Automatic traffic light controller for emergency vehicle using peripheral interface controller

International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering (IJECE)
Vol. 9, No. 3, June 2019, pp. 1720~1731
ISSN: 2088-8708, DOI: 10.11591/ijece.v9i3.pp.1720-1731  1720
Journal homepage: http://iaescore.com/journals/index.php/IJECE
A review of remotely sensed satellite image classification
Sakshi Dhingra, Dharminder Kumar
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology, India
Article Info ABSTRACT
Article history:
Received Apr 24, 2018
Revised Dec 3, 2018
Accepted Dec 15, 2018
Satellite image classification has a vital role for the extraction and analysis of
the useful satellite image information. This paper comprises the study of the
satellite images classification and Remote Sensing along with a brief
overview of the previous studies that are proposed in this field. In this paper,
the existing work has been explained utilizing the classification techniques
on satellite images of Alwar region in India that covers decent land cover
features like Vegetation, Water, Urban, Barren, and Rocky regions. The post-
implementation of the classification algorithms, the classified image is
obtained displaying different classes that are represented by different colours.
Each feature is represented by a different colour and can be easily perceived
from the image obtained after classification. The focus of this study is on
enhancing the classification accuracy by using proper classifiers along with
the novel feature extraction techniques and pre-processing steps. Work of
different authors is being discussed in a tabular form defining the methods
and outcomes of the respective studies.
Keywords:
Feature extraction
Remote sensing
Satellite image classification
Supervised classification
Unsupervised classification
Copyright © 2019 Institute of Advanced Engineering and Science.
All rights reserved.
Corresponding Author:
Sakshi Dhingra,
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology,
Hissar, Haryana-125001, India.
Email: sakshi24.dhingra@gmail.com
1. INTRODUCTION
A satellite image can be defined as a representation of complete or earth part acquired with artificial
satellites; in which images have number of utilization like cartography, military intellect, and weather
prediction [1]. These images could be water vapor images, visible light and infrared images. The visible light
image comprises of images portraying the sky as well as the ground demonstration from outer space at a
specified time. Water vapour images mainly illustrate the humidity within the environment, usually in cloud
form. It could generally be employed for tracking imminent storms with the weather prediction situations.
Satellite image generally encompasses rich contents and plays a significant role in delivering the
environmental evidence. Satellite as well as remote sensing images gives quantifiable as well as qualitative
evidence which minimize the field effort and the interval complexity. The sensing equipment integrates the
data and the images at normal intervals. The data quantity obtained from the data centres is enormous with
the exponentially rising like the technology is developing at a quick speed. There is an extreme requirement
of a robust technique for the extraction of useful information from the images [2]. The classification has
emerged as influential and robust techniques that fulfil the needs for the extraction of important information.
The classification has a significant role in the removal of important information from the satellite
images. The classification is usually defined as a procedure of integrating the pixels with the significant
classes. This classification process is generally performed with workflow in multi steps [3].
Its classification can also be mentioned as the procedure of mining valuable data from large volumes
of the satellite images and its classification is not compound; however, the examiner has to execute multiple
options which range in the process of satellite image classification [4]. This includes analysis of spatial data
mining, remote sensing images, analyzing varied vegetation kinds like farming, forestry etc. and examining

