Animal nutrition

Introduction
to

Nutrition

What is a Nutrient?
– Any feed constituent, group of feed
constituents or synthetically derived
compounds of the same general chemical
composition that aids in the support of
animal life.

Classes of Nutrients
• Water
• Carbohydrates
• Fats
• Protein
• Minerals
– Macrominerals
– Microminerals

• Vitamins
– Fat Soluble (A,D,E,K
– Water Soluble (B vitamins)

Classes of Nutrients
– Water H2O
– Carbohydrates C H O
– Fats CHO
– Protein CHONS
(16% N, <1% S, P if amino acid is phosphorylated)
– Minerals
• 7 Macrominerals (measured as % of ration)
• Microminerals (trace, measured in ppm)
– Vitamins (minute quantities, measured in I.U)
• Fat Soluble (A,D,E,K
• Water Soluble (B vitamins)

International unit (IU) is a unit of measurement for
the amount of a substance, based on measured
biological activity (or effect)

The mass equivalents of 1 IU for selected substances:

1 IU Vitamin A: the biological equivalent of 0.3 μg
retinol, or of 0.6 μg beta-carotene

1 IU Vitamin C: 50 μg L-ascorbic acid

µg = microgram (mcg) = 10–6 g

Nutrients are made up of:
• C - Carbon • H - Hydrogen
• O - Oxygen • N - Nitrogen
• Na - Sodium • Cl - Chlorine
• Ca - Calcium • P- Phosphorus
• K- Potassium • Mg -Magnesium
• S - Sulfur • Co -Cobalt
• Cu - Copper • F- Fluorine
• I - Iodine • Fe - Iron
• Mn - Manganese • Mo -Molybdenum
• Se - Selenium • Zn - Zinc

Water
• Least expensive nutrient – but often times lacking
• Most abundant nutrient in the animals body
deficiency can cause death faster than other deficiencies.
• Function
– Transportation of nutrients and excretions
– Chemical reactions
– Body temperature regulation
– Maintains shape of body cells
– Lubricates and cushions joints and organs

Water
• Sources
– Drinking (40-76%)
– Moisture in feed (4-40%)
– Metabolic water derived from oxidation (20%)
• Losses
– Urine
– Feces
– Respiration – O2 in and CO2 and H2O out
– Perspiration

Factors affecting water
Consumption
• Age and Size of animal
• Performance of animals
• Environmental temperature and humidity

Factors affecting water
Consumption
• Age and Size of animal
• Performance of animals
• Environmental temperature and humidity
• Water content of feed
• Dietary factors - salt in feed
• Urinary system - mammals vs. birds
- cows vs. camels
• Water quality and availability

Water Deficiency Symptoms
• Decrease performance
• Decrease feed intake
• Sunken eyes
• Decrease elasticity of skin
• Animals drinking urine or mud

Approximate water consumption
(mature animal)
1. Swine 1.5 to 3 gal/hd/d
2. Sheep 1 to 3 gal/hd/d
3. Cattle 10 to 14 gal/hd/d
4. Horses 10 to 14 gal/hd/d
5. Poultry 2 parts water for each
part of dry feed

II. Energy
A. Carbohydrates
– C (40%) H (7%) O (53%)
Includes sugars, starches, cellulose and others
(simple to complex)
– C, H, and O make up 75% of the plant dry weight and
represents largest part of animals food supply

– Formed by photosynthesis:

6CO2 + 6H2O + Light (673 calories) = C6H12O6 + 6O2

This sea slug, discovered off the coast of
New England in 2009, produces its own
chlorophyll so can carry out photosynthesis,
turning sunlight into energy.

• Very little carbohydrate present in an
animal’s body
– Plants use carbohydrates for structure (fiber)
and store energy
– Animals have bones for structure and store
energy as fat

Classification of Carbohydrates
• Monosaccharide (1 sugar molecule (simple sugar))
• Fructose (corn syrup – sweetest sugar known)
• Glucose (blood sugar)
• Galactose (fatty substances of the brain)
• Mannose (obtained from polysaccharides, in cranberry juice)

Two main sugars in honey are glucose and levulose. Five carbon
sugars are part of DNA, RNA and viruses.

