![References:
1. Condition, gene, or chromosome summary: National Library of Medicine (US). Genetics
Home Reference [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): The Library; 2019 June 4. Cystic fibrosis;
[reviewed 2011 Dec; cited 2019 June 4]; [about 5 screens]. Available from:
https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/vacterl-association#definition
2. “ABA Keywords.” OpenAnesthesia, IARS,
www.openanesthesia.org/te_fistula_ett_positioning/.
3. Sharma, Sat, and Donald Duerksen. “Tracheoesophageal Fistula.” Edited by Vinay K
Kapoor, Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology, Medscape, 2 Feb. 2019,
emedicine.medscape.com/article/186735-overview.
4. Andropoulos, D.B.; Rowe, R.W.; Betts, J.M.
Anaesthetic and surgical airway management during tracheo-oesophageal fistula repair.
Paediatr Anaesth: 1998, 8(4);313-9
5. Coté, Charles J., Lerman, Jerrold, and Anderson, Brian J. Coté and Lerman’s a Practice of
Anesthesia for Infants and Children. Sixth edition. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier, 2018. Print.
6. Lerman, Jerrold., Coté, Charles J., and Steward, David J. Manual of Pediatric Anesthesia :
with an Index of Pediatric Syndromes . Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier,
2010. Print.
7. Davis, Peter J., and Cladis Franklyn P. Smith’s Anesthesia for infants and Children. Ninth
Edition. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier, 2017. Print.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/anesthesia-for-tracheoesophageal-fistula-repair-250121120816-b5bd5170/85/Anesthesia-for-Tracheoesophageal-Fistula-Repair-29-320.jpg)
Anesthesia-for-Tracheoesophageal-Fistula-Repair
- 1. Anesthesia for Tracheoesophageal Fistula Repair Shazia Mohammad, M.D. Chyongjy Joyce Liu, D.O. Texas Children’s Hospital Baylor College of Medicine Updated 8/2019
- 2. Disclosures No relevant financial relationships
- 3. Learning Objectives: • Review the clinical presentation of a patient with tracheoesophageal fistula (TEF) • Understand the prevalence of TEF, types, and associated syndrome • Discuss the diagnosis of TEF • Describe the medical and surgical management of TEF • Understand the anesthetic-related implications and develop an anesthetic plan
- 4. Clinical Scenario •1-day-old male with PMH significant for excessive secretions despite suctioning, recurrent coughing, and choking with episodes of cyanosis •Symptoms worsen with feeding
- 5. Background •Tracheoesophageal fistula (TEF) – abnormal connection between the upper gastrointestinal tract and respiratory tract •Occurs sporadically in 1/3000 live births5 •No preference between sex or race5 •20-40% of infants with TEF are born premature and/or small for gestational age7
- 6. TEF Associated Syndrome • Associated with other congenital anomalies in 25-50% patients • 25-35% - congenital heart disease (CHD)7 • 16-24% - gastrointestinal abnormalities (duodenal or ileal atresia, malrotation)7 • 15-25% - renal and genitourinary abnormalities7 • 10% - central nervous system disorder7 • 20-25% has at least 3 lesions included in VACTERL syndrome7 • Common in Trisomy 18 (25%) & 13 or 21
- 7. VACTERL Syndrome • Vertebral defects (60-80%) - fused vertebrae, missing vertebrae, or vertebrae not formed correctly1 • Anal atresia (60-90%) - narrowing or atresia of anus. May have genitourinary anomalies. • Cardiac defects (40-80%) - can be a small defect or a life-threatening one • Tracheo-esophageal fistula (50-80%) • Renal anomalies (50-80%) - missing kidney or kidney not developed correctly • Limb abnormalities (40-50%) - Image obtained from WikiCommons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:VACTERL_association#/media/
- 8. Pathophysiology • Embryogenesis - incompletely understood but proposed to be foregut malformation7 • Trachea & esophagus develop from foregut in first 4-5 weeks of gestation • During this time, the trachea does not separate from the foregut correctly
- 9. Types and Prevalence of TEF • No TEF – isolated esophageal atresia (EA) • Second most common - 7%7 • Esophageal atresia with proximal fistula Orange – Esophagus Gray –Trachea Image drawn by Shazia Mohammad, MD. • Distal TEF • Esophageal blind pouch • Most common: 80-90% of the time5
- 10. Types and Prevalence of TEF • Proximal and distal TEF Orange – Esophagus Gray –Trachea Image drawn by Shazia Mohammad, MD. • Esophagus is continuous (not interrupted) • Often diagnosed later in life due to recurrent pneumonia