Int J Elec & Comp Eng ISSN: 2088-8708 
A review of remotely sensed satellite image classification (Sakshi Dhingra)
1721
urban regions for determining several land usages of the region. In late 1972, Landsat-I was the initial
satellite to integrate Earth reflectance on the 60m resolution. On that time period, the supervised and
unsupervised classifications were taken as two methods and it was enough in case of spatial resolution [5].
With the passage of time, the demand of remotely sense has been increased. Numbers of remote sensing
application are there related to environmental, public safety and food security. To fulfil these demands, the
satellite images aimed at an enhanced spatial resolution at higher frequency range, though, this doesnassure
improved land cover. The usage of image classification techniques is considered as a significant factor for
improved accuracy [6]. Figure 1 shows a satellite image which contains varios segments like crop, barren etc.
Figure 1. Satellite image including trees, lower vegetation, impervious surfaces and hydrological features
From the historical point of view, the classification accuracy came out to be less due to the lack of
appropriate feature extraction and selection algorithm. In satellite image, feature extraction and selection
process play a vital role to achieve better accuracy. In the traditional work, there is no existence of such
combination (feature extraction and selection) [7]. The existing work is deficient in finding plane according
to different frequencies from satellite images. So, it is mandatory to apply pre-processing to find the plane as
per frequencies.
The above problem can be solved by using the basic pre-processing steps such as plane extraction,
ROI extraction, plane filtering using morphological operations etc. In the post-processing step, hybrid feature
selection algorithm like the combination of GA (Genetic Algorithm) with ABC (Artificial bee colony) can be
used. With this combination, if the classifier can be used than the outcome would be better.
The manuscript could be organized in the below approach: The first segment deals with introduction
of satellite image classification that defines the background of the concept with the narration of the problem
following the proposed work that can be adopted to solve the problem. The concept of remote sensing is
explained later. After that, the focus has been given to different studies via which the classification of
satellite images can be done. Later, the focus has been given to different classifiers through which the
classification will be done on the basis of several types of bands that exist in the satellite image.
A comparison has been in the on the basis of satellite image and classified satellite image for to detecting the
presence of vegetation based on the different scenarios. At the end of this paper, a glance of existing
techniques is provided in the tabular form.
2. REMOTE SENSING
The data being acquired in the objects within the earth surface lacking in approaching in contact
with them is remote sensing. Sensors are devices used for conducting investigations. It claimed that it is
feasible for the accumulation of data on risky or isolated regions. Its applications keeps an eye on regions of
deforestation like Amazon Basin, climate variation significances in glaciers as well as the Arctic with the
Antarctic regions with the pitch coastal sounding with the ocean pitches [8]. Its data has spatial as well as
spectral resolutions: Spatial resolution is defined as a computation of shortest pointed or linear parting among
two objects which could be determined via a sensor. If the resolution of sensor is more then the capacity of
data is greater but smaller area is enclosed. The coverage of field with the resolution is interconnected with
the extent for the representation. Spectral resolution is considered as the magnitude with the statistic of
precise intervals of wavelength within the electromagnetic spectrum for which a sensor is vulnerable. Due to
restricted bandwidths in several domains of the electromagnetic spectrum, numerous features are readily
specified. Image spectroscopy or hyper-spectral investigation is the process of scanning numbers of closely
arranged and quite linear spectral bands [9-10]. The word hyper-spectral is used to refer the spectra that dwell
a large fraction of narrow, short spaced spectral bands. To tackle with the hyperspectral image classification
query, many supervised and unsupervised analysis has been approached.

 ISSN: 2088-8708
Int J Elec & Comp Eng, Vol. 9, No. 3, June 2019: 1710 - 1731
1722
2.1. Remote sensing images
The classification of remote sensing images is into three parts as shown in Table 1 [11].
Table 1. Various Remote Sensing Images
Images Description
Multi-spectral Image A multispectral image is comprised of several bands of data.
The bands in the multi-spectral image are less than 30.
This depends on the application and it is always less than 30 bands
Super-spectral Image Contemporary satellite sensors are skilled, concerning the capturing of images at several higher
wavelength bands.
For instance, numerous satellites are comprised of thirty six spectral bands with the management of the
regions wavelength ranges from the near-infrared, visible and shortwave infrared to the thermal infrared.
The band bandwidth is restricted, allowing exact spectral aspects of the targets to be acquired via
the sensor.
Hyper-spectral Image The hyperspectral image has hundred or more, adjacent spectral bands having a three-dimensional
image cube.
The compression of dimensions is utilized in hyperspectral image examination for decreasing data volume
and redundancy.
2.2. Taxonomy of image classification methods
Image classification is categorized into different categories on the basis of different criteria’s [12].
Table 2 is giving an overview of methods on the basis of characteristics with classifiers example.
Table 2. Image Classification Method Taxonomy
Criteria Categories Characteristics Classifiers examples
Usage of
training
samples
Supervised Providing land cover classes. More likelihood
Appropriate reference data is given and can be utilized as
training samples.
Less distance
ANN (Artificial Neural Network)
The signatures produced are utilized for training the classifiers
for classifying the spectral data in the thematic map.
The classifier of the decision tree
Un-
supervised
The algorithm of clustering is utilized for portioning the
spectral image into different spectral classes on the basis of
statistical data from the image.
ISODATA
K-mean clustering algorithm
There is no usage of prior classes definition.
It is the responsibility of the analyst to label and merge the
spectral classes in desired classes.
Utilization
of different
parameters
like Mean
Vector/Co
variance
matrix
Parametric
classifiers
The assumption of the Gaussian distribution. More Likelihood
The generation of parameters from training samples. LDA (Linear Discriminant
Analysis)The noisy results are used when the landscape is complex.
It is tough to combine the spatial, contextual and ancillary data
into the classification process.
Non-
Parametric
classifiers
The data is not assumed for the requirement. ANN (Artificial Neural Network)
It doesn’t need statistical parameters for calculating the class
separation and is appropriate for integration of non-remote
sensing data in the classification process.
Evidential reasoning
SVM
Decision tree classifier
Expert System
Pixel
infrmation
type
Per-pixel
classifiers
Signature is developed by traditional classifiers by integrating
the training set spectra of the pixels via feature.
Classifiers like more likelihood
Less distance
The signature has the contribution of each material within the
pixels of the training sets without combined pixel problems.
ANN
SVM
Decision tree
Sub-pixel
classifiers
The spectral value for the pixel is taken as linear/ non-linear
with the integration of mentioned pure materials with
proportional membership.
Fuzzy set classifiers
Spectral mixture analysis
Sub pixel classifiers
The output
is specific
for land
cover class
Hard
classification
Every pixel should be allocated to the unique class. More likelihood
Less distance
The estimation of the area may results in errors from data of
coarse spatial resolution because of the problem of mixed
pixels.
ANN
SVM
Decision-tree
Soft
classification
A similarity degree is provided for every class. The classifiers of fuzzy set
The analysis of spectral mixture
It gives more information and more precise results. Sub-pixel classifiers

