2. Learning Objectives
At the end of the session, students will be able to
Define conflict and its management
Describe different types and sources of conflict
Analyse the different viewpoints of organizational conflict
Analyse the benefits and negative effects of conflict
Describe conflict resolution approaches
Identify types of negotiation
Explain principled negotiations and its advantages over
positional bargaining
Identify the pillars of effective negotiations
2
4. What is conflict?
Conflict is a natural part of human relationships.
As such, it is inevitable and unavoidable.
It is a part of our everyday professional and personal lives;
therefore, it is inherent in any type of work setting
Conflict is a process that begins when an individual or group
perceives differences and opposition between itself and another
individual or team about interests and resources, beliefs, values, or
practices that matter to them (Gelfand 2008)
Conflict is a situation that arises when two or more parties have
opposing views, positions, needs, or interests that are perceived as
incompatible (Walston and Johnson 2022)
4
5. What is conflict?...
Situations of conflict often feature the following elements:
The parties have opposing interests and hold the
perception that only one interest can be met - perceived
incompatibility of interests
Opposing parties often do not recognize and acknowledge
opposing interests
Opposing parties believe the other side will seek to achieve
its own interest at the expense of the other
Existing relationships of opposing parties are a reflection of
their past interactions
Actions are taken or efforts are made to gain the parties’
interests
5
6. Philosophies of organizational conflict
Three distinct views have emerged on organizational conflict
The classical or traditionalist view
The philosophy of conflict of the classicists, or traditionalists was
based on the assumption that conflict was detrimental to an
organization and, as such, must be reduced or eliminated.
Behavioralists’ philosophy
The classical stage was followed by the behavioralists’ philosophy,
which can best be described as the recognition that conflict is
inevitable in organizations
Behavioralists accept the presence of conflict and even
occasionally advocate the enhancement of conflict for increasing
organizational effectiveness.
but they have not actively created conditions that generate conflict
6
7. Philosophies of organizational conflict…
Interactionists view
It differs significantly from the previous two and is
characterized by:
Recognition of the absolute necessity of conflict;
Explicit encouragement of opposition;
Defining conflict management to include stimulation as
well as resolution methods; and
Considering the management of conflict as a major
responsibility of all administrators
7
8. Philosophies of organizational conflict…
Organizational conflict as it stands now is considered legitimate
and inevitable and a positive indicator of effective organizational
management
It is now recognized that conflict within certain limits is essential to
productivity
Conflict can be functional - it results in the creative solution to
problems or the effective attainment of organizational objectives
that otherwise would not have been possible
Little or no conflict in organizations may lead to stagnation, poor
decisions, and ineffectiveness.
On the other hand, organizational conflict left uncontrolled may
have dysfunctional outcomes
8
9. Philosophies of organizational conflict…
the central theme is that too little conflict may encourage
stagnancy, mediocracy, and groupthink, but too much conflict
may lead to organizational disintegration
too little or too much conflict are both dysfunctional for an
organization’s effectiveness
a moderate amount of conflict, handled in a constructive
manner, is essential for attaining and maintaining an optimum
level of organizational effectiveness
a moderate amount of substantive or task-related conflict, but
not affective or emotional conflict, is appropriate for
organizational effectiveness
9
10. Philosophies of organizational conflict…
some writers have overemphasized the dysfunctional
consequences of conflict or failed to comprehend fully the
functional aspects of conflict
They believe that organization conflict is destructive: conflict is a
major source of increased stress and decreased productivity for all
managers and employees
they emphasized the dysfunctions of conflict in organizations but
neglected to consider the consequences of creating conflict free
organizations
However,
First, it is impossible to eliminate conflict from organizations.