Simple sugars are absorbed into the blood stream
without further digestion in the digestive tract.

Classification of Carbohydrates
• Disaccharides (2 sugar molecules)
– Lactose (milk sugar)
+ lactase = galactose+ glucose
– Sucrose (table sugar)
+ sucrase = fructose+ glucose
– Maltose (used in malted milk)
+ maltase = glucose+ glucose

• Polysaccharides (Many sugar molecules)
– Glycogen (animal form)
– Starch (plant form)
– Cellulose
– Hemicellulose

• glucose α glucose α glucose α glucose… starch
• glucose β glucose β glucose β glucose… cellulose

Digestion in the rumen
• Cellulose – structural part of plants
↓ Cellulase (produced by bacteria) in
ruminants
• Glucose
↓ Anaerobic fermentation by rumen
bacteria
• Volatile fatty acids (VFA’s) – absorbed through
rumen

- propionic acid (30-40%)
- butyric acid (15%)
- acetic acid (50-60%) (precursor for milk fat)

CH3CH2COOH CH3COOH
Propionic acid Acetic acid

CH3CH2CH2-COOH
Butyric acid

• Lignin – indigestible structural component of
plants

• Crude Fiber (Total fiber)
– Cellulose
– Hemicellulose – mixture of cellulose, pectins,
starches
– Xylans – polysaccharide found in corncobs and
wood
– Lignin

• NDF = neutral detergent fiber (contains all 4 CF
components)
• ADF = acid detergent fiber (does not contain hemicellulose)

Carbohydrates
• Sources
– Grain (high starch, low fiber – seed coat)
– Forages (high fiber, low starch)
– Milk (lactose) – cow’s milk is 5% lactose
which is 40% of the solids in milk
• Function
– General heat to maintain body temperature
– Fuel metabolic reactions
– Building blocks for other nutrients
– Energy stored in animals in form of fat

Although the term lipid is sometimes used as
a synonym for fats, fats are a subgroup of
lipids called triglycerides.

Lipids also encompass molecules such as
fatty acids and their derivatives (including tri-,
di-, monoglycerides, and phospholipids), as
well as other sterol-containing metabolites
such as cholesterol, waxes, and fat-soluble
vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K).

B. Fats

– Chemical composition (% molecular
weights)
C (77%), H (12%), O(11%)
40 7 53 Carbo’s
– Insoluble in water
– Unit of fat has 2.25 more energy than
unit of carbohydrate

Structure: Triglyceride

glycerol
↓
− Fatty acid

− Fatty acid

− Fatty acid

Why are fats added to animal
feeds?

Why are fats added to animal
feeds?

1. Increase energy density

1. Decrease dust in feed

1. As a binder in pellets
2. Taste for non-ruminate diets
3. Needed in cat diets

1. Structure of Fat

=

2. Fatty Acids
2 Carbons short chain

medium chain

24 Carbons long chain

3. Saturated Fats – animal fats
a. Lard (pork)
b. Tallow (beef) Solid at room
temperature
c. Poultry fat
Ruminant
fat is the
most
saturated

4. Unsaturated Fats – plant oils
a. Corn Oil
Liquid at room
b. Soybean Oil
temperature
c. Canola Oil

Polyunsaturated
means it has
more than one
double bond

∀ ↑ saturation ↑ solid at room temperature

∀ ↑ size (molecular weight) fatty acids ↑
solid at room temperature

There are over 100 different fatty acids

HHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHH
H-C-C-C-C-C-C=C-C-C=C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH
HHHHH H HHHHHHH

C18H32O2 – Linoleic Acid (C18:2)

HHHHHHHHHHHHHO
H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-OH
HHHHHHHHHHHHH

C14H28O2 – Myristic Acid

Functions of Fats
• Store energy
• Protect organs
• Insulate
• Energy source in food
• Essential fatty acids needed for
prostaglandin production
• Fat soluble vitamins found in fat
– Cholesterol, a lipid, is a precursor for vitamin
D and sex hormones

Digestion and Metabolism
• Highly digestible

• Short chain > long chain in some cases

• Lipase breaks down triglycerides into
glycerol and fatty acids

Location in the Animal Body
• Milk
– Horse 1.5%
– Cows 3-5%
– Sheep 8%
• Eggs
– 10%
• Internal Fat – KPH and fat between
muscles
• Where is external fat deposited?