- 11. Pre-natal Diagnosis •Non-specific findings •Polyhydramnios (fetus cannot swallow) •Absent or small fetal stomach bubble on ultrasound •Prenatal detection rate: 40-50%7
- 12. Post-natal diagnosis • Inability to pass orogastric tube (OGT) • Infant crying leads to stomach distention • Choking, coughing, regurgitation, respiratory distress, or cyanosis with feeding • Excessive salivation and drooling despite suctioning
- 13. Chest X-ray Findings Image obtained from WikiCommons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:X-rays_of_oesophageal_atresia#/media/File:Esophageal_atresia_contrast.png • CXR shows contrast stopping in the esophagus (as seen in the picture) • OGT curled in esophageal pouch • Gas bubble in the stomach (air passes through the fistula to stomach)
- 14. Preoperative Care • Keep NPO • Upright position to minimize regurgitation of gastric contents through fistula • Intermittent suctioning of upper pouch • Correct any electrolyte imbalances • Consider antibiotics • If patient requires mechanical ventilation then repair or gastrostomy may become urgent
- 15. Preoperative Concerns • High aspiration risk • Air will travel through fistula to stomach (stomach has less resistance compared to the lungs) causing distention difficult ventilation and high risk of vomiting/aspiration • Pulmonary complications from aspiration • Repogle/OGT – to reduce secretions in the esophageal pouch; placed on continuous low suction • Neonate • Smaller blood volume • Challenging airway (floppy epiglottis, larger tongue) • Higher resistance through the pulmonary tree • Associated anomalies especially cardiac issues
- 16. Preoperative Assessment •Complete preoperative assessment (H&P) •Ruling out other associated anomalies • Echocardiogram • Renal ultrasound/labs •Cross-matched blood •Multi-disciplinary approach – discuss post- op pain control and post-operative location (i.e. ICU)
- 17. Surgical Management • Waterston and Okamoto classification systems may be used to determine when and what type of surgery should be done5 • Depends on prognostic factors such as patient’s comorbidities, weight, and other anomalies • Determines if the case should be done urgently, completely repaired in one surgery, or have a staged-repair • May have open thoracotomy or thoracoscopic repair with insufflation of CO2
- 18. Surgical Management • Primary Complete Repair • Fistula is ligated • Esophagus is anastomosed • Staged Repair • Staged repair for high risk patients who cannot tolerate thoracotomy • Gastrostomy (to decompress stomach) • Fistula ligation or occlusion • May need intermittent surgeries to help lengthen the esophagus • Esophageal anastomosis at around 3-6 months of age Image obtained from WikiCommons: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Oesophageal_atresia
- 19. Anesthetic Management • Operating Room Set-Up • Lines • Two PIV, possible arterial line (for CHD patients) • Monitors • standard ASA monitors (EKG, pulse oximeter, temperature, blood pressure, ETCO2), urine output • Temperature • Warm the room, heat lamps, forced air warmer, blood warmer • Fluids • Crystalloid, 5% albumin, PRBCs/FFP • Airway • Multiple size ETTs, fiberoptic scope (if available) • Avoid ETT with Murphy eye to minimize leaks to the fistula
- 20. Anesthetic Management • Induction • Preoxygenate with 100% FIO2 • Keep spontaneous ventilation/avoid using paralytics • May use inhalational induction or ketamine • Avoid positive pressure ventilation to minimize gastric distention • If needed, use low pressure and small tidal volumes • If a gastrostomy is present, can access it to decompress stomach
- 21. Anesthetic Management • Endotracheal tube (ETT) position • Ideal position: below the fistula and above carina • Place ETT in right main stem, then slowly withdraw the ETT until bilateral breath sounds are heard • If fiberoptic scope is available, use it to confirm position • Cuff can be inflated to prevent ventilation through the fistula • Complication – intubating the fistula
- 22. Anesthetic Management • One-lung ventilation (OLV) • Selective bronchial intubation to the non-surgical lung • Pro: improve surgical exposure after collapse of the lung • Con: most premature neonate would not tolerate single lung ventilation due to underdeveloped lungs • In case of decrease oxygenation saturation in OLV: • Increase FiO2 to the ventilating lung • Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) to the nonventilated lung • Return to two-lung ventilation
