional and not an inter-
regional analysis of the spatial distribution of phenomena.

5.1 major analytical techniques

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5.1 major analytical techniques