III. Protein
1. Chemical Composition (% molecular)
– C (53%) H (7%) O (23%) N (16%) S and P
<1%)

1. Protein is the nutrient in highest
concentration in muscle tissue of
animals.

1. Made of sequences of amino acids

4. Small to very large molecular weight
– Lys – Met – His – Ile – Val – His - ….
(muscle sarcomeres may have a total length of
almost 27,000 amino acids)
5. Short chains = peptides

6. Contains nitrogen which distinguishes
protein and amino acids from other
nutrients
Although some
– % N x 6.25 = % crude protein vitamins contain
nitrogen
– % N / 16% = % crude protein

B. Functions of Protein
1. Basic Structural Unit of Animal
a. Collagen - mostly found in fibrous tissues
such as tendon, ligament and skin, and is
also abundant in cornea, cartilage, bone,
blood vessels, the gut, and intervertebral
disc.
b. Elastin
c. Blood proteins – hemoglobin is polypeptides
(protein) plus heme C18H34O4N4Fe
d. Keratin proteins – skin, hair, feathers
e. Contractile proteins - muscle

a. Collagen
b. Elastin - is a protein in connective tissue that
is elastic and allows many tissues in the
body to resume their shape after stretching
or contracting.

a. Collagen
b. Elastin

2. Body Metabolism
a. Enzymes
• Digestion
• Synthesis
• Degradation
a. Hormones
• Oxytocin
• Growth hormones
• Insulin

Body Metabolism (continued)
c. Immune Antibodies
• IgA, IgG, IgM

c. Hereditary transmission
• Chromosomes are about 50% DNA and 50%
protein

3. Protein used as energy
• Protein consumed in excess of animal’s
daily requirement is broken down by
proteases (digestive enzymes) into amino
acids

• Amino acids are deaminated (NH3
removed), and the carbon skeletons are
used as an energy source.

3. Source of Energy After
Deamination

C. Digestion and Metabolism of
Protein
1. Dietary proteins broken down into amino acids and
peptides.

2. Protein quality more important for non-ruminants
than ruminants. Protein quality here refers to
balance of essential amino acids.

3. Rumen micro-organisms can make amino acids
from nitrogen (urea or ammonia).

C. Digestion and Metabolism of
Protein (continued)
4. Fate of amino acids after absorption
a. Tissue protein synthesis – the
amino acid sequence in a
protein is controlled by genes
b. Synthesis of enzymes,
hormones and other metabolites
c. Deamination and use of carbon
skeleton for energy

D. Amino Acids
1. Essential amino acids – these amino acids are
essential to the animal and must be supplied in
the diet because the animal body can’t
synthesize them or do so at a fast enough rate
to meet its requirement.

2. Non-essential amino acids – those amino acids
which are essential to the animal but are
normally synthesized or present in sufficient
quantities in the diet and need not be
supplemented.

D. Amino Acids (continued)
3.Amino acids are linked together by
peptide bonds, which couple the α-
carboxyl group of one amino residue to
the α-amino group of another residue.

• Example:

D. Amino Acids (continued)
4. Monogastrics require essential amino acids in their diet.

Amino Acids
Essential (Indispensible) Non-essential (dispensable)
Tryptophan Alanine
Threonine Asparagines
Histidine Aspartic acid
Arginine Cysteine (sulfur containing)
Lysine (1st limiting in pigs) Cystine (sulfur containing)
Leucine Glutamic acid
Isoleucine Glutamine
Methionine (sulfur containing) Glycine
Valine Hydroxproline
Phenylalanine Trysine
Glycine - Poultry Serine
Proline - Poultry Proline
Glutamic acid - Poultry Taurine (cats-only in animal products)

5. Essential
Amino Acid
Structures

IV. Minerals (inorganic)
A. Macrominerals [3-3.5% in Dairy Ration]

1. Calcium (Ca) [.8%]
a. Bone growth
b. Blood - stimulates normal blood clotting
c. Nerve and muscle function
d. High in milk, egg shells