Second, an attempt on the part of managers to eliminate all
conflict, in the long run, will affect individual, group, and
organizational performance
10
11. Outcomes of organizational conflict…
Two opposing viewpoints on the outcome of conflict -
conflict can result in positive as well as negative outcomes
Functional Outcomes
Innovation, creativity, and positive change
Improved organizational decision-making
Discovery of synergistic solutions
Increased individual and group performance
Enhanced clarity and understanding of assumptions and
intentions of parties
Displays of actual values and belief systems of an
organization
Increased group cohesiveness
11
12. Outcomes of organizational conflict…
Dysfunctional Outcomes
Job stress, burnout, and employee dissatisfaction
Diminished communication between and among
employees and groups
Heightened distrust and suspicion
Damaged relationships
Decreased job performance
Increased resistance to change
Diminished employee loyalty and organizational
commitment
12
13. Outcomes of organizational conflict…
13
Conflict that is unaddressed or suppressed simply worsens
Positive and negative outcomes of conflict
14. Classifying conflict
Organizational conflict may be classified as
intraorganizational - conflict within an organization - or
interorganizational - conflict between two or more
organizations
Intraorganizational conflict may also be classified on the basis of
levels:
Intrapersonal Conflict – occurs within an individual
Interpersonal Conflict - occurs between two or more
individuals
Intragroup Conflict - happens among members of a group
Intergroup Conflict - occurs between two or more groups,
such as different departments
14
15. Classifying conflict…
Conflict can also be classified according to its source
1. Goal conflict: occurs when two or more desired outcomes are
incompatible
It may involve inconsistencies between individual or group values and
norms
2. Procedural conflict: occurs when people differ over the process to use for
resolving a particular matter
3. Affective conflict (emotional conflict)
a condition in which group members have interpersonal clashes
characterized by anger, frustration, and other negative feelings
emerges when the feelings and emotions between individuals are
incompatible.
4. Substantive conflict (Task, cognitive, and issue conflict)
occurs when organizational members disagree on their task or content
issues
disagreements of ideas and opinions about the task being performed
15
16. Contributing factors to conflicts in healthcare
Opposing feelings, competitive pressures, power struggles, big
egos, jealousy, compensation issues, or just having a bad day may
trigger conflict.
poor communication and the inability to control one’s emotions
are often the triggers for conflict
Communication—or rather, its absence—is a perennial problem in
all organizations and directly affects conflict.
Expressions of anger during conflict often result in damaged work
relationships and inability to communicate.
the health care setting is a particularly conflictual environment
because of factors such as high stress, strong emotions, scarce
resources, competition, excessive regulations, diversity and cultural
issues, and multiple stakeholders’ demands.
16
17. Contributing factors to conflicts in healthcare…
Organization factors contribute to challenges in healthcare
organizations.
Roles and responsibilities, procedures, workflow, and a lack
of adequate resources can all create challenges
Conflict triggers that exist because of the nature of
healthcare:
Ambiguity: Healthcare information and outcomes can be
interpreted in different ways by different people through the
lens of their own knowledge, expectations, values, and
experiences.
Complexity: Healthcare organizations bring together a large
number of people, who are involved in and affected by the
numerous decisions made.
17
18. Contributing factors to conflicts in healthcare…
Competition: Different healthcare departments, professions, and
organizations often compete for limited resources, power, prestige,
and status.
Obligatory cooperation: Information must be rapidly and accurately
exchanged for the care of patients. Responsibility for patient care is
transferred across shifts and from one provider to another
Time pressures: Time is critical in healthcare decision-making.
Adverse consequences can result if tests, communications, and
care are late
Change: Changes in technology, reimbursement methods and rates,
professional responsibility, social expectations, knowledge, and
information are constantly occurring in healthcare
18
19. Conflict management
Although conflict is often said to be functional for organizations,
most recommendations relating to organizational conflict still fall
within the realm of conflict resolution, reduction, or minimization
If we have to confirm with the suggestion that “conflict is
functional for organizations” the emphasis must be in conflict
management, as opposed to resolution of conflict
Conflict resolution implies reduction, elimination, or termination of
conflict
Conflict management does not necessarily imply avoidance,
reduction, or termination of conflict
It involves designing effective strategies to minimize the
dysfunctions of conflict and enhancing the constructive functions of
conflict in order to enhance learning and effectiveness of an
organization
19
20. Conflict management…
Affective Conflict
These conflicts are generally caused by the negative reactions of
organizational members (e.g., personal attacks of group members, racial
disharmony … )
relationship conflicts interfere with task-related effort because
members focus on reducing threats, and increasing power rather than
working on the task
It can engender negative emotions, damage working relations between
and among people, hurt overall morale, and make future interactions
difficult
Conflicts that escalate often produce polarization, whereby people –
even those who may initially have been neutral – are driven to take
sides and adopt extreme positions
When people become polarized, little room is left for agreement.