- 23. Anesthetic Management •Patient position: • Left lateral decubitus (due to left aortic arch) • Exception: right aortic arch –place in right lateral decubitus
- 24. Anesthetic Management • Maintenance: • If patient not tolerating inhalational anesthetics, small doses of fentanyl may be used • After the ligation of fistula, positive pressure ventilation and paralytics can be used • Close communication with surgeon • May sure not compressing vessels that may impede cardiac output or ventilation • Can use a epidural catheter/caudal (threaded from the caudal space to the thoracic level) for pain control if planning to extubate
- 25. Intraoperative Events • Respiratory events • Difficulty with ventilation and oxygenation • ETT obstruction: blood clots, secretions • Gastric distention • Displacement of ETT/kinking of trachea • One-lung ventilation – absorptive atelectasis • CO2 insufflation – hypercarbia • Cardiac events • Bradycardia from vagal response to tracheal manipulation • Compression of mediastinal structures including large vessels
- 26. Postoperative Management • Depending on the procedure and patient’s condition, the patient may be extubated or kept intubated • Most patients require ventilatory support due to: • Lung disease (due to premature birth) • Tracheomalacia (especially at the site of fistula – predisposed to airway collapse)7 • Inadequate pain control • Avoiding emergent re-intubation and damage to the tracheal repair • Need for suction and expansion of lungs • Transanastomotic tube may be in place to protect the repair • Keep head in neutral position to prevent stretching of the esophageal anastomosis5 • Disposition (postop location): NICU (prolonged stay)
- 27. Outcomes •TEF mortality rate is related to the severity of the associated congenital cardiac anomalies and birth weight7 •Lower birth weight (<1500 g) is associated with higher mortality •Co-existing major cardiac anomalies is associated with higher mortality
- 28. Outcomes - Complications • Early complications: • Anastomotic leaks • Esophageal strictures – may required serial dilation • Long-term complications: • Tracheal diverticulum (at site of previous fistula)6 • Caution – can possibly intubate into the diverticulum • Esophageal strictures, dysmotility, and dysphagia • Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) • Respiratory disease • Tracheomalacia • Neuromuscular abnormality (thoracic nerve damage, winged scapula, chest wall asymmetry)7
- 29. References: 1. Condition, gene, or chromosome summary: National Library of Medicine (US). Genetics Home Reference [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): The Library; 2019 June 4. Cystic fibrosis; [reviewed 2011 Dec; cited 2019 June 4]; [about 5 screens]. Available from: https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/vacterl-association#definition 2. “ABA Keywords.” OpenAnesthesia, IARS, www.openanesthesia.org/te_fistula_ett_positioning/. 3. Sharma, Sat, and Donald Duerksen. “Tracheoesophageal Fistula.” Edited by Vinay K Kapoor, Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology, Medscape, 2 Feb. 2019, emedicine.medscape.com/article/186735-overview. 4. Andropoulos, D.B.; Rowe, R.W.; Betts, J.M. Anaesthetic and surgical airway management during tracheo-oesophageal fistula repair. Paediatr Anaesth: 1998, 8(4);313-9 5. Coté, Charles J., Lerman, Jerrold, and Anderson, Brian J. Coté and Lerman’s a Practice of Anesthesia for Infants and Children. Sixth edition. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier, 2018. Print. 6. Lerman, Jerrold., Coté, Charles J., and Steward, David J. Manual of Pediatric Anesthesia : with an Index of Pediatric Syndromes . Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier, 2010. Print. 7. Davis, Peter J., and Cladis Franklyn P. Smith’s Anesthesia for infants and Children. Ninth Edition. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier, 2017. Print.
Editor's Notes
- #7: The percentage next to each VACTERL component is the percent change the patient will have that problem if they have the VACTERL syndrome
- #13: Please note that contrast is not required to make diagnosis. Contrast leads to aspiration. Most of the time, diagnosis is made prenatally or based on catheter curing in the esophageal pouch along with other findings.
- #15: https://www.rch.org.au/rchcpg/hospital_clinical_guideline_index/Replogle_tube_management/
- #17: There are other classification systems as well. The Waterston and Okamoto classification system was cited in Cote’s pediatric anesthesia book.