Rickets

Calcium or
Vitamin D
deficiency

2. Phosphorus (P) [.45%]
a. Bone growth
b. Metabolic energy (component of ATP)
c. Component of nucleotides (DNA, RNA)
deficiency – depraved appetitie, weakness, low
fertility, rickets, weak bones

3. Sodium (Na) [.18%]
Increased requirement if sweating
a. Regulates pH and osmotic pressure
b. Nerve function
c. Enzyme stabilizer
Slight deficiency causes decreased appetitie
4.Chloride (Cl) [.28%]
a. Regulates pH and osmotic pressure
b. Nerve function
c. Enzyme stabilizer
d. Formation of HCl in the stomach

Salt (NaCl) deficiency signs
• Salt craving – (drink urine, lick ground, etc.
• Decrease production, rough hair coat,
death if severe.

5. Magnesium (Mg) [.22%]
a. Neuromuscular function
b. Enzyme activator Inorganic forms
of Mg, K, and S
c. Normal bone growth
supplemented in
Deficiency – grass tetany, excitability ruminant diets
only – non-
6. Potassium (K) [1.0%] ruminants can
not utilize
Deficiency - feed intake , inorganic forms.
muscle weakness
a. Nerve function and muscle contraction
b. Enzyme stabilizer
c. Maintain osmotic pressure
Requirements may increase because of losses
from sweating or diarrhea.

7. Sulfur (S) [.2%]
Deficiency - Slow growth, decrease milk
production
a. Components of S-containing amino acids and
some hormones
b. Acid – base balance
c. In feathers and gizzard lining

B. Microminerals (Trace Minerals)
1. Chromium (Cr) – carbohydrate and lipid
metabolism. Increase rate of lean growth in
young pigs.
2. Cobalt (Co)
(Supplement ruminant and horse diets only)
a. Component of vitamin B12
b. Enzyme activator
deficiency – decreased appetite, anemia
3. Copper (Cu)
(necessary for red blood cell formation, has antibiotic-like
growth promoting ability in swine)
a. Hemoglobin synthesis (anemia)
b. Enzymes (diarrhea, poor hair/wool growth)

4. Fluorine (F) - bones and teeth

4. Iron (I)
a. Hemoglobin synthesis - anemia
b. Enzymes

4. Iodine (I)
a. Thyroid hormone – goiter (enlargement of thyroid
gland). Deficiency: pigs and lambs born hairless
or wool-less
4. Manganese (Mn) – lameness, fertility
a. Enzyme activator

8. Molybdenum (Mo) (supplement ruminant
diets only)
Most feedstuff contain enough
a. Enzymes

8. Nickel (Ni)
Rations have enough - assists in the absorption of
iron and the formation red blood cells
8. Selenium (Se) (Eastern Minnesota soils are deficient)
Works with vitamin E – maintains muscle integrity

Selenium Toxicity

Selenium deficient

January 2010
News Flash: 25 U of MN Hampshire ewes
die when student worker mistakenly put
selenium mineral instead of “sheep
mineral” into the mineral feeder.

11. Silicon (Si) (most feeds have plenty)
supports the development and maintenance
of the connective tissues and skeletal
system.

12. Tin (Sn) – deficiency: decreased growth in
rats
13. Vanadium (V) - proper growth and bone
development and also for normal
reproduction.

14. Zinc (Zn) – immune system and healthy
skin, feathers and hooves
a. Enzyme activator
b. Protein synthesis

All microminerals can be toxic in
surplus amounts!