1723
Table 2. Image Classification Method Taxonomy (continue)
Criteria Categories Characteristics Classifiers examples
Utilization
of spatial
Inform-
ation
Spectral
classifiers
Usage of spectral information in the classification of
images.
More likelihood
Less distance
Because of high variations in the spectral distribution of
similar class, noisy classification may result
ANN
Contextual
classifiers
Usage of spatially neighbouring classification information Correction of a point to point
context
Classifier of frequency dependent
contextuals
Spectral-
contextual
classifiers
Utilization of spectral as wella s spatial data. Integration of parametric as well as
non-parametric and contextual
algorithms ECHO.
3. FEATURE EXTRACTION
Features are those things which distinctively define an object, such as size, shape, composition,
location, etc. [13]. With the effortless availability and advancement in the resolution of satellite images, more
study efforts have had been laid in the recent times on extracting features from satellite images.
These features primarily comprise structures and facilities (i.e. buildings, flyovers, airports, etc.), land use,
land cover, vegetation classification (i.e. agriculture, forestry, environmental, mineral), water bodies,
well locations, topsoil varieties, conduits, pipelines and many more [13].
Feature extraction can be defined primarily as an image processing technique which is used to spot
and classify mutual relationships or mutual meaning concerning the image areas. Segmentation methods are
employed to separate the preferred entity from the image for developing the computation. The feature
extraction stage is intended to acquire a compact, non-redundant and significant depiction of interpretations.
It is accomplished by eliminating redundant and inappropriate material from the data. These features are then
utilized by the classifier in order to classify the data. The classifier that uses concise and appropriate features
will deliver more precision and also involves less memory, which is the most anticipated aspect of a real-time
system. Besides the increasing precision, the feature extraction procedure also enhances the computational
speed of the classifier. There are certain steps that are required to be followed in order to perform the feature
extraction from an object as defined below [14].
a. Image pre-processing
b. Image Segmentation
When pre-processing and the favoured segmentation level is created, then the capture strategy
feature will be implemented in segments to get features, followed by the implementation of classification and
post-processing methods.
In pre-processing the image, the sensors record the image data of the satellite which permits the
bugs to have pixel and geometry values. The correction of the bugs is using exact mathematical models
which can be a statistical or specific model. The enhancement of images is the amendment of an image by
altering the pixel value for the improvement of an image effect. It usually has a number of techniques that
enhance the image’s visual appearance that would later be considered as better for the machine and human
analysis [15].
Occasionally imagery taken from satellites is less in contrast and light due to limits of imaging
subsystems with the lighting circumstances with the capturing of the image. The images have varied noises.
With the enhancement of some image, the aim is to capture the features of some images for successive
review. For instance; edge and contrast enhancement, noise filtering, pseudocoloring and expansion.
It is necessary for capturing features like image display and image analysis. The process of enhancement
does not enhance the data being inherited. It relies on some image features[16].
Segmentation is known as the main issue in image processing. It is the procedure that generates the
image and the objects. The degree according to which the part is based solves the issue means that the
segmentation has to be stopped while the objects of interest in some application are separate for instance,
With independent use of targeted air-to-ground acquisition, assuming our interest lies in Determining the
vehicles on a road, the first step is to segment the road from the image and then segment the contents of the
road to possible vehicles. Image thresholding techniques are utilized for image segmentation.
It becomes important to focus on the stage of taking this feature with a striking effect on the
effectiveness of the recognition system [17]. The selection of features is a significant factor for achieving
recognition of high performance. The extraction of features is “extracting from the raw data information that
is most suitable for classification purposes while minimizing the within class pattern variability and
enhancing the between-class pattern variability”. Therefore, choosing an appropriate approach to getting
features according to the input provided. For these factors, it would be important to check varied accessible
features for getting features in a specified domain by covering the vast probabilities of the cases.