20
21. Conflict management…
Substantive Conflict
relate to disagreements about tasks, policies, and other business issues
moderate level of substantive conflict is beneficial - stimulates
discussion & debate
Groups with an absence of task conflict may miss new ways to enhance
their performance, while very high levels of task conflict may interfere
with task completion
This conflict can improve group performance through better
understanding of various viewpoints and alternative solutions - are able
to make better decisions
interventions for conflict management should be able to develop
cultural norms to support disagreement among group members in
connection with tasks and other related management issues without
generating affective conflict.
21
22. Conflict management…
Effective healthcare leaders learn to properly manage conflict - they
recognize conflict, diagnose its cause(s), and intervene to resolve or
moderate it.
They develop the following conflict resolution skills
Define acceptable behavior: the way people should treat each other
must be clearly articulated
Address conflict proactively: Leaders should actively seek out potential
conflict and proactively intervene. They must understand the tensions
in the workplace and work to moderate concerns before they flare into
conflict
Understand the involved parties’ motivations: learn what those involved
in the issues want to accomplish and take action to help all achieve their
goals.
Use conflict as an opportunity for learning and growth: Leaders who
properly use conflict can stimulate innovation and open new
perspectives
22
23. 23
Conflict management approaches - Thomas-Kilmann Model
This model is based on two dimensions of conflict
management: assertiveness and Cooperativeness or empathy
Assertiveness: Attempting to satisfy one’s own concerns.
Cooperativeness: Attempting to satisfy the other party’s
concerns.
Based on these two dimensions, there are five conflict
resolution strategies: competing, avoiding, accommodating,
collaborating and compromising
None of these modes is wrong to use, but there are right and
wrong times to use each
25. 25
Competing
involves assertive and uncooperative behaviors and reflects a win/lose
approach
A competing person often ignores the needs, and concerns the other
party
competition-style managers use coercive powers such as demotion,
dismissal, negative performance evaluations, or other punishments to
gain compliance
Competition-style management is appropriate in some situations:
when the issues involved in a conflict are trivial
when emergencies require quick action
when unpopular courses of action must be implemented for long-term
organizational effectiveness and survival
for implementing strategies and policies that have been formulated by
higher-level management
26. 26
Avoiding
The avoiding mode is low assertiveness and low cooperation
Evading, procrastinating, or walking away are forms of avoidance.
Avoidance can also be an escape mechanism
Avoidance may be appropriate when:
The problem is not your problem.
There is nothing you can do about it.
It is inconsequential and, thus, not worth the effort to face.
You need additional information.
One of you is emotionally upset.
The disruption from addressing the conflict outweighs the
benefits of resolution
You can see that the situation will ameliorate if you can wait it
out.
27. 27
Accommodating
Accommodating involves cooperative and unassertive behaviors
Here the individual forgets selfish interests in order to satisfy someone
else.
accommodating-style managers may be perceived as weak and
submissive because they try to reduce tensions and stress by reassurance
and support
it may be effective on a short-term basis when:
individuals are in a potentially explosive emotional conflict situation
keeping harmony and avoiding disruption are especially important
You have no stake in the issue; it does not matter to you.
Your chance of winning is miniscule.
you believe that you might be wrong or the other party is right and the
issue is much more important to the other
Giving in on a minor item now can mean winning a more important
one later.