C. Mineral – Vitamin Interrelationships, e.g.

1. Ca, P, Vitamin D
2. Co, Vitamin B12
3. Vitamin E, Selenium

V. Vitamins
A. Fat Soluble

1. Vitamin A
a. Vision – especially night vision – fetal eye
developement
b. Bone formation
c. Immune function - Antioxidant and anti-
carcinogenic properties
d. Membranes – skin, lungs, reproductive and
digestive tracts
Cheap to supplement, Beta-carotene is the
precursor found in plants

2. Vitamin D - cheap to supplement
a. Bone formation
– works with Ca and P

3. Vitamin E
a. Antioxidant
b. Immune system
supplementation extends shelf life of meat
and milk
4. Vitamin K
a. Blood clotting

B. Water Soluble –cofactors or activators of enzymes
1. Thiamine (B1) – harvesting energy via the Kreb’s
cycle, deficiency causes Beriberi in humans.
2. Riboflavin (B2) – involved with Kreb’s cycle
3.Niacin (B3, nicotinic acid)– helps convert fat to
glucose in the liver – prevents and treats ketosis –
involved with Kreb’s cycle
4. Pyridoxine (B6) - protein metabolism and red blood cell
formation
5.Pantothenic Acid (B5)
deficiency: dermatitis and loss of
hair

B1
B2 B3

B6

B5

Most B vitamins made up of C,H,O, and N.

6. Folic Acid (B9) – helps make proteins from amino
acids.
7. Biotin (B7) deficiency: dermatitis and loss of
hair (same as pantothenic acid)
8. Vitamin B12 (cyanacobalamin is most common
synthetic form) Found in animal products and
manufactured by bacteria. Associated with
appetite, anemia, and hatching problems in birds

9. Choline – “smart bill”, associated with brain
activity. Also, helps the liver convert fat into
glucose (like niacin) to prevent ketosis.

10. Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) – only required for
humans, guinea pigs and fish. May help prevent
scours and enhance immune system in young

B7

B12

C63H88CoN14O14P

B9
choline

A. Classification of Feedstuffs
1. Dry roughages and forages
alfalfa hay, grass hay
2. Range, pasture, green forages
(green chop)
3. Silages
corn silage, haylage
4. Energy Feedstuffs
corn grain
5. Protein supplements
SBM, distillers grains
6. Mineral supplements
salt, ground limestone, dical
7. Vitamin supplements

8. Non-nutritional additives
antibiotics, hormones,
ervatives

A. Classification of Feedstuffs
1. Dry roughages and forages
2. Range, pasture, green forages
3. Silages
Feeds with >18% crude fiber are considered roughages.
4. Energy Feedstuffs contain less than 18% crude
fiber and < 20% crude protein.
5. Protein supplements contain <18% crude fiber and
> 20% crude protein.
6. Mineral supplements
7. Vitamin supplements

8. Non-nutritional additives

B. Evaluation of Feedstuffs for Energy
Content

1. TDN system

a. TDN: Total Digestible Nutrients

a. TDN = digestible crude protein
+ digestible crude fiber
+ digestible nitrogen – free extract
+ 2.25 x digestible fat

c. Example 100 gm feed (Swine or Poultry diet)

Amount % Digestible TDN
Protein 20 gm 75 = 15 gm
NFE 60 gm 85 = 51 gm
Fiber 10 gm 20 = 2 gm
Fat 5 gm 85 x 2.25 = 9.56 gm

c. Example 100 gm feed (Swine or Poultry diet)

Amount % Digestible TDN
Protein 20 gm 75 = 15 gm
NFE 60 gm 85 = 51 gm
Fiber 10 gm 20 = 2 gm
Fat 5 gm 85 x 2.25 = 9.56 gm

77.56%

2. Metabolizable Energy and Net Energy
System
a. Definition: A calorie is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
water 1 degree C from 15.5 degrees C to 16.5
degrees C

1 kcal = 1000 calories : (kcal used for poultry & swine diets)
1 kcal = 1 Calorie with a capital C for human nutrition
1 Mcal = 1000 kcal : (Mcal used for dairy & beef diets)

Calories are measured by a laboratory method called
bomb calorimetry

• Example

CHO produces 4000 calories/g
Fat produces 9450 calories/g
Protein produces 4100 calories/g

4 grams CHO x 4000 = 16,000 calories
20 grams protein x 4100 = 82,000 calories
2 grams fat x 9450 = 18,900 calories

Total 116,900 calories = 116.9 kcal

b. Typical dairy ration

30% 70%

5% 60%
Gaseous 5%

20% 40%

c. Proximate Analysis of Feeds

Feed: Example of a typical finishing pig diet
Moisture 12%
Dry matter 88%
Ash 5%
Organic Matter 83%
Protein 13%
Non-nitrogenous 70%
Fats 4%
Carbohydrates 66%
Crude Fiber 10%
Nitrogen-free extract 56%
Simple Sugars 5%
Starches 50%
Water Soluble Vitamins <1%

VII. Digestion & Absorption of Feed
Digestion is the physical, chemical, and enzymatic
means the body uses to render a feedstuff ready
for absorption.