 ISSN: 2088-8708
1724
4. CLASSIFICATION METHODS
There are several approaches and methods that are associated with satellite image classification.
But most widely satellite images are classified into two main categories as shown in the Figure 2 i.e. Pixel-
based as well as Object-based. The pixel-based techniques are further divided into unsupervised and
supervised techniques [18]. A brief about various classification methods are tabulated in the Table 3.
Figure 2. Satellite image classification techniques
Table 3. Classification Methods
Methods Description
Pixel-based
classification
Pixel-based classifications are based on the grey value of pixels and for the classification purpose only spectral information
is used.
These are considered as the least unit that depicts some image.
This technique utilizes the statistics of reflectance for particular pixels.
It assembles pixels to express land cover features.
The land coverage has to be forested, metropolitan, agricultural and another features variety.
The classification of the pixel is further categorized into unsupervised as well as supervised classification.
Unsupervised
Classification
In this, pixels are integrated according to the reflectance properties.
These groups are individually called as ‘Clusters’.
The analyst classifies the varied clusters to produce and the bands to utilize.
The analyst recognizes the clusters with the classes of land coverage classes.
Later, analyst allocates significant labels to the clusters and delivers properly satellite image.
It is frequently the case in which several clusters stand for a distinct land cover class.
The analyst integrates the clusters into a land cover category.
This classification method is usually employed while no sample locations exist.
K-means and ISODATA are the techniques used for unsupervised classification of the satellite images
Supervised
Classification
In the Supervised classification, an input is required from the analyst.
The input of the analysts is termed as ‘training set’.
The sample of training is considered to be an important aspect of the methods of supervised classification and the accuracy
of these methods vastly on the samples employed for the purpose of training.
The classification is based on the spectral signatures in the training set.
Each class is demonstrated on the basis of what it is similar to the most in the sets of training.
Foremost classifiers for supervised classification are Minimum-distance, parallelepiped and maximum likelihood.
The algorithm primarily separates the pixels from each other based on the training samples that denote a site on the ground.
Object-Based
Classification
It is different from pixel-based classification approach as it works on the group of pixels instead of direct pixels.
In Object-Based image classification, some image is interpreted not only for single pixel but is also valid in significant
image objects and their common relationships.
Object-based information extraction is relies upon spectrum character, geometry as well as structure evidence.
This method offers actually innovative data and can simply accessible.
Object-Based Classification has two main stages:
i. Image Segmentation to generate a segmented image
ii. Classification of the segmented image.

1725
4.1. Supervised classification algorithms
The following algorithms Table 4 are the types of supervised classification techniques that can be
utilized in the research work for the classification of the remotely sensed satellite images.
Table 4. Algorithms of Supervised Classification
Algorithms Description
Support Vector
Machine (SVM)
It was first introduced by Vapnik in 1979, based on the principles of statistical learning theory.
SVMs are a decent and straightforward example of a supervised classification technique for remote sensor
data classification.
It is the major classification method that follows classification tasks with the erection of hyperplanes in
the multidimensional space with the isolate scenarios of varied class labels.
Regression as well as classification tasks and uphold several persistent as well as unconditional SVM
variables.
This technique is suitable for distinguishing the patterns as well as the objects that are utilized for pixel-
based as well as object-based classification.
It can be initiated by describing the samples of training.
The aim of the training is the discovery of some function which defines the relative b among output as
well as input.
The subsequent is SVM method to find the best extrication hyper-plane between classes by focussing on
the ready data placed at the end of the class descriptors.
The organized data is known as Support Vector which has a vital role in the learning machine role
because they are the training data elements which may vary the hyperplane position if diminishsed.
In this process, the optimal hyperplane is fixed and effectively use fewer preparation data, so the accuracy
of the classification increases with the prepared data set [16].
This method is most advantageous for remote sensing images and is more accurate than other popular
techniques such as neural network classifiers.
K-nearest
neighbor
(k-NN)
It is a way for classification of entities on the basis of the adjoining training specimens in feature space.
In this classification, outcome is a considered as class-membership. The object has been classified from
huge vote from nearby neighbors having the entity which is allocated to class mutual between the entities
k-adjoining neighbors.
The prime intention of the k Nearest Neighbours (KNN) process is to use the database wherein the data
are divided into a number of remote classes to predict the classification of novel sample point. KNN
classification distributes data into a test set and training sets.
Then the K nearest training set objects are originated for every single row of the test set and the processor
task of classification is performed by predominance vote with connections which can be broken at any
moment.
The K-nearest neighbor algorithm (KNN) can be summarised primarily as per the following steps:
(i) A positive number k is stated, with a new sample
(ii) The k items are selected from the database that is next to the new sample
(iii) The utmost mutual classification of selected entries is determined.
(iv) Resulted Classification is offered to the new sample.
Artificial Neural
Network (ANN)
ANN got the rise of popularity as an alternative to statistical methods for Remote Sensing Data
classification.
The popularity is dependent on the active nature and fault tolerance.
The models of ANN are applicable to all types of data, and no mathematical relationship applies to data
and its classes.
It generally has three diverse components with I/P layer, hidden-layer with the O/P layer.
ANN has the one I/P layer, one O/P layer having varied neurons and there is a variation of hidden layer
with the variation of neurons.
The neurons of I/P to hidden and hidden to O/P node are like via weight.
Initially, the weights are arbitrary but when ANN is trained then each of the weights are accustomed and
accomodate to the data.
Basic elements of NN are the processing node corresponding to human brain neurons.
Each processing node admits and sums a set of input values, and transfers this value through an activation
function with the output value of the node that generates one of the inputs to a node that executes the next
layer of ANNs.
5. RELATED WORK
It is a research field in which the people are working on varied sorting models, feature extraction,
dimension reduction, and accuracy. A tabular comparison of the previously carried researchers has been
presented in this section of the paper as shown in Table 5.