28. 28
Compromising
Compromising is the middle ground, in which managers display
both assertive and cooperative behaviors - achieves only partial
satisfaction for each person
It involves give-and-take, each party gives up something to reach a
mutually acceptable agreement.
Heavy reliance on the compromising style may be dysfunctional
It may be appropriate when opposing goals are incompatible or
when two parties that are equally powerful
this style is likely to be appropriate when:
agreement enables each party to be better off, or at least not
worse off, than if no agreement were reached;
achieving a total win/win agreement is not possible; and
A temporary settlement to complex issues is called for
29. 29
Collaborating
Collaboration involves highly assertive and cooperative
behaviors and reflects a win/win approach to conflict.
A collaboration-style manager attempts to find a solution
that maximizes the outcomes of all parties involved.
Managers who use the collaborating style see conflict as a
means to a more creative solution that would be fully
acceptable to everyone involved
This style involves openness, exchange of information, and
examination of differences to reach an effective solution
acceptable to all parties.
It involves understanding different viewpoints, breaking
down the issues, and working together to solve them.
30. 30
Collaborating…
when issues are complex, the collaboration conflict-handling mode
emphasizes the use of skills and information possessed by different
employees to arrive at creative alternatives and solutions.
This style may be appropriate for dealing with the strategic issues
relating to objectives and policies, long-range planning, and the
like.
However, this style requires sufficient interdependence and parity
in power among individuals that they feel free to interact candidly,
regardless of their formal status as superior or subordinate.
this style requires expending extra time and energy; therefore,
sufficient organizational support must be available to resolve
disputes
32. Negotiation…overview
Negotiation is the process of two or more parties working
together to arrive at a mutually acceptable resolution of one
or more issues
Negotiation is a give-and-take bargaining process that, when
conducted well, leaves all parties feeling good about the
result and committed to achieving it
The reason you are negotiating is because you don’t have all
the answers; other parties’ contributions can add value to
how your interests are served by the agreement
32
33. Negotiation…
Successful negotiations yield mutual agreement in which
each party is committed to fulfilling his or her promises
Fairness is a crucial element to make a negotiation process
succeed.
Some people negotiate as if their most significant objective is
to take advantage of other parties; this is self defeating.
If any party feels unfairly treated, he or she may walk away
from the negotiation with a negative feeling
there is a strong risk that some negotiators will end up
feeling less committed to the agreement
33
34. 34
Negotiation…
In modern times, the aim of negotiation should focus on
creative collaboration, rather than traditional confrontation,
or a winner-takes-all result
Communication is always the link that will be used to
negotiate the issue
A negotiation can only be called successful when it yields an
agreement to which the parties are committed
When you analyze the negotiation process after negotiations
are over, pay close attention to what you have learned about
the likelihood that the parties will fulfill their part of the
agreement
35. 35
What Negotiation Is Not
When your boss gives you an order and your only choice is to do
what he or she says, that is not negotiation
If an outsider is brought in to make a decision between parties
using arbitration, the parties are legally bound to follow the
arbitrator’s decision
When parties are not working together to reach an agreement,
negotiation does not take place
It’s important to keep in mind that negotiation is not a competitive
sport
In negotiation, you want to do well for yourself, but not because
you want to beat someone else
We negotiate with people to reach an agreement that meets as
many of the parties’ interests as possible
36. Types of Negotiation
Distributive or confrontational negotiation
your reason for negotiation is seen as 'beating' the opposition,
People who view negotiation as a confrontation see the process
as a zero-sum game and they want to be the winners.
you must be prepared to use persuasive tactics
your agreement is not being directed to a certain compromise
both parties are looking for a different outcome
Once a confrontational negotiator wins, the other party is not
likely to want to deal with that person again
36
37. 37
Negotiation types…
Integrative or cooperative negotiation
your negotiation is much more 'friendly' with both parties aiming
to reach agreement
negotiators see a wide range of interests to be addressed and
served.
understand that negotiation is not a zero-sum game but a way to
create value for all the parties involved.
this builds long-term mutually beneficial relationships
The cooperative approach is known as Interest-based negotiation
An approach to negotiation where the parties focus on their
individual interests and the interests of the other parties to find a
common ground for building a mutually acceptable agreement
38. 38
Positions and interests
Position is the final answer to the question “What do you want?”
the “my way or the highway” approach
Positions are the expressed desires or presented proposals of the
parties involved
In negotiations between parties who each have some power to
influence the results, remember that taking a position limits your
capacity to bargain
starting negotiations with positions may result in greater resistance
to alternatives
39. Positions and interests…
Your interest is the answer to the question, “Why do you
want a particular result?”
interests are a party’s real needs, desires, fears, and goals.
Interest-based negotiation focuses on the underlying reasons
behind each negotiator’s objectives
Begin negotiations by clarifying the interests of both parties;
this allows the parties to work together to address the real
problem and come up with solutions that are satisfactory to
both
Seeking to align interests leads to win–win outcomes and
prevents parties from moving to confrontation and conflict
39
40. Communication is key in negotiation
You need to present your ideas in a way that will influence
the decisions of your negotiation partners.
The information you exchange informs you of changes in your
BATNA as well as the BATNAs of other parties
You can’t reach a wise agreement unless the parties
understand each other and share an understanding of the
agreement’s details.
Proper communication brings clarity to the process.
Your communication style demonstrates whether you respect
other parties and may even give them a sense of your
commitment to fulfill the agreement.
40
41. 41
Communication…
The best way to gain information is to ask questions and
listen carefully to the answers
Paying attention to other parties not only shows respect, it
can also yield information crucial to your decision making
Active listening involves several elements including
Paying attention,
controlling yourself so that you can learn from others,
asking open rather than yes-or-no questions,
Listening to the answers,
making sure you are on the same page,
42. Relationships
Successfully negotiated agreements not only solve a problem but also
improve the parties’ relationship
Following are some ways to ensure solidified relationships
Make small talk, and give people space to tell their stories.
Be professional and, if needed, challenge people respectfully: Use
nonjudgmental language, avoid demeaning words that might trigger
strong emotions such as “you wouldn’t understand,”
Approach the negotiation as a joint problem-solving effort: be creative
in developing positive, innovative solutions.
Ask questions and listen: Watch body language to better understand the
emotions behind the words.
Be aware of cultural values and biases: Your biases might cause you or
the other party to view the situation as different from what it really is
42
43. BATNA – Choosing whether to walk away
What do you do if the other side has a stronger bargaining position?
A party’s BATNA is its best alternative to a negotiated agreement
It is a measure of the balance of power among the negotiating parties
based on the resources they control or can influence to respond to their
interests
The extent of power with which we walk into negotiations
Each party should begin by establishing its BATNA and be ready to
consider its next choice if the current negotiation fails
Your BATNA is not your bottom line
A bottom line may protect you from accepting a very bad agreement
However it may keep you both from inventing and from agreeing to a
solution it would be wise to accept
43
44. 44
BATNA…
BATNA gives you a sense of whether to undertake a negotiation and
whether to quit once the process has begun (when the other side is
powerful)
Developing your BATNA is perhaps the most effective course of action you
can take in dealing with a seemingly more powerful negotiator
Be careful not to work against the interests of other parties
walking-in BATNA, that group of resources in your pocket before
negotiation begins
dynamic BATNA that changes as you gain information during the
negotiation process
BATNA is dynamic - every time we gain information during the
negotiation process, our BATNA changes
Keeping track of our BATNA while we negotiate is crucial
45. 45
Elements of BATNA
BATNAs are made up of a variety of elements
deadlines,
alternatives such as other suppliers or customers,
your own resources, their resources,
information you gain before and during the negotiation,
the level of experience you or other parties have
your interests and other parties’ interests, and
knowledge about the matters under consideration
46. Principled negotiation
Standard strategies for negotiation often leave people dissatisfied
or alienated
They see two ways to negotiate: soft or hard
The soft negotiator wants to avoid personal conflict and so makes
concessions readily to reach agreement
He or she wants an amicable resolution; yet often ends up
exploited
The hard negotiator sees any situation as a contest of wills, and
wants to win
“principled” negotiation is neither hard nor soft, but both hard and
soft
Principled negotiation focuses on being hard on merits and soft on
people
46
47. Principled negotiation…
Any method of negotiation may be fairly judged by three criteria:
Produce a wise agreement that meets the legitimate interests of
each side to the extent possible, resolves conflicting interests
fairly, is durable, and takes community interests into account
Be efficient - that is produce a good agreement in a reasonable
amount of time
Improve, or at least not damage, the relationship between the
parties.
Positional bargaining produces unwise outcomes, is inefficient, and
endangers an ongoing relationship.
47
48. Principled negotiation…
Principled negotiations is a method of focusing on basic interests,
mutually satisfying options, and fair standards typically results in a
wise agreement
It is designed to produce wise, efficient, amicable agreements
It comprises four basic points to plan for a negotiation.
These four points (PICO), can be used under almost any
circumstance:
People: Separate the people from the problem.
Interests: Focus on interests, not positions.
Criteria: Insist that the result be based on some objective
standard.
Options: Invent multiple options looking for mutual gains
48
49. People – Separate the people from the problem
separate a person’s perceptions, emotions, and words from the real issue
at hand
try to structure the negotiation as a joint effort shared by both parties,
with differing interests, perceptions, values, viewpoints, and emotional
involvement
Too often, people become personally invested in a negotiation, become
emotional, and make personal attacks.
To focus on the issues, both parties must seek to understand how the
other perceives the situation, avoid assigning blame, and employ active
listening.
Having a good relationship before the negotiation is one of the best ways
to begin a negotiation.
49
Be soft on the people, hard on the problem.
50. People…
Negotiators are always dealing with two issues: the substance of
the negotiations and the relationship between the two sides - both
issues are important
Deal with people problems directly - perception, emotion, and
communication
If misunderstandings, work to improve communication - without
communication there is no negotiation
Failing to deal with people problems can be disastrous for a
negotiation
Taking people out of the problem– helps eliminate hard feelings.
The goal is to create relationships
50
51. Interests – Focus on interests, not positions
Distinguishing between positions and interests is fundamental to
reaching consensus and agreements that benefit all parties
Your position is something you have decided upon, and your interests are
what led you to that decision
I want the ministry of health to give me a car? I want some means of
transportation for supervisory activities? - more than one option
We need to understand the other party’s interests
Each side has multiple interests
You will be simultaneously pursuing both your independent and shared
interests.
It will be very difficult to influence the other if you fail to appreciate the
differing interests involved
51
Avoid having a bottom line
52. Criteria – Insist on objective standards
If interests seem opposing, set objective criteria that can resolve
differences.
before generating options, you should first agree which criteria those
options must meet
Establish parameters that are legitimate and practical, and search for
scientific and professional standards that both parties can accept
Ask, “Does this alternative meet the criteria we established?” “Does
it meet the needs of both parties?”
E.g., we want transportation for supervisory activities - we could
establish criteria such it must be comfortable, safe, and within the
budget limits
52
53. Options - generate alternatives before deciding on
action
Negotiation is not about minimizing the differences or convincing others
It is about finding a way that satisfies the negotiators and creates value.
Successful negotiations are those who explore a number of possible
options
That is why the process must be creative, resolving problems and
reaching agreements for mutual gain instead of imposing wills
The first solution the parties come up with that is acceptable to both isn’t
necessarily the best.
The more options we invent, the greater the possibility that one or more
will reconcile the parties’ conflicting interests efficiently.
After multiple options have been generated, begin to evaluate potential
solutions
53
54. The Seven pillars of negotiation wisdom
Seven elements of the negotiation process
need to be considered both before a
negotiation (as you prepare) and during
negotiations
The Seven Pillars are:
Relationship
Interests
BATNA
Creativity
Fairness
Commitment
Communication
54