A. Pig (monogastric)

Source Enzyme Substrate Results
Saliva Amylase (small amount) Starch Disaccharides
Stomach Pepsin Protein Peptides
Hydrochloric acid Activates pepsin
Pancreas Amylase Starch Disaccharides
Lipase Fats Fatty acids &
Glycerol
Trypsin Protein Peptides
Chymotrysin Peptides Amino acids
Duodenum Peptidase Peptides Amino acids
Sucrase Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
Maltase Maltose 2 Glucose
Lactase Lactose Glucose &
Galactose

Bile from liver:
– Emulsify fats
– Neutralizes acids in stomach
– Contains minerals that help with digestion

B. Ruminants (polygastric)
1. Anatomy

• Advantages
– Digest cellulose
– Utilize NPN
– Synthesize B vitamins
• Disadvantages
– Less efficient for low fiber feeds
– Digestive upsets
– Large fermentation vat to carry around

2. Energy Digestion
Feeds

s
A’ e
VF an
h
et
M
+
Glucose O 2

Body C
stores Glucose
Production s VFA’s
pas VFA’ in blood
b y- s stream
e
m
So

Milk
fat

Acetic acid

3. Protein Digestion

(CO(NH2)2)

NH + NPN
3

Urea

energy 60% of
a.a High protein
quality broken
down in
S.I. rumen
By-pass protein

C. Avian – Poultry Holds feed –
some breakdown

No teeth – breaks
feed with beak
and scratching

Little digestion
HCL + pepsin – Vitamin K
synthesized

Contains grit

Uric acid from
kidneys added

D. Equine – nonruminant herbivore
1. Anatomy

2. Digestive Disturbances in Horses
a. Colic (abdominal pain)

 Signs
 Look at flank, kick belly, restless, violent rolling,
perspiration

 Causes
 Over consumption of high fiber feed, not enough water,
gas produced from rapid fermentation of too much
grain

 Solutions
 Balance amount of fiber and grain, feed small amounts,
use laxative such as wheat bran

b. Founder
• Over consumption of fermentable feeds such as
grains or early spring grass – lactic acid in blood
causes inflammation in feet – causes extreme pain
in feet and abnormal hoof growth. Laminitis is a
less severe form of founder

Heaves – obstructive airway disease similar to
human asthma.
• Allergic reaction to dust
in feed: develops as horses age and becomes
chronic.
avoid feeding moldy
or dusty feeds and bedding

May have to feed pelleted ration and bed with paper

E. Cats have a few nutrition characteristics that
make them different from other monogastrics:
1. Protein: Cats have the highest requirement for
protein of all domesticated species. When cats were
evolving, a high protein and fat diet was always
available so cats never found it necessary to
conserve proteins. Cats always "waste" some of the
dietary protein by breaking it down for energy.

2. Taurine: (tor Rine) Cats require taurine because they
cannot convert other amino acids into taurine.
Taurine is important to prevent visual, cardiac and
reproductive problems and is found naturally only in
meat and fish, but now routinely made artificially.

3. Fats: Cats also require both linoleic and arachidonic
acids to prevent skin and coat problems and poor
reproduction. Arachidonic acid is found only in animal
sources of fat.

4. Vitamins: Pre-formed vitamin A must also be present
in the cat's diet. Dogs can break β-carotene into two
molecules of vitamin A; cats cannot. Pre-formed
vitamin A is also found only in animal tissues.