 ISSN: 2088-8708
1726
Table 5. A Glance at Existing Techniques
Author &
year of study
Method used
in study
Proposed work Concluding Remarks
Yongguan
Xiao et al,
(2004) [1]
NDVI
(Normalized
Difference
Vegetation
Index)
Edge thinning
and division
algorithm
PC- dependent incremental system has been proposed for
building extraction as well as road extraction tasks for a
similar package and utilizes “IKONOS stereo pair” for
generating 3-D city model.
The author has investigated the
usage of some image set in which
the oblique sight of the site is used
for the extraction of buildings.
Traditional -NDVI has been used for locating the vegetate
areas for utilizing for masking as well as for applying the
Canny operator for panchromatic images for the purpose
of edge detection.
For the enhancement of the detected edges, edge thinning
and division algorithm is used.
For handling building of varied sizes, a multi-level
approach has been used for making 3-D building model
more effectively.
Giorgos
Mountrakis
et al, (2011)
[2]
SVM
(Support
Vector
machine)
Implementation of remote sensing has been reviewed by
SVMs which is considered as machine learning
methodology.
The SVM classifiers, self-
adaptability characterization, fewer
requirements with swift learning
pace on training size has been
proved as the consistent
methodology for intelligent
processing for the data taken from
remote sensing.
An empirical study has been provided with the varied
applications.
D. LU and Q.
WE, (2007)
[3]
Non-
parametric
classifiers
The problems, current practices of the image classification
concept have been examined.
It has been suggested to design an
accurate image processing process
as a pre-requisite for the classifying
successfully the remotely sensed
data in the thematic map.
The significant issues that affect the classification
performance are discussed.
Graeme G.
Wilkinson
(2004) [4]
Neural
network
Non-neural
approaches
The study of fifteen years of published peer-reviewed
study on the classification of satellite image has been
carried out.
It has been concluded that no
demonstrative improvement has
been seen from the last 15 years.
This study has dealt with assessing the progress degree in
thematic mapping via classification algorithm
development.
The Kappa coefficient value of
around 0.6557 having a standard
deviation of 0.1980.
500 reported classification experiments have been
quantitatively analyzed.
The comparison has been drawn for NN and non-neural
approaches.
Manoj
Pandya et al,
(2013) [5]
K-MEANS,
ISO Data
Classifier,
Minimum
Distance
Classifier,
Parallelepiped
Classifier,
Maximum
Likelihood
Classifier,
Seeded
Region
Growing
Technique,
Enhanced
Seeded
Region
Growing
The comparison of different classification techniques for
satellite data has been proposed.
It has been observed that the
different techniques of
classification for the satellite image
have diverse accuracy.
The hybrid methods of
Mahalanobis with the SRG
techniques have resulted in more
accuracy.
The techniques for the unsupervised classification like
ISO DATA(Iterative Self-Organizing), K-means and for
supervised classification like Maximum and minimum
likelihood classifier, parallelepiped, enhanced and seeded
region growing technique
Pushpendra
Singh
Sisodia
et al, (2014)
[6]
Mahalanobis,
MLC,
Parallelepiped
classification,
minimum
distance
Landsat MSS, TM and ETM+ images of 1972, 1998 and
2013 are utilized for the generation of Landuse
classification with Mahalanobis, MLC (Maximum
Likelihood classification); Parallelepiped supervised
classification and minimum distance.
MLC gives most accurate results
for remotely sensed images
Image enhancement and geometric correction techniques
have been assigned for enhanced training signature for
training the classifiers.
Erdas Imagine 9.1 Software is utilized for the supervised
classification.

1727
Table 5. A Glance at Existing Techniques (continue)
Author &
year of study
Method used
in study
NurAnisMah
mon
et al,(2014)
[7]
ANN
Maximum
Likelihood
(ML)
ISODATA
This research has dealt with the survey of ANN
capability for classifying the satellite image with
different ANN approaches.
The accuracy came out to be 89.3%
A review of different techniques for the satellite image
classification of the satellite images has been compared
with the ANN on the Accuracy basis.
Soumadip
Ghosh
et al,(2014)
[8]
MLP BPNN;
Support
Vector
Machine
(SVM) K-
NN
The work is dependent on data classification concept. MLP BPNN Provides most accurate
results with an accuracy of 89.3%,Initially, a model/classifier has been depicted by means
of predefined classes, it is known as the training phase in
which the classification technique has developed the
classifier by learning from the dataset of training and
from its subsequent class label.
In the subsequent phase (testing phase) has estimated
accuracy for classification for the classification model by
utilizing the test set for the training dataset.
Pre-processing techniques such as data selection, data
cleaning and data transformation are proposed to the
unique data before the process of classification for the
improvement of classification method accuracy.
Mahyat
Shafapour
Tehrani et al,
(2013) [9]
Support
Vector
Machines,
Decision
Trees
The demonstration of varied methods with spectral as
well as spatial attributes for the extraction of LULC of
the inner-city area, soil, water bodies and different plants
has taken place.
The classification accuracy came out
to be higher for K-NN classifier of 90
and 91% for 2003 and 2010
correspondingly.
Kappa coefficient is 0.87 for the data.
The SPOT 5 images as of 2003 to 2010 have been taken
for Malaysia and Selangor with the classification has
been carried out using KNN, SVM and DT classifiers.
Less accuracy of DT classifier has
68.06 % accuracy with the kappa
coefficient of 0.6 for 2010.
SVM classification accuracy ranges
from DT as well as object-oriented
classifier 80.06% having Kappa
coefficient for 0.75 in 2003 with the
78.15 % has kappa coefficient for
0.72 in 2010.
Sunitha
Abburu and
Suresh Babu
Golla (2015)
[10]
Classificatio
n Method for
satellite
image
classification
A summary of automated satellite image classification
methods has been provided with a comparison of
different reviews.
The review assists the researchers
with the selection of suitable satellite
image classification technique or
methods on the basis of requirements.An evaluation of performance with the varied datasets
has been provided with the different datasets.
Roya Abedi
et al,(2015)
[11]
k-Nearest
Neighbour
(k-NN)
The study has investigated the possibility of KNN
technique for estimating major forest attributes like
height, density, basal area, trees DBH and forest cover
type on the basis of the existing field of forest inventory
for having a more accurate classification.
KNN provides accurate classification
and feasible thematic maps
Bashir
Ahmed
et al,(2015)
[12]
Back
Propagation
Neural
Network
(BPNN)
NN has been utilized for solving more variety of tasks for
solving ordinary rule-based programming with speech
recognition and computer vision.
BPNN is self-adaptive dynamic
system and best for the classification
satellite images than other techniques
The processing node has received and calculates an input
value set with transfers the sum via activation of the
function for giving the node output value that develops
one of the inputs towards processing node in the
subsequent layer.
Anand
Upadhyay
et
al,(2015)[13]
Feed-
Forward
Neural
Network
(FFNN)
In classification, LISS-III satellite image, the varied
bands are gathered and RGB has been generated.
The classification accuracy of ANN
decreases with the increase in the
number of neurons.FFNN and backpropagation of error have been designed
with ANN toolbox.
The result has been calculated according to the kappa
coefficient and the accuracy.
Nikita
Aggarwal
et al, (2016)
[14]
Pixel-Based
Classificatio
n (PBC) and
Object-
Based
Classificatio
n (OBC)
The study has focussed on classification approached on
the basis of object-oriented and pixel oriented.
OBC provides more Optimal and
efficient Classification than PBC.
Object-based has spectral, spatial and
temporal properties that can be
utilized for high resolution remotely
sensed data for overcoming the pixel-
based classification limitations on the
basis of the spectral data value.
It has been concluded that
classification of object-based
technique is exact as compared to
pixel-based classification.

 ISSN: 2088-8708
1728
Table 5. A Glance at Existing Techniques (continue)
Author &
year of study
Method used
in study
Sayali M.
Jog et al,
(2016) [15]
FCM
clustering
with both
multi-class
SVM and
KNN
Adaptive histogram equalization has been utilized for
the enhancement of the image contrast.
K-means with the Fuzzy C-means clustering techniques
being utilized for obtaining the segmented images.
The process of classification has been carried out by
KNN and SVM.
FCM with multi-class SVM shows
better results than KNN
KadirSabanci
Et al, (2016)
[16]
Multilayer
Perceptron
(MLP)
k-NN
J48 ,
Naive Bayes
Bayes,
Net
KStar
ASTER in a forestland of almost 13X12 km of Japan
has been used.
MLP and KNN has much better
accuracy than others and accuracy
rate is 90.4% and 89.10%,
respectively
Data produced form UCI forest type mapping data set
has two phases, like training as well as testing.
38 % of the data is for training and 62% of data is for
testing.
With the training data, sugi and hinoki average spectral
values have been obtained
WEKA software has been used for the classification of
three varied forest types, namely, Hinoki, Sugi and
mixed broadleaf.
Gong Cheng
et al, (2017)
[17]
Handcrafted-
Feature-Based
Methods,
Unsupervised
Feature
Learning-
Based
Methods,
Deep-Feature-
Learning-
Based
Methods
Initially, an inclusive evaluation of current work of
remote sensing approaches has been given.
The research can help the researchers
to adopt more influential and multi-
view feature representation.Dataset “NWPU-RESISC45” has been proposed that
consisted of 31500 images with fourty five scene
classes and seven hundred images in every class.
Different representative techniques have been executed
with the dataset.
Harish
Kundra and
Harsh
Sadawarti,
(2015) [18]
Cuckoo
Search and
Particle
Swarm
Optimization
CS and PSO has been presented for remote sensing for
the better effectiveness and optimization value.
Better performance of the proposed
work for substituting the search
method of CS for discovering best
host nest having greatest PSO
algorithm position.
The classification of an image in varied terrain features
is the main aim of the research.
The works have effectively extracted
the terrain features from the provided
dataset and also sustain more
classification accuracy level.
The classification efficiency has been compared with
the proposed algorithm and with the swarm intelligence
and soft computing techniques.
6. EXISTING WORK ANALYSIS
This section defines the work of Harish Kundra and Harsh Sadawarti [17] explaining the satellite
image classification using nature-inspired classification algorithm, namely, PSO and Cuckoo Search.
The authors have presented the hybridization of optimization algorithms such as PSO and Cuckoo Search to
reduce the classification error rate and to improve the accuracy based on objective function. The Figure 3
displaying is a satellite image of Alwar region in India. This region is selected because it carries some
superior land cover features like Urban, Barren, Water, Vegetation, and Rocky areas.
Figure 3. Comparison of the Original image (A) and classified image
(B) and Using satellite image classification

1729
The process of satellite image classification falls under two process namely training and
classification. The training process is further categorized in preprocessing and optimization of the dataset.
Algorithm 1. Data Preprocessing (Raw Data)
1. For each d in the data row.Dataset(Raw_Data)
2. D1=Dataset(d).allcolumns(); // Taking all column data as input raw data , now it has to be decided that
which
3. For each element in D1 data has to be used and which not
4. Population_Size=D1.element count
5. Apply optimal solution(D1)
6. Fit_Value=[];
7. Count=1;
8. For each D1 element
9. CurrentElement=D1;
10. Threshold=lamda;
11. L=ApplyFitnes(Threshold,CurrentElement);
12. If L==1
13. Fit_Value(D1.Value,count)=Current;
14. Count=Count+1;
15. End
16. End Algorithm
Algorithm 1 describes the processing of raw data in which it utilizes a fitness function to drop or
select data for processing. The selection of the threshold is done on the basis of the data passed to the
optimization function. If the data satisfies the fitness function then it is selected else it is dropped.
The selection of the fitness function is dependent on data set utilized. The training mechanism includes the
utilization of training function which takes the optimized set as input and then trains the data according to the
training structure. The structure of the training algorithm is as follows.
Figure 4. Training configuration for satellite image
The trained architecture set is then sent for the classification. The classification process is
completely based on the ground truth values. The result will be the matched with the ground truth values.
The classification algorithm is as follows.
Algorithm 2. Classification Structure (Optimized Structure, Ground Truth Values)
1. For j=1:OptimizedStructure
2. Classified_Structure=Classify ( Optimized Structure, Ground_Truth_ Value );
3. Df = Classified_Structure – Ground_Truth_Value;
4. End
5. For each df in Diff values // Taking the difference of the classified structure

 ISSN: 2088-8708
1730
6. If df is not ==0 // if the difference is not 0 it means that the ground truth value is not equal to the
classified value,
7. False Classification++; // False classification rate in incremented
8. Else
9. TrueClassification++; // If the classified sample is true then true classification is incremented.
10. End
11. End
12. End Algorithm
The classification process takes the trained structure as input and plots the ground truth value
against the trained structure to simulate. If the classified set is different from the ground truth value then the
false classification is incremented else true classification is incremented.
7. CONCLUSION
This paper dealt with satellite image classification for classifying a satellite image and is dependent
upon the feature extraction and classifiers. A concept of remote sensing is explained which is a technique
used for gathering the information of the object on the earth surface. There are various remote sensing images
types shown in tabular form in the manuscript. There are different types of image classification methods
which are defined in the paper on the basis of criteria, characteristics and its examples. For finding the
features in the bands, varied feature extraction techniques being used as the representation of the areas. After
calculating the features of an image, classification methods are used to classify the regions present in the
satellite image. The accuracy may deteriorate if the appropriate feature extraction and classification methods
are not used. In this survey, SVM, K-nearest neighbor and ANN (Artificial neural network) are defined that
are considered as best for enhancing the accuracy. A representation of satellite image classification is also
shown that draws the comparison of the original image and classified image of Alwar Region. Future lies in
the usage of a dataset of satellite image to achieve better accuracy and to minimize classification error rate.
REFERENCES
[1] Yongguan Xiao, Soo Kuan Lim, Tiow Seng Tan, and Seng ChuanTay, "Feature extraction using very high-
resolution satellite imagery," IEEE International Proceedings Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium,
(IGARSS'04), vol. 3, 2004.
[2] GiorgosMountrakis, JunghoIm, and Caesar Ogole, "Support vector machines in remote sensing: A review," ISPRS
Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, vol. 66(3), pp. 247-259, 2011.
[3] Lu, Dengsheng, and Qihao Weng, "A survey of image classification methods and techniques for improving
classification performance," International Journal of Remote sensing, vol. 28, issue 5, pp.823-870, 2007.
[4] Wilkinson, Graeme G, "Results and implications of a study of fifteen years of satellite image classification
experiments," IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and remote sensing, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 433-440, 2005.
[5] Manoj Pandya, AsthaBaxi, M.B. Potdar, M.H. Kalubarme, Bijendra Agarwal, "Comparison of Various
Classification Techniques for Satellite Data," International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, vol. 4,
no. 1, 2013.
[6] Pushpendra Singh Sisodia, Vivekanand Tiwari and Anil Kumar, "A Comparative Analysis of Remote Sensing
Image Classification Techniques," IEEE International Conference on Advances in Computing, Communications
and Informatics (ICACCI), pp. 1418-1421, 2014.
[7] NurAnisMahmon and NorsuzilaYa'Acob, "A review on classification of satellite image using Artificial Neural
Network (ANN)," IEEE 5th
Control and System Graduate Research Colloquium (ICSGRC), pp. 153-157, 2014.
[8] Soumadip Ghosh, Sushanta Biswas, Debasree Sarkar, and ParthaPratim Sarkar, "A tutorial on different
classification techniques for remotely sensed imagery datasets," S, martCR, vol. 4(1), pp. 34-43, 2014.
[9] Mahyat Shafapour Tehrany, Biswajeet Pradhan, and Mustafa Neamah Jebuv, "A comparative assessment between
object and pixel-based classification approaches for land use/land cover mapping using SPOT 5 imagery," Journal
Geocarto International, vol. 29(4), pp. 351-369, 2014.
[10] SunithaAbburu, and Suresh BabuGolla, "Satellite image classification methods and techniques - A review,"
International journal of computer applications, vol. 119(8), 2015.
[11] Abedi, Roya, and Amir EslamBonyad, "Estimation and Mapping Forest Attributes Using K Nearest Neighbour
Method on IRS-P6 LISS III Satellite Image Data," EcologiaBalkanica, vol. 7(1), 2015.
[12] Boshir Ahmed, and Md Abdullah Al Noman, "Land cover classification for satellite images based on normalization
technique and Artificial Neural Network," In IEEE 1st International Conference on Computer and Information
Engineering (ICCIE), pp. 138-141, 2015.
[13] Anand Upadhyay, S. K. Singh, Pooja Singh, and Priya Singh, "Comparative study of artificial neural network based
classification of IRS LISS-III satellite images," In IEEE International Conference on Green Computing and
Internet of Things (ICGCIoT), pp. 961-965, 2015.

1731
[14] Nikita Aggarwal, Mohitsrivastava, and Maitreyee Dutta, "Comparative Analysis of Pixel-Based and Object-Based
Classification of High Resolution Remote Sensing Images – A Review," International Journal of Engineering
Trends and Technology (IJETT), vol. 38(1), pp. 5-11, 2016.
[15] Sayali M. Jog, Mrudul Dixit, AnujaRajgopalan, and S. D. Ranade, "KNN and SVM based Satellite Image
Classification," International Journal of Innovative Research in Electrical, Electronics, Instrumentation and
Control Engineering, vol. 4, issue 6, pp. 158-162, 2016.
[16] KadirSabanci, M. FahriÜnlerşen, and Kemal Polat, "Classification of Different Forest Types with Machine
Learning Algorithms," Research for Rural Development, vol. 1, 2016.
[17] Gong Cheng, Junwei Han, and Xiaoqiang Lu, "Remote Sensing Image Scene Classification: Benchmark and State
of the Art," Proceedings of the IEEE, 2017.
[18] Harish Kundra and Harsh Sadawarti, "Hybrid Algorithm of Cuckoo Search and Particle Swarm Optimization for
Natural Terrain Feature Extraction," Research journal of Information Technology, vol. 7, ssue 1, pp. 58-69, 2015.
BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS
Sakshi Dhingra is an Assistant Professor in Department of Computer Science and Engineering in
Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology, Hissar, Haryana, India. She graduated
from Punjab Technical University Jalandhar in 2010 and received Master’s Degree (Gold
Medallist) in Computer Science and Engineering from Guru Jambheshwar University of Science
and Technology in 2012. She has presented many papers in International Journals/Conferences.
She has supervised many students at M.Tech and MCA level. Her areas of interest are Image
Processing, Soft Computing, and Remote Sensing.
Prof. Dharminder Kumar is currently working as Professor in Computer Science and
Engineering Department of Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology, Hissar,
Haryana, India. He is coordinator of Technical Education Quality Improvement Programme
(TEQIP) of World Bank. He also worked as Dean of Faculty of Engineering and Technology,
Head of Department (HOD) of Computer Science and Engineering and founder Dean of Colleges.
He has supervised many students at PhD and M.Tech. Level. His area of interest includes Data
Mining and Computer and communication Networks.

Automatic traffic light controller for emergency vehicle using peripheral interface controller

More Related Content

What's hot (19)

Similar to Automatic traffic light controller for emergency vehicle using peripheral interface controller (20)

More from IJECEIAES (20)

Recently uploaded (20)

Automatic traffic light controller for emergency vehicle using peripheral interface controller