• Cats are also somewhat peculiar in their
eating behavior. Cats will tend to eat and
drink limited quantities on numerous
occasions, consuming up to 16 small
meals during a 24-hour period when fed
on an ad lib basis. (source:
http://www.aspca.org/site/PageServer?
pagename=careforcats)

F. Foods to Avoid Feeding to Your Dog

• Alcoholic beverages • Moldy or spoiled
foods
• Avocado
• Onions, onion powder
• Chocolate (all forms
of chocolate) • Raisins and grapes
• Coffee (all forms of • Salt
coffee) • Yeast dough
• Fatty foods • Garlic
• Macadamia nuts • Products sweetened
with xylitol

(source: http://www.aspca.org/site/PageServer?pagename=apcc_poisonsafe

Summary of Digestive Types
Relative fiber digestion
Herbivores
Cattle 10
Sheep 10
Goats 9
Horses 9
Rabbits 4
Omnivores
Pigs 5
Poultry
Geese 2
Ducks 2
Chickens 1
Humans 0
Dogs 0
Carnivores
Cats 0

Puggy, a
Pekingese in
Texas with a 4.5-
inch tongue, has
been named in
the Guinness
Book of World
Records as the
dog with the
longest tongue.

VIII. CONVERSIONS, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES
English Metric
oz = ounce (16 oz/lb) g = grams (454 g/lb)
lb = pound (2.2 lbs/kg) kg = kilogram = 1000 g
ton = 2000 lbs mg = milligram = .001 g
bu = bushel; volumetric µg = microgram = .001 mg
measure for grain
oats = 32 lbs/bu ppm = .0001%
corn = 56 lbs/bu % = 10,000 ppm
wheat = 60 lbs/bu 1 mg = 1000 micrograms
(µg)
barley = 48 lbs/bu
soybeans = 60 lbs/bu

1. Example Ration for Early Lactation/High Production Group
Lbs. DM
Alfalfa hay 14.0 lbs
Corn silage 14.0 lbs 50-60% roughage
Corn 13.0 lbs energy
Soybean meal, 44% 8.0 lbs protein
Fat 1.0 lb energy
Dicalcium phosphate 0.5 lb
Ground limestone 0.25 lb
Trace mineralized salt 0.25 lb
Mineral-vitamin mix 0.10 lb
51.1 lb DM
Balanced for fiber, energy, protein, salt, calcium, phosphorus, vitamins ADE

2. Example Ration for young Calves – Pre-rumination
Liquid milk replacer – primary source of nutrition for the first
4 to 6 weeks
Grain starter diet:
Corn 50.0%
Oats 22.0%
Soybean meal 20.0%
Molasses 5.0%
Dicalcium phosphate 0.5%
Ground limestone 1.5%
Vitamin – TM premix 1.0%

Roughage is not need in a calves diet for rumen development.

B. Hog Diets
Corn 65-75%
SBM 20-30%
Salt
Ground Limestone
Dicalcium phosphate
Vitamin premix
TM premix

Baby pigs – lysine, methionine, dried skim milk, dried whey, fish meal,
spray dried porcine plasma (need animal proteins)
antiboitics

C. Poultry Diets
Corn and SBM based
Grit for gizzard
Salt

Ground limestone and Dical-Phos - 1.2 lbs. dietary CA
required per dozen egg

TM premix, Vitamin premix
Coccidiostat – prevents coccidiosis (protozoan parasite)

Layers – alfalfa meal (2-3%), xanthophyll (gives yellow
pigmentation to yolk)
Broilers – 4% fat for faster growth

D. Sheep Diets
176 lb. Ewe
TDN (lb) CP (lb) Ca (g)
maintenance 1.6 .27 3.3
1st 15 weeks of pregnancy 1.8 .31 3.3
Last 4 weeks of gestation 2.9 .49 4.8
1st 8 weeks of lactation 4.3 .96 14.4
(suckling twins)

Finishing lambs daily requirements
Weight Crude Protein (lb)
66 .42
88 .41
110 .35

Complete diet for mature horses
Oats 44.5%
Corn 25.0%
Wheat bran 7.0%
Horses only
Dehydrated alfalfa 10.0% require 10%
protein in the
Molasses 12.0% diet

Limestone .5%
Salt .75%
Premix .25%

Animal nutrition

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Editor's